404 Outlines of Dairy Technology

11.10 Dahi
11.10.1 Introduction. Indian curd, known as
dahi, is a
fermented milk product consumed by largesectionsal
.

the po
tion throughout the country, either as a part of the da
a,refreshing beverage. In 1966, the production adie y dieport potula
dahi a
mated to be about 7.8 per of the total milk productio
cent

and 14.0 per cent of the milk used for the manufact in
products. (See Table 1.6.)
India
manufacture ofof dainy
Since conversion of milk into dahi is an important inte
step in the manufacture of indigenous butter
said that over 40 per cent ofthe total milk
and
ghee, it mediary
can be
day is converted into dahi.
production
in India

An extensive all-India survey project on dahi was

carried.
nearly three decades ago (32-34). It revealed that there
broadly speaking, two types of dahi prevalent in the country art,
o
direct consumption, viz. a sweet/mildly sour variety with a
pleasg
flavour, and a sour variety with a sharp, acid fiavour. The mico
organisms responsible for these two types were also identifed, and
are maintained in selected centres as freeze-dried cultures for
sale to
the industry and public alike.
11.10.2 Definition. According to the PFA Rules (1976), dahio
curd is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by sour
ing, natural or otherwise, by a harmless lactic acid or other bar
terial culture. Dahi may contain additional cane suga. It shool
have the same percentage of fat and solids-not-fat as the milk from
which it is prepared. Where dahi or curd, other than skimmed milk
dahi, is sold or offered for sale without any indication of the cas
the standards prescribed for dahi prepared from butuo
of milk,
milk shall apply.
The Indian Standard Specifications for designation of ented
7able
milk products based on the types of culture used are given n
11.11, and requirements in Table 11.12.

(32) H. Laxminarayana and K. K. Iya: Indian J. Vet. Sci., 22(0,

(33) H. Laxminarayana, V. K. N. Nambudripad, N. V. Lakshmi
(1952)
Anantaramiah and V. Sreenivasamurthy: Indian J. Vet. Sci, 22(1),13 S N
(34) H. Laxminarayana, V. K. N. N. V. Lakshmi
Nambudripa
Anantaramiah, V. Sreenivasamurthy and K. K. Iya: Indian J. Vet.
S e l ,2 1 )

27 (1952).
 Indian Dairy Products 405
TABLE 11.11
Designation of fermented milk products
D e s i g o a t i o n Culture used
Str. lactis
Sweet d a h i Str. diacetilactisngle or in combination with or without
Str. cremoris Leuconostoc species
Same as above, along with Lact.
Sour dahi
phillus or both bulgaricus or Str. thermo-

TABLE 11.12
Requirements for fermented milk products
Characteristics Requirement
Sweet dahi Sour dahi

Acidity, lactic (% wt) (Max) 0.70 1.0

Yeast and mould count per g. (Max) 100 100
Coliform count per g. (Max) 10 10
Phosphatase test -ve - ve

SoURCE: 1S : 7035, 1973.

11.10.3 Classification. Broadly speaking, dahi may be classi-

fied into two types:
I. For churning into desi (or indigenous) butter (makkhan);
II. For direct consumption.
Dahi for direct consumption may be further classified into:
(a) (i) Whole milk dahi; (ii) skim milk dahi.
(6) (i) Sweet (or mildly sour) dahi; (ii) sour dahi; (iii) sweetened
dahi.
11.10.4 Food and nutritive value. It has been established that
ermented milk products including dahi increase in food and nutri
uve value as compared to the original milk. The following points
arecited in their favour:
(4 Dahi is more palatable, and those who usually do not like
arinking milk would consume it readily;
) dahi is more easily digested and assimilated than milk;
u) dahi seems to exert a possible therapeutic value in the
udCh and during intestinal disorders, due possibly to its content
 406 Outlmes of Dairy Technology
of antibiotics (35).
I10.5 Composition. An average composition of (whel
dahi is given in Table I1.i3. (whole) milk
TABLE 11.13
Composition of (whole) nilk dahi (percentage.
age)
Water Fat Protein Lactose Ash
Lactic Acid
85-88 5-8 3.2-3.4 4.6-5.2 0.70-0.72
0.5-0.1
Note: There is a slight increase in the concentration of milk s
k solids
to the extent of 5-10 per cent in dahi as
compared with the
initial milk.
I1.10.6 Method of production
A. For churning into desi butter (makkhan). (See II.14.)
B. For direct consumption
I. Sweet/Sour dahi
(aa) Traditional method. This invariably involves production on
a small scale, either in the consumer's household or in the sweet.
meat-maker's (halwai's) shop in urban areas. In the household. the
milk is boiled, cooled to body temperature, inoculated with 0.5-1
per cent sta:ter (previous day's dahi or buttermilk) and then allow
ed to set undisturbed overnight. In cooler weather, the dahi-setting
vessel is usually wrapped up with woollen cloth to maintain warmth.
In the shops, the method is more or less the same except that the
milk is concentrated somewhat before inoculation and the dahi is
usually set in a circular earthenware mould.
bb) Standardized method
a) Neced. The quality of market dahi presently sold in halwai
shops in the country is generally sub-standard and variable. The
factors responsible for this are:
(i) use of low-quality milk;
() use of unsuitable starter cultures;
(iii) unfavourable temperatures of incubation:
(iv) contamination from badly-cleaned utensils.
In view ofthe
nutritional and economic
importance of
Jong been realized that this product should be produced on scie
dah. ha
(35)D. N. Gandhi and V. K. N. Niunbudripad: Indian J. Dairy 28%1
72 (1975).
 Indian Dairy Products
organized sector of
the Indian
407
in the dairy
ditions of
industry (36-38).
so production,thepackaging distribution should be
hncs.
Theoonditio
and
standardizedso as to ensure
supply of an uniformly good quality
from to day.
day
ct
(b)Technigue
Flondiagranm of production
Receiving milk
Pre-heating (35-40°C)
Filtration/Clarification
Standardization
Pre-heating (60°C)
Homogenization (176 kg/sq. cm.)
Pasteurization (80-90 C/15-30 min.)
Cooling (22-25°C)
Inoculation
Packaging
Incubation (22-25°C/16-18 hrs.)
