1. Define poikilothermism and homeothermism.

Poikilothermism: Cold-blooded
Poikilotherms, including reptiles, amphibians, fish, and insects have internal temperatures that generally vary
with environmental temperature but many species are capable of achieving a homeothermic state by using
behavioral mechanisms.

Homeothermism: Warm-blooded
Homeothermic organisms (birds and mammals) have evolved autonomic and behavioral thermoeffectors to
maintain a relatively constant core temperature over a wide range of environmental temperatures.

2. Discuss the physiological changes in response to heat and cold.

An animal's physiological responses to the thermal environment can be either (1) heat-producing or
thermogenic or (2) h eat-conserving. Three categories of an animal's metabolic responses to variations in the
thermal environment over· a period of several days to several generations have been suggested by Folk (1966,
citing Eagan):
1. "Genetic" adaptation: Used for alterations which favor survival of a species or of a strain in a particular
environment, which alterations have become part of the genetic heritage of the particular species or strain. This
is the same as acclimatization of the race.
2. Acclimatization: The functional compensation over a period of days to weeks in response to a complex of
environmental factors, as in seasonal or climatic changes.
3. Acclimation: The functional compensation over a period of days to weeks in response to a single
environmental factor only, as in controlled experiments.

THERMOGENIC RESPONSES. An animal may increase its heat production by increasing gross body activity or by
increasing the rate of metabolism in specified organs or tissues. An elevated metabolic rate cannot be sustained
without development of an oxygen debt and muscle fatigue, so sustained body activity is not possible during
extended periods of cold weather. A general relationship has been observed between heart rate, oxygen
consumption, and heat production; the increased heart rate is indicative of a higher heat production. One
metabolic response that has received considerable attention by physiologists is nonshivering thermogenesis
(NST), which involves an increase in heat production that results from the metabolism of brown fat. Another
metabolic process that is important in thermogenesis in ruminants is the effect of the heat of rumen
fermentation. The heat energy released during the exothermic fermentation process may contribute to the
maintenance of homeothermy.

THERMOREGULATORY RESPONSES. The homeothermic animal maintains a balance between heat production
and heat loss by distributing the heat produced during normal life processes, increasing the heat production
when the animal is in a critical hypothermal environment, and increasing the heat loss when in a critical
hyperthermal environment. Evaporation of body fluids is a thermoregulatory response that often occurs under
hot conditions. The balance between heat loss and heat production in hot environments can be regulated by a
reduction in nutrient intake and an increase in evaporative losses. There are two sources of evaporation: the
moist surface of the respiratory system (panting) and skin moistened by perspiration. The relative importance
of each source depends on current thermal conditions and the species.
The physiological effects of cold environments are frequently less critical than those of hot environments. The
effect of cold environments can be compensated for by higher planes of nutrition that permit a level of heat
production up to the maximum metabolic potential of the animal. A response to a cold environment exhibited
animals considered to be homeothermic is a reduction in body temperature as an animal becomes lethargic in
cold weather.
3. Describe the reaction of the body to extreme temperatures.
Hibernation
For warm-blooded animals that don’t migrate, one way to survive the winter is to sleep through it. Hibernation
is a great strategy that enables animals to conserve energy when food is scarce. During hibernation, body
temperature drops, breathing and heart rate slows, and most of the body’s metabolic functions are put on hold
in a state of quasi-suspended animation.
Cold-blooded animals hibernate, too. But they need to store less fat than warm-blooded animals because they
require less energy. When many cold-blooded animals hibernate, something interesting happens at the cellular
level. The fluid around the cells, but not in the cells, is frozen solid. As water freezes outside the cell, water from
within the cell is drawn out through osmosis. Osmosis is a process in which water moves across a semipermeable
membrane—in this case, the cell membrane—from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute
concentration.

Evaporation
Evaporation is an endothermic phase change, meaning it must absorb energy to occur. Evaporation requires
energy because forces of attraction between water molecules—called intermolecular forces—need to be
broken when water goes from a liquid to a gas. Evaporation requires energy because the intermolecular forces
of attraction between water molecules in the liquid phase must be overcome when water goes from a liquid to
a gas. The energy that goes into overcoming these attractive forces comes from your body. Dogs sweat mainly
between the pads on the bottom of their paws. Cats not only have sweat glands on the pads of their feet, but
also on their tongues! When a cat licks itself, it may not be just to keep clean, but it could also be to cool itself
as the saliva on their fur evaporates. Kangaroos will lick their forearms for the same reason. Animals that are
adapted to desert life are not heavy sweaters—because water is scarce, they cannot afford to lose it by
sweating. Also, a great deal of water is lost through breathing out, so desert animals expel dry air, reabsorbing
the water in their breath before it has a chance to be expelled.

4. List the various factors that can cause hypothermia and hyperthermia.
Hyperthermia
Risk factors for developing hyperthermia include high ambient humidity, upper airway obstruction, laryngeal
paralysis, brachiocephalic airway syndrome, collapsing trachea, obesity, and previous history of hyperthermia;
causes:

• Excessive environmental heat and humidity (may be due to weather conditions, such as a hot day, or to
being enclosed in an unventilated room, car, or grooming dryer cage)

• Upper airway disease that inhibits breathing; the upper airway (also known as the upper respiratory
tract) includes the nose, nasal passages, throat (pharynx), and windpipe (trachea)

• Underlying disease that increases likelihood of developing hyperthermia, such as paralysis of the voice
box or larynx; heart and/or blood vessel disease; nervous system and/or muscular disease; previous
history of heat-related disease

• Poisoning; some poisonous compounds, such as strychnine and slug and snail bait, can lead to seizures,
which can cause an abnormal increase in body temperature

• Anesthesia complications

• Excessive exercise
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is classified as either a primary or secondary condition. Primary hypothermia, or “accidental”
hypothermia, is a subnormal temperature caused by excessive exposure to low environmental temperature.
Secondary hypothermia is a result of disease, trauma, surgery, or drug-induced alteration in heat production
and thermoregulation. Its causes:
• Cold environment
• Altered thermoregulatory response
• Heat-loss mechanisms
o Radiation
o Convection: occurs as body heat is transferred to the air moving over the skin surface.
o Conduction: transfer of body heat to a cooler surface and occurs when any part of the body
touches a cool surface.
o Evaporation: occurs when moisture on the skin or in the respiratory tract dissolves into the air,
pulling with it heat from the body.

5. Describe the processes involved in maintaining heat balance.

The hypothalamus in the brain is the master switch that works as a thermostat to regulate the body’s core
temperature. If the temperature is too high, the hypothalamus can initiate several processes to lower it. These
include increasing the circulation of the blood to the surface of the body to allow for the dissipation of heat
through the skin and initiation of sweating to allow evaporation of water on the skin to cool its surface.
Conversely, if the temperature falls below the set core temperature, the hypothalamus can initiate shivering to
generate heat. The body uses more energy and generates more heat. In addition, thyroid hormone will stimulate
more energy use and heat production by cells throughout the body. An environment is said to
be thermoneutral when the body does not expend or release energy to maintain its core temperature.

References:

Energy and heat balance | Anatomy and Physiology II. (2021). Lumenlearning.com.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/energy-and-heat-balance/
Feller, B. (2021, April 21). Dangers of hypothermia: Avoiding the cold. Today’s Veterinary Nurse.

https://todaysveterinarynurse.com/articles/dangers-of-hypothermia-avoiding-the-cold/

Mazzaferro, E. (2015). Treatment of hyperthermia and heat-induced illness - WSAVA 2015 Congress - VIN.

Vin.com. https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=7259207&pid=14365

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