Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9660-8

Basic school teachers’ perspective to digital teaching

and learning in Ghana

James Sunney Quaicoe 1 & Kai Pata 1

Received: 7 March 2017 / Accepted: 18 October 2017 / Published online: 25 October 2017
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017

Abstract This study proposes a model for describing the situation of Digital Teaching
and Learning (TD-TaL) in Ghanaian schools using the perspectives of basic school
teachers. The Digital Teaching and Learning model was developed based on the
theories of Valsiner’s Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) and Zone of Promoted Action
(ZPA) and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The model proposes to
look at the effects of ZFM in schools (comprising Digital environment factors and
Personal attitudinal and Digital Culture factors) and ZPA (comprising Teacher Training
factor) on the Teachers’ Digital Knowledge, Competence and Action (TDKCA) factors
to influence teachers in their Zone of Proximal Development. The model was tested in
Ghana’s case using the survey data collected from 256 teachers from 45 schools across
six districts in the Western Region of Ghana. The findings from Regression path
analysis revealed that Personal