Dahi
Cooling and Storage (5*C)
(i) Details of procuction. Fresh, sweet, good-quality milk (cow,
bufalo or mixed) is received, pre-heated to 3540°C, and subjected
to fltration/clarification. It is then standardized to 2.5-3.0 per cent
at and 10 per cent solids-not-fats
(in order to improve the body),
pre-heated to 60°C and homogenized single-stage at a pressure of
6
kg/sq. cm. The milk is pasteurized at 80-90°C for 15-30 minutes,
Cled to 22-25°C and inoculated with 1-3
per cent of specific
rer Culture (see Table 11.10). It is then filled in suitable con-
iErs (glass bottles/plastic cups, etc.) of the required capacity and
K . Iya and H. Laxminarayana: Indian Favming, 2(1), 18 (1953).
(37)
K. S.
Rangappa
ppa: Indian Dairyman, 14(8), 251 (1962).
a
No. 54 Laxminarayana
(1971). and V. K. N. Nambudripad: NDRI Publication
 408 Outlines ofDairy Technology
incubated at 22-25°C for 16-18 hours, during whioh
acidity reaches 0.6-0.7
is cooled to less
per cent and a firm curd is
formed ra
than 12°C in about 1 hour (by circulatin Thechilled
curd
eriodd,the
water or air around the containers) and then
n stored at
about
a cold room.
Sc Cin
Note: During overnight storage, the acidity may increase.
ncrease slightly
II Sweetened dahi. In the eastern region of the countru
cially West Bengal, a sweetened variety of dahi known as es
dahi, lal dahi or payodhi (the trade name of one particular-
facturer in Calcutta) is quite popular. It has a characteristic hr
colour, a cooked and caramelized avour and a lirm body. It is nr.
pared commercially by adding 6.25 per cent cane sugar to milk pre
(cow or mixed) either before boiling or at the time of settine. The
pronounced and intense heating causes the milk to brown and
get partially concentrated. (The volume gets reduced to about three
fourths of the original.) Artificial colour, sugar-caramel and gu
(jaggery) are also added during production. After heat-treatment,
the milk is cooled to room temperature and then seeded (in variable
amounts) with the previous day's product. It is usually set in earth
enware basins and the finished product obtained after 15-16 hours
The method for the production of sweet dahi has been standardized
(39).
Note: Studies have been made on: (i) utilization of colostrum for
the preparation of dahi (40); (ii) development of dahi-making
equipment (41), and (ii) production of new varieties of dahi
(42). A suggestion has also been nade for a new product
named dahi-kusum (43).
1.10.7 Market quality. The desirable qualities in dahi offercd
for sale for direct consumption have been given in Table l|.19
(39) H. P. Ray and R. A. Srinivasan, J. Fd. Sci. Technol. 9(2), 62 (1972)
(40) S. N. Anantaramiah and K. K. Iya: 33 (195
Indian J. Dalry Sei.,5{\%19()
(41)A. K. Banerji, I. S. Verma and B. C.
Dairyma
Bagchi: Indian
177 (1967).
(42) D. C. Bhattacharya and M. R. Srinivasan: Indian Dairyman 19(1,
35 (1967).
(43) K. S. Rangappa: Indian Dairvman. 17(1), 13 (196:5)
 Indian Dairy Products 409
TABLE 11.14
Market quality of dahi
Qualities
Requirements
Yellowish creamy-white for cow and creamy-white for
Colour
buffalo milk; free from browning.
Appearance
Smooth and glossy surface; creamy layer on top (with whole
milk product); free from extraneous matter.
Flavour Mild, pleasant smell, clean acid taste, free from of-Hlavours.
Body
Soft and firm, free from gas-holes and whey-pockets.
Acidity 0.75 to 0.85.
(per cent lactic)
Note: The effect of different salts and chemical additives on the
quality of dahi has been observed (44). The effect of starter
cultures and incubation (period and temperature) on the aci-
dity and quality of dahi has been ascertained (45-47) and
the survival of pathogens in dahi investigated (48-49).
11.10.8 Packaging and storage. The traditional container for
includes
dahi is an earthenware cup. However, modern packaging
The recommended sto-
glass bottle and plastic/plastic-coated cup.
rage temperature is around 5-10C.
II.10.9 Keeping quality. When prepared in the conventional
manner, dahi has keeping quality at room temperature; on
a short
this is accompanied
prolonged storage, it becomes highly acidic;
for human
by whey formation, making the product unit consump-
well for a
tion. Undei refrigerated storage (5-10°C), it usually keeps
maximum period of one week
l1.10.10 Increasing keeping quality. Eftorts to increase the keep-
the develop-
ng quality of dahi temperatures have led to
at room
life of 15-30
nent of a carbonated product, which has a storage
as follows: good-quality
uys without refrigeration. It is prepared
A. N. Bose: J. Fd. Sci. Technol.,
11(2), 70 (1974).
R. K. Baisya and (1974).277
Fd. Sei. Technol., 11(6),
C.K. Sharma and S. C. Jain: J. J. Fd. Sei. Technol., 12(2),
81 (1975).
oC.K. Sharma and S. C. Jain: Indian J. Dairy Sci., 28(3), 179 (1975).
R. K. Baisya and A. N. Bose:Indian J. Dairy Scl., 17(3), 97 (1964).
o N. P. Tiwari and I. P. Singh: Indian J. Dairy Sci., 19%3), 162 (1966).
99 N.P. Tiwari and I P. Singh:
 410 Outlines of Dairy Technology
milk, after heat-treatment (preferably
cooled to 30-35°C. It is then boiling for 3-
inoculated
per cent and mixed well. The culture
with a
starter ca
may consist of
)mitunreutes) is
producers such as Str. lactis e
and/or Str. cremoris, lactic acid
aroma producer such as Str. diacetilactis. The together
wit
filled to the
up neck of cach glass bottle. Now carbon
inoculate an
bubbled through the milk at I milk n
psi for 1 minute and dioxide
are crown-corked. The milk is then incubated at the Vigas is
hours until a firm curd is
obtained. 25-30°c for
botles
16-18
Note: The role of
contaminating
been reported. yeasts in the
spoilage of d
dahi has
11.10.11 Dahi powder. Studies have been conducted
dehydration of dahi on a laboratory scale on the
methods (S1-53). (50) and by varin
10us
11.10.12 Uses of dahi
(a) Whole milk dahi
) For direct
a consumption: either as
beverage after beating the curd and such with salt/sugar; or as
sugar, etc.; mixing it with water, salt
(i) for the
preparation of chakka and
(ii) for the
(b) Skim milk dahi
preparation of makkhan. srikhand (see 10.11);
For direct
in fat, and
consumption: especially by heart patients since it is low
by the low-income group of the
cheap yet nutritious. population because it is
11.11 Srikhand
11.11.1 Definition.
milk Srikhand is a semi-soft,
is
product prepared from lactic fermented sweetish-sour, who
partially strained curd. The curd (0au
produce a solid through a cloth to remove the whey
mass called chakka (the basic anu
khand). This chakka is mixed ingredient tor
with the required amount gar, ol
(50) K. N. Srinivasan
(1972). and B.
(51) B. S. Ranganathan:
an: J. Fd. Sci.
Sei. Technol., 9(2)
Iect
Bhatia, V. K. Mathur and
23(1), 14 (1969). P, K.
(52) R. K. Vijayaraghavan: Indian
Indian Fd. Packe,
in:
(53) R. K. Baisya and A. N. Bose: J. Fd. Sct.
Baisya and A. N. Technol.
1ol., 11(3), 128 (
Bose: J. Fd. Sci.
Technol., 12(6), S00 (1975).
 Indian Dairy Products 433
) for preparation of Ayurvedic and Unani medicines (cow
preparat
makkhan only);
a crificial ofering, etc.
(iv) as
1.I5 Ghee
.151 Introduction
a)Beginning
(a) Beginning from almost Vedic times (3000 to 2000 B.C.),
i s ample recorded evidence to show that makkhan and ghee
there
eextensively used by the early inhabitants of India both in
their dietary and religious practices. Thus, the Rigveda (the oldest
f the Vedas) contains the following translations of the Sanskrit
passages: (74)
Give us food of many kinds dripping with "butter" (i.e.
makkhan)
(i) The stream of "ghec" descended on fire like deer fleeing
from hunger."
i) "The streams of "ghe" fall copious and rapid as the water
of a river.
(b) It is worth noting that the utilization of milk fat in the form
of ghee, so admirably suited to this country, should have been hit
upon in such early times. This unique position occupied by ghee
may be ascribed to its being not only the best form for the preser
vation of milk fat under a tropical climate, but to its constituting,
in addition, the only source of animal fat in an otherwise predomi-
nantly vegetarian diet. The large production of ghee is due to:
() concentration of milk production in rural areas which are
lar away from the nearest urban
consuming centres
1) lack of all-weather and refrigerated transport facilities
m)unfavourable climatic conditions, i.e. high temperature and
dy, for most parts of the year, causing rapid spoilage of
milk;
i t s long keeping quality under tropical storage conditio::
and ordinary packing
market demand. (As already noted, it is the only source
a fat in the otherwise predominantly vegetarian diet of
most Indians.)
(1953
14) A. K. Yegna Narayana Aiyer: Indian Dalryman, 5(4 & $), 63 und 77
3).
 Outlines of Dairy Technology
434
Definition. Ghee may be defined as clar:
clarified butter
11.15.2
buffalo milk. bu,
prepared chiefly from c o w or
(Sheep. or
goat in
E0at milk
also employed, although
rarely, in the preparati
of
designated ghee.) specal.
Note: To clarify means 'to make clear a liquid or someth:
ng lique
impurities. liqe
unwanted or solid matter
fied, by removing
According to the PFA Rules (1976), ghee is the pure
clarified
fat derived solely from milk or from desi (cooking) butter arifey
or from
matter is adde
led.
cream to which no colouring The stand
a State or Union Territorv sn
dard of
quality of ghee produced in
column 2 of Table 11.24 should be as specified against
erritory specified in
State or Union Territory in the corresponding columns 3, 4,
nd
6 of the said Table.
TABLE 11.24
PFA standard for qualiny of ghee
Percentage of
Butyro
Sr. Name of State/ refractometer Minimum
Reichert Free fatty Mois
Union territory reading at acid as ture
No. Value
40°C. oleic acid (max.
(max. limit) limi)
40.0 to 43.0 24 3.0 0.3
1. Andhra Pradesh
40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0 0.3
. Assam
40.0 to 43.0 28 3.0 0.3
Bihar 0.3
4. Delhi 40.0 to 43.0 28 3.0
5. Gujarat:
(a) Areas other than the
territories of the
erstwhile States of
Saurashtra and
0.3
Kutch 40.0 to 43.0 24 3.0
(b) Territories of erst-
while States of Sau- 0.3
rashtra and Kutch 41.5 to 45S.0 21 3.0 0.3
6. Himachal Pradesh 40.0 to 43,.0 26 3.0 0.3
7. Kerala 40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0
8. Madhya Pradesh:
(a) Areas other than the
erstwhile States of
Bhopal, Vindhya
Pradesh and cotton .3
tract areas 26 3.0
40.0 to 43.0
 Indian Dairy Products
435
Butyro Percentage of
Name ol State/
Union teritory reading at
Minimum Free fatty
refractometer Reichert Free fatty
Mois-
Value acid as ture
40°C oleic acid (max.
(max. limit) limit)
Territories
of the
(b) erstwhile States of
Bhopal and Vindhya
Pradesh 40.0 to 43.0 28 3.0 0.3
Cotton tract
areas 41.0 to 45.0 21 3.0 0.3
(c)
40.0 to 43.0
Madras
40.0 to 44.0 24 3.0 0.3
9.
10. Manipur
40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0 0.3
I. Mysore:
Areas other than
(a)
Belgaum District 40.0 to 44.0 24 3.0 0.3
(b2Belgaum District 40.0 to 44.0 26 3.0 0.3
I2 Maharashtra:
tract areas 41.5 to 45.0 21 3.0 0.3
(a) Cotton
(6) Other areas 40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0 0.3
13 Orissa 40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0 0.3
4. Punjab:
(a) Areas other than
40.0 to 43.0 28 3.0 0.3
Mahendragarh 0.3
(6) Mahendragarh 40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0
IS. Rajasthan:
(a) Areas other than
40.0 to 43.0 26 3.0 0.3
Jodhpur Divn.
21 3.0 0.3
(b) Jodhpur Divn. 41.5 to 45.0
6. Tripura 26 3.0 0.3
40.0 to 43.0
17. Uttar Pradech 28 3.0 .3
40.0 to 43.0
8, West Bengal:
(a) Areas other than
Bishnupur Sub- 3.0 0.3
Division 40.0 to 43.0 28
(6) Bishnupur Sub- 0.3
21 3.0
Division 41.5 to 45.0
Note. Baudouin test shall be negative for all.
States
Expland, Cotton tract' refers to the
areas in the
where
by the
cotton seeds are extensively fed to the
cattle and so notified
lhe State overnment concerned.
1.I5
I1.15.3 Statistics and consunmption.
The production
ghee in India in 1966productionm
was estimated to be about 32,7 per
cent
 Outlimes of Dairy Terhnale
416
and 38,9 per cent of the n
of the total niilk production milk uscd f
(sce Table 1.6). Toda.
the dairy products
manufacture of the tct
estimatcd at over
may be 00
annual
with a
ghec production
value of R« 1.250 crores at the present rates.
millon
The percentage conversion of milk
into ghec varies frn-
m
tates are: Utar State tn
Statc. The largest ghec-producing
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh radesh
Biha
milk is preferred for the manufacture
Haryana etc. Buffalo
becausc, being richer in fat content than other types of
nilk t
glves a larger yield of ghee. The production ot ghee is higher
in
winter and lower in summer corresponding to months of
and lower milk production. The bulk of the ghec sold in the marl
higher
et
is mixed (cow and buffalo).
of the total produetion, on an average, less than onc-fiih
s
retained by the producers for their own use, and the remainder is
released for market sale. However, this proportion varies fro
place to place depending upon the stalus of the producer, his finan
cial standing, dietary habits, proximity to the market, ap roaching
festivals, season, etc.
The demand for ghee is mainly concentrated in the urban areas
The per capita consumption largely depends on the market price
and availability of ghee substitutes, family income and habits,etc
The average per capita consumption of ghee today works out to
less than I kg. per annum for the whole country.
11.15.4 Conposition. The general chemical composition of
ghee is shown in Table 11.25.
TABLE 11.25
Chemical composition of ghee
Requirements
Characteristics
Buffalo
Cow
cent
Milk fat 99 to 99.5 per
Moisture Not m o r e than
0.5 per cenl
Unsaponiable matter
(a) Carotene (rg-/g.) 3.2-7.4
(b) Vit. A (1.0./g.) 17-38
19-3 18-3
(c) Tocopherol (g./g.) 26-48
Free fatty acid (% oleic) Max. 2.8 (Agmark)
Charred casein, salts of Traces
copper and iron, etc.
SoURCE: Mik Producih of India by Srinivasan and Anantakrishnan t(1964)
 Indian Dairy Products
437
5.5 Physico-chemical constants. Ghee, as in the case of
fats and oils,
fa is characterized by certain
other
orties,
operties, which have been found to
physico-chemical
be the basis for the fixation
chemical
rtain physico-cher constants for defining the chemical
quality of the product. These properties, however, show some natural
riations
iations depending on such factors as: method of manufacture,
age and condition ot the sample, species, breed, individuality and
age
dhe animal's stage of lactation, the season of the year, region of the
alintry, feed of the animal etc. (75). Some of the important analy-
ieal constants or standards of mixed ghee produced under standard
t i c a lconstants
conditions are given below:
) Melting and solidijfying points. The melting point varies from
28C to 44C, while the solidifying point varies from 28°C to 15'C.
(Being a mixture of glycerides, ghee does not have sharp melting or
solidifying points.)
i) Specific gravity. This varies from 0.93 to 0.94.
(ii) Refractive Index. The Butyro-Refractometer (B.R.) reading
(at 40°C) varies from 40 to 45.
(iv) Reichert-Meissl (RM) value (also known as Reichert vaBuc).
from
This should normally be not less than 28 (except for ghee
cotton-seed feeding areas, where the limit is 20).
() Polenske (P) value. This should normally be not more than
the limit is 1.5).
2 (except for cotton-seed feeding areas, where
should normally be not less than
(v1) Saponification value. This
220. from 26 to 38.
(vii) lodine value. This should normally vary
standard
Note: The above 'standards' are all determined under
analytical conditions. of
Ghee is the richest source
1.15.6 Food and mutritive value. the
fat of all Indian dairy products. When prepared by
milk it is normally very
low in fat-soluble
antional country method, of these
an appreciable quantity
amins A and D, and contains (The losses of these nutri-
y under certain prescribed conditions.
ghee a s a
storage and cooking
rom ghee during handling, the digestibility and absorption
sOurcenutrient in the Indian diet; as a food fat:
of
of ghee in the human system; the superiority
of ghee
these and other aspects of
Atherosclerosis-all
in the diet and
Kothavalla: Indian
J. ket. Sci.,
Z. R.
B. N. Banne1 jee and
l0( . Doctor,
100), 63 (1940).
43N Outlines of Dairy Technology
the food and nutritive value of ghee have bcen
the
he sut.
subjects
investigation by various research-workers)."
11.1S7 Methods of production
A Introduction Even today, the
eaty
country or
ghec-making contributes more ihan 90 per cent desi
production, ihe remaining quantity being of
India s ghee method ui
or
ganized sector of the industry which manufactre.
employs modern by
In the earlier days of dairy rescarch in met
India, ghee atthod
inaximum attention by Virtue oI its cconomic
than two-fifths of the total milk importan. the
nce-
that
production was converted more
at
time. Various workers (76-83) have studied into lo sghee
country (desi) process of ghce-making in India and the tra trad tionale
nd their recos
.14.5), andrecoinin.Amen-
dations have been summarized carlier (see I1.14.5),
11.25 Table
With the growth of the
and
organized sector of the
dairy induet
establishment of modern dairy
plants, the ndustry
conducting emphasis shifted ta
investigations on newer and
ghee manufacture which could profitably larger-scale methods of
be adopted for
ghee production by these dairies. Various reports routine
(84-93) on ghee.
Refer to Indian Dairy Products by Rangappa &
Achaya (1974).
(76) K. S. Rangappa and,B. N. Banerjee: Indian J. Vet.
Sei., 16(2), 65 (1946)
(77) M. R. Srinivasan and B. N. Banerjee: Indian J. Vet. Sei., 16(2),
(78) K. S. Rangappa, M. R. Srinivasan and B. N. Banerjee: Indian72(1946).J. Vet.
Sct., 16(2), 83 (1946).
(79) K. S. Rangappa and B. N. Banerjee: Indian J. Vet. Sci., 16(2), 98 (1946).
(80) K. S. Rangappa and B. N. Banerjee: Indian J. Sei., 1(1 & 2), 45
(1948)
(81) B. M. Paiel, C. N. Dave and S. C. Ray: Indian J. Dairy Sci., 23), 122
(1949).
(82) M. P. Srivastava, H. Narasimhaswamy, M. R. Srinivasan and S. C. Ray:
Indian J. Vet. Sci., 18(3), 203 (1948).
(83) T. M. Paul and C. P. Anantakrishnan: Indian J. Dairy Sei, 20),
(1949).
(84) K. V, Ghurye,
Dalry Sci., 2(2), 77 (1949).
M. R. Srinivasan, K. K. Desai and s. C. Ray: ndian .
(85)A. M. EL-Sokkary and M. A. Ghoneim: Indian J. Dairy Sei., 2(4,
(1949).
(86) B. Bahädur, M. R. Srinivasan and S. C. Ray: Indian J. Dairy Scl, »3(3),
94 (1950.
*
>cly
(87) M. R. Srinivasun, G. S. Mani and S. C. Ray: Indian J. Dairy
127 (1953).
7(2
(88) G. S. Mani, M. R. Srinivasan and S. C. Ray:
69 (1954)
Indlan J. Duu
 Indian Dairy Products 439
making by h creamery or desi-butter-ghee and direct cream-ghee
at
Dpeared
sses appcared at that time; few
processe
a
(94-99) have also appeared
in recent yCars,
aec
B. Flow diagram. Ghee may be prepared either from butter or
Butter may be either desi or
creamery. The
dcontinuous methods (under development) also pre-stratification
use butter. The
c r e a n
continuous
and
diagram
diagram of th
the manufacture of ghce by these various methods,
tiow
starting
with milk, is given below:
MILK
Centrifugal
Fermentation
separatioon
CREAM CURD
Ripened/Unripened
Churning (lndigenous)
Churning
(Western)
DESI BUTTER
CREAMERY
BUTTER Direct Clarification-
Pre-Stratitication <.-.
Continuous -
GHEE
Cooling and granulation
Packaging and storage
(89) M.
S. Pherwani: M.Sc. Thesis, University of Bombay (1954).
0) K. C. Nayar: M.Sc. Thesis, University of Bombuy (1954).
S.C. Ray: Research Series Bulletin No. 8, 1CAR, New Delhi (1955).
S.C.Ray: Indian Dairyman, 96), 221 (1957); 9(7), 263 (1957).
95) S. De and M. R. Srinivasan: Indian Dairynman, 10(6), 156 (1958); 10¢8).
216 (1958).
4) R.C. Misra and N. S. Kushwaha: Indian J. Dairy Sci., 23(2), 115 (1970).
)G. S. Rajorhia: Food Ind. J., 4(3), t2 (1971).
0J.S. Punjrath: Indian Dairyman, 26(7), 275 (1974).
Madan Pal and G. S. Rajorhia: Indian J. Dairy Sci., 28(1), 8 (1975).
) M. R.
Srinivasan: Indian Dairyman, 28(7), 279 (1970).
)N.C Ganguli and M. K. Jain: J. Dairy Sci., 56(1), 19 (1973).
 440 Outlincs of Dairy Technology
C. Country/desi method. The preparation of
ready becn described (sce 11.14.5). Both makkhan makkhan
n han ha
has l
d ghec are
essentially prepared on a cottage industry scale at thee
household. The lot of makkhan, fresh or
accumulated
o Tducer
days, is usually taken in a suitable open mud-pot or metallic aa few
few
vessel, producer's
and heated and stirred on a low fire to drive out the
practically all the moisture has been removed, a
moisture sel When
vesselstage
experience, further heating is stopped and the vessel remajudg
remov byby
the fire. On cooling, when the residue has settled r
fat is decanted into suitable containers.
down. th
the clearm
(Alternatively,
is converted into Kachcha ghee, which has a
the makkh
somewhat longer
ing quality than makkhan.) The traditional and
improved. keep
methods have been compared in Table 11.26. desi
TABLE 11.26
Ghee-making: The indigenous route
Fermentation Churning Clarification
Milk -Curd ButterT -+Ghee
Buttermilk
Product or Traditional methods:
procedure Undesirable practices Improved method:
Optimum recommendations
Milk Drawn into dirty vessels. Use clean, fresh and strain-
Curdled raw without boil ed milk. Boil once for 10
ing. min. or to 5 per cent vol.
reduction, and quickly cool.
Fermentatio Done in metal or earthen- Use mixed starter and of
ware vessels. Milk allowed the right type.
to sour by itself, or seeded Use 2-2.5 per cent in win-
with curd of uncertain qua- ter, 1 per cent in summer.
lity. Extent of souring un- Sour up to 0.8-1.0 per cent
controlled. lactic acidity, i.e. for about
12-15 hrs. in winter and
8-10 hrs. in summer.
Curd Stored for long periods be- Do not accumulate beyond
fore churning. one day.
Churning Performed in mud-pots or Perform in
gear-driven
d
copper vessels. wooden beater fixed on
the
Carried out with ineficient draining device at
churning devices. bottom.
and
Table 12,1 reproduced from ndian Dairy Products by Rangap
Achaya (1974)
 Indian Dairy Product.s 441
Traditional methods: Improved method:
P r o d u c to r
Undesirable practices Optimum recommendations
procedure
Water too warm when add- Carry out in the cold.
ed, or in insufficientquantity. Add cold water if desired,
Washing of butter granules but not more than the
not done. volume of curd.
After butter granules are
fully formed, drain butter-
milk, add cold water, and
gently churn again to wash
butter.
Stored for long periods in Do not storc before melt-
Butter
mud pots or metallic vessels. ing; if unavoidable, float ina
(Makkhan)
Floated in lumps in butter a 1 per cent soln. of com
mon salt in enamel or
milk which is steadily going
glazed porcelain vessel.
acid with storage.
Done in mud pots or metallic Hold at 80°C for 30 min.
Clarification Remove lowest watery
vessels.
Temperature either too high layer.
or too low. Clarify upper layers of fat
in- and curd by heating in a n
Heating prolonged, or
sufficient, according to enamel, glass or stainless
steel vessel. When crackling
flavour preferences.
due to water-removal stops,
heat for a few minutes with
out overburning.
or metal-
Store in stoneware, glazed
Ghee Stored in mud pots
lic vessels.
porcelain or enamel jars fill-
ed to the top in a cool
Melted frequently for use.
place. Withdraw small
quantities for use in a small
container.
body and texture.
Merits. Desirable flavour,
causing collection
Demerits. ) Extremely small-scale production and vitamin
a r k e t i n g problems; (i) low keeping quality
content. method adop-
D. This is the standard
tedin Creameryall
butter method. is
the raw material used
Une most organized dairies, where white buller
known as ghee o r
aled creamery butter. commonly
 442 Outlines of Dairy Technology
The butter is heated in an improved ghee boiler,
a stainless steel
which cons
jacketed pan (vessel) provided with a sts of
of
rer. There may be provision for a movable, manual slir
stainless
hollow, stainle
tube, centrally bored through the bottom of the
pan for em steel
the pan-contents when required;
alternatively, the pan ma emptying
emptied by providing a simple pan-tilting device. A
valve, pressure and temperature indicator, etc., are steam cn
in the boiler. also Drou
provided
In the beginning, the solid mass of butter (which may be cut inta
small pieces to facilitate melting) is heated to
over a low
carefully stirred so that it melts. Later, the steam fire and
and
pressure in the
jacket is raised so that the liquid mass starts
moval of the water boiling, with a re.
vapour from the pan-contents at a
of over 90°C. This temperature remains
temperature
constant as long as
moisture is being driven out. The contents are the
throughout constantly agitated
the process of conversion of butter into
scorching. ghee, to prevent
The scum which gathers on the top surface of the boiling mass is
removed from time to time by a
profuse effervescence (Ist),
perforated ladle. Usually, there is
the early stages of accompanied by crackling sound in
a
boiling, but both gradually decrease if the mois
ture content is reduced.
When practically all the moisture
has been driven
temperature of the liquid mass suddenly shoots and theout, the
at this stage has to be
up heating
carefully controlled. The endpoint is indicated
by the appearance of effervescence
the first,
(2nd), which is much finer than
together with a
browning of the curd particles. At this stage
a characteristic ghee flavour also emanates, and this is an indication
that it has been heated
clarification
sufliciently. The final temperature of heatin
usually ranges from 110 to 120°C,
the region. (In some depending upon
parts of the country, it is finally heated to a
still higher temperature, which yields a burnt or
over-cooked iavou
relished in those areas; a recent trend in other parts of the count
is to use lower
heating temperatures, around 107°C.) After co0m
and sedimentation, the ghee is filtered through a muslin cloth
to separate it from
the so
mostly olf burnt sedimcnt.known as ghee-residue (constst
casein). It then gocs
ging.
on for granulation and pe
Merits. Saving in labour,
physical exertion and exposu to
uncomfortably high temperatures and humidity during
aclua
 Indian Dairy Products
443
making compared to the direct-cream heating method (becausea
lower quantity of water has to be
removed).
chPre-stratijication method
E.
(a)
duction. Clarification of butter into ghee by country
Introduction.
or()ery methods has obvious
amery methods
certain demerits. Thus, in
there is .a much greater possibility of obtaining a country
ads, there finished
ods,
gnetn
duct
characterized
by
over-heated and smoky flavour. In the
an
prour method, as also in the country method, the high acidity
amery m e t h o
raw mate (especially true of makkhan) heat high
ratures, makes the product greasy and also reduces clarifying
fthe
its shelf
Research work has led to the evolution of modified
able of yielding a higher grade product at lower cost oftechnique
life. a
clarifica-
tion.
Principle. When butter is left undisturbed at a
temperature
f RO-85°C for 15 to 30 minutes, it stratifies, i.e. separates into 3
distinct layers, viz., a top layer of floating denatured particles of
curd, a middle layer of fat, and a bottom layer of buttermilk. This
separation into layers has been called pre-stratification. The bottom
laver of buttermilk contains 60-70 per cent of solids-not-fat and also
over 80 per cent of the moisture originally present in the butter. The
buttermilk is mechanically removed without disturbing the top and
middle layers. Afterwards, the temperature of the remaining two
upper layers (of denatured curd and fat) is raised to the usual clari-
fying temperature of 1 10-120°C.
Merits. (i) Economy in fuel consumption as compared to direct
clarification; (ii) production of ghee with a lower acidity and longer
shelf-life (acid removed in buttermilk).
Note: Desi butter with a higher moisture content is likely to be
more economical in its fuel consumption as compared to
Creamery or white butter by this method.
Direct-cream method. In this direct-cream heating method,
Cream usually obtained by normal separation of milk is heated
ThSme ghee boiler described for the creamery-butter method.
The
procedure for heating and moisture removal, final temperature
riication, cooling and sedimentation, granulation and pack
4ging also remain the
same.
but Merits. Overall economy in labour compared to the creamery-
butter nethod, since one stage, viz. cream to butter, is eliminated.
Demerits.
(1) Lower percentage of fat recovery in ghee due to
 444 Oulines of Dairy Technology
greater fat loss in ghee residue-the amount of which is is higher in
this method than by the butter methods; (ii) slightly
htly greasy
greasy serin
textu
in ghee.
Note: (i) As pointed out above, one of the important
important drawba
of the direct-cream-ghee process is a lower pere
recovery of ghee as compared with the creamerv.h
process. This is because 'normal' cream (40-50 De cent
fat) contains much more solids-not-fat (about 4.5 t
per cent) than desi or white butter
5.5
(1 to 1.5 per cent).
This higher solids-not-fat content in cream
to larger ghec-residue, which in turn causescontributes
a
a
fat loss in the same. Earlier workers (82) greater
(85--86) hava
shown that the non-fatty milk solids of cream
can be
reduced by what has been termed the 'cream
washing*
process. This process consists of diluting the cream with
ukewarm water (40°C) equal to the volume of the
original milk. After thoroughly mixing it by gentle stir-
ring, the diluted cream is then separated without altering
the conditions of normal cream separation. This
washed
cream contains 1-2 per cent solids-not-fat. When conver-
ted into ghee in the usual manner as indicated
above, it
gives a higher yield. However, the ghee has a flat flavour,
although the product also has a longer shelf-life. Arti
ficial ripening of the washed cream with lactic starter to
an acidity level of 0.20
per cent lactic, or acidification of
the cream with citric acid to the same level
prior to clari-
fication as above, improves the flavour of the finished
ghe.
(ii) An alternative to cream washing is the use of
plastie
cream, containing 65-85 per cent fat and a very low
solids-not-fat content. This requires a special creanm
separator called a plastic cream separatoi. It is
stood that a few ghee unaer
manufacturers in India have been
using the direct-cream heating method and plastic cream
for thei routine
production.
G. Continuous method. This is under
(a) Objects. development.
( To mauufacture
ghee on an industrial scale
s
process, 1o ensure
uniform
a as con
quality, and greater economy.
 Indian Dairy Products 445
To duce human abour, drudgery and latigue by introdu
much
ch automation as feasible or dseirable under Indian
amduions.
ing
b ) Advanlages claimed
Suitability for large-scale handling;
)utilizatj
tion of machines for a large number of production-
p f o c e s s e sf e a s i b l e :
(il)
unifor demand on
seryices
fat recovery;
(iv) high
)possibility of in-place cBleaning;
n 0 stirring8, no seraping and no laborious effort on the part
operators required,
of the ghee
H.Comparison ofthe diferent methods. This has been shown in
Table 11.27.
TABLE 11.27
Comparison of difjferent methods of ghee making
Creamery Direct
Particulars
Desi
Method
butter cream Pre-strati Continuous
fication
method method method
(D.C.) method
(D.C.) (D.C.)
Adapta Small Large Large Large Very large
bility scale scale Scale Scale scale
Stages three three two three three
involved (milk-cream (milk-cream (milk-cream (milk (milk
(irom milk) butter-ghee) butter-ghee) ghee) cream/curd- cream/curd-
butter butter
makkhan makkhan-
ghee) ghee)
Byproducts Buttermilk Skim milk Skim milk Skim milk Skim milk
produced Ghee Buttermilk Ghee- and/or and/or
residue Ghee-resi- residue buttermilk butternilk
due Ghee
residue
Ghee
quality
Aroma Strong and Pleasantly Mild Mild Mild
nutty rich
Taste
Acid Slightly Definitely Flat or Flat or ac'd
flat lat acid
 446
Outlnes of Duiry Techiology
Creamery Direct Pre-strati
Desi
method
Particulars (D.C.)
butter
method
cream
method
fication
method
Continuouous
method
(D.C.) (D.C.)
Fine Slightly Fine
Texture Large Greasy
grains grains greasy grains
Poor Good Excellent Fair to
Keeping
Good
Good
quality
Remarks Useful as a Most Advantage- Adopted
cottage popular in ous with by a few Under
industry organized plastic manufac- development
dairies cream turers
Note: D.C. means direct clarification.
J. Final iemperature of clarification (100). In general. a tem.
perature range from 110 to 120°C is preferred. However, the final
temperature to which ghee is heated during manufacture depends
upon the region of the country; normally the temperature is around
110C (or below) in north India and 120°C (or even higher) in
south Iudia.
Vore: A
lower heating temperature improves the colourbut decrea
ses the keeping quality of the ghee obtained due to its greater
residual moisture content; a higher temperature, on the other
hand, tends to reduce the vitamin A content (with acid
butter), and darken the colour, but increases the keeping
quality of the finished product.
K. Cooling and granulation (crystallization). Granularity in ghee
is considered by the average Indian
buyer to be an important
criterion of quality and even purity. It
may be pointed out that tne
partly granular form assumed by ghee is primarily due to a
content of glycerides of higher-melting saturated fatty acids,
cera
Cially palmitic and stearic. In this reeard buffalo ghee,
usually more
whicn
saturated, crystallizes
The desi method produces large crystalseffectively
more than
in ghee. On cow 5.et
hand, the ghee obtained by creamery-butter on direct-cream pro
cesses need not necessarily have
that heating ghee 1o 60-100°C, large crystals. It has been obser elds
followed by rapid coolinE-
(100) K. Sethna and J. V.
Bhatt: ladian J. Dairy Scl., 3(2), 39*
1950).
 Indian Dairy Products 447
s in ghee; however, if the above ghee is held for crystal-
smal
g lr a i n s
af a emperature about 1'C above the melting point of
a
i z a t i o n
ghee-29C; buttalo ghee-31'C), a large number of big
s i e e
r a n sr e s u l t ( 1 0 1 ) .
Cold storage of ghee should be avoided, since it leads to a
Nloss of granularity and the development of a waxy consis
Mote
loss
the stored product.
tency in
and storage. Since milk fat is susceptible to
Packaging
Lerioration due to exposure to light, air and metals, ghee (which
deteric
kmade up almostentirely of milk fat) should be properly packaged
AmDtly after production so as to retain its initial favour and nutri-
Ue Value; it should also be properly stored so that its body and
reture do not deteriorate. The various problems of ghee-packaging
have also been highlighted (102).
container. The container is selected on the basis
(a) Selection of
considerations:
of the following
) Non-toxic and non-tainting character;
(i) availability:
(il) cost;
(iv) resistance Lo rough handling.
Based on the above criteria, tin-containers are the obvious choice.
They are also impervious to the action of light and air. The tin-con-
tainers should, however, be new and free from any trace of rust.
They should preferably have a minimum tin-coating weight corres-
ponding to 50 ETP (electrolytic tin plate). Since the cost of tin
containers has been rising steadily, cheaper plastic containers have
are being tested to determine their
Ppeared in the market. They
Sutability for the packing and storage of ghee.
0 Size of containers. Most ghee is at present packed in 16 kg.
Ontainers for retail sale, which it may take two to three weeks to
pose of. In such large containers, the moisture in ghee tends to
gravitate downwards. Thus the lower layers of ghee are likely to
deleriorate
Hence
because of an increase in the peroxide value and acidity.
for
retail sale, ghee should be packed in smaller-sized
Coptai
containers with a capacity of not more than 4kg. each.
c) Filling and sealing. Since air (oxygen) exerts an adverse effect
(101) T. M. Paul and
nd K. S. Sur: Indian J. Dairy Se., 2(3), 94 (1949).
102) M. R.
Srinivasat
san: Indian Dairyman, 115), 111 (1959).
 Outlimes of Dairy
Teclhnology
448
storage, the tin-containeners should
on the quality
of ghee during f the ghee is 6
ghee filled should be
filled to the brim,
with no air gap.
cause appreciahl
dissolved air to cause
"leh
appreciabl
while hot
osphereoxidative
enough
there is usually vacuum-packaging
in an inert atmocdati
use of
spoilage. The in cost. Under the cir may
circumstanc
is prohibilive ce
be effective, but the ghee at a suitabl
alternative is to pack
the uext best
30-32°C (which
will limit the dissolved air to the
Pr tempera
ture, viz. up to the brim of the container, and then seal it. On
possible),
used.
and lids shou ld be
rust-free containers
(d) Storage (103). The storage of ghee in different tynes of con
It is wel known that the developmen of
tainers has been studied.
in ghee Is accelerated at hiohae
or tallowiness
an oxidized flavour
especially with ghee which has an
anm
storage temperatures,
the existing conditions of handling th
ble initial acidity. Under
may vary from to 38°C throughot
storage temperature of ghee
the year. Although refriger
the country depending on the
season
of
and thereby prolon
ated storage of ghee delays acid-development
stored product greasy and pasty,
its keeping quaity, it renders the
21'C is usually recommended.
A storage temperature of around
to the physico-chemical
11.15.8 Market quality. This refers
in the market. The physical pro
properties of ghee offered for sale
and taste) and texture
perties include colour and flavour (smell
chemical properties include chemi
grain and consistency), while the
constants are also
cal composition, etc. The physico-chemical
included under market quality. The quality of ghee is dependent
on
the type of milk (viz. cow, buffalo or mixed) feed of the
animal,
des,
season and region, and the method by which it is produced (viz.,
creamery-butter or direct-cream method).
(a) Physical quality
() Colour, The colour of ghee manufactured from either cowa
buffalo milks is definitely infuenced by the method of producno
(104). The colour of cow ghee by the desi method is deep yelo
cllowish
wbile that of buffaio ghee is white with a characteristue
or greenish tinge. When prepared by the ery-butter methe
desi
the
the colour of the product is similar to that resulting from
rea
method, although of a somewhat lower intensity. By thedirect of
that
method, the colour of cow ghee is again deep yellow, D
n d i u n J .D a i y
(103) T. M. Paul, V. R. Bhalerao and C. P.
Sei., 2 (1), 7 (1949). Anantakrishnan: nar
(104) K. R, Lalitha and N. N. Dastur: Indian J, Dairy Sci., 94)»143(1956
 Indian Dairy Produets 449
e
he is waxy-whilc. Ghec from mixed nilk (cow and buffalo)
fde of colour proportional to thecomponents of the mixture.
butiao
h a sa shade
colour
of ghee also depends on whether it is in the solid or
The
i g u i ds t a t e .
(SPmell and taste). This is the most important charac
(
teristie lo
ed for in ghee by the trade. The smell is ascertained by
feing a Small quanity ol the sample briskly on the back of the
rubbing
and inhaling it. Normainy, a well-prepared sample of ghee has
a leasant,cooked.and rich flavour. The taste is usually sweet and
paln
l5ant, cooked milk fat, although a slight acidic flavour is
acteristic of the
characteristic
preferred.
M Numerous publications have appeared in the country during
the last decade on the means of identifying the flavour of
ghee, for which research journals may be consulted.
i) Texture (grain and consistency). Grains of a large and uni
hrm and non-greasy consistency, are preferred. The
form size, and a
factors: rate of
grain-size in ghee depends mainly on the following
influenced by species of animal,
cooling; fatty acid make-up(which is
nature of feed. season and region etc.), and subsequent heating
and cooling treatment.
11.15.5.
(b) Chemical quality. See 11.15.4 and
Note: In spite of the low moisture content in ghee, micro-organisms
may flourish in market samples of ghee. (105)
1.15.9 Yield
a) The yield of ghee from milk'cream/butter influencedchiefly
is
by:
This
(4) The fat content of the raw material used for ghee making.
material used
of raw (viz.,
calculated by multiplying the amount same. The higher
K,Cream or butter) by the fat percentage in the
tne tat content, the higher should be the yield, and vice versa.
This depends on the
The percentage of fat recovered in ghee.
nethod of manufacture (see Table 11.29).
methods of ghee making.
The items of fat loss in the different
n g from milk, are given in Table 11.28.
1C5) J. V.
.
Bhatt an
Bhatt and K. Sethna: Indian J. Dairy Sel. 1(), 12 (1950).
 450 Otutlines of Dairy Technology
TABLE 11.28
Items of fat loss in diferent melhods of ghee mat
ak ing
Methods of Items of fat loss
ghee making
Country (desi) () Lassi
(i) Ghee-residue
(i) Handing.
Creamery-butter (i) Skim milk
(i) Buttermilk
(ii) Ghee-residue
(iv) Handling and packaging.
Direct-cream (i) Skim milk
ii) Ghee-residue
(ii) Handling and packaging.
Pre-stratification Creaery butter Desi butter
)Skim milk i) Lassi
ii) Buttermilk (ii) Buttermilkt
ii) Ghee-residue (ii) Ghec-residue
iv) Handling and pack (iv) Handling and pack
aging aging.
Continuous Same as above Same as above
Includes that produced when churning cream and also after the butter melt
has stratificd.
Refers to that produced after stratification of the butter melt only.
(c) Thc approximate fat recovery in ghec by different methods,
starting from milk, is shown in Table 11.29.
TABLE 11.29
Percentage fut recovery in ghee by different methods
Method of ghee making Percentage fat
recovery in ghee
Country (desi) = traditional
80-85
-do- improved 88-90
Creamery-butter 88-92
Direct-cream = 40 to 50 per cent fat
85-86
Direct-cream =
65 to 85 per cent fat
90-95
Note: The
higher fat in
is due to the recovery ghee with a higher testing cream
testmg
iower fat loss in a ghee-residue
due to its lower (which i
non-fatty solids content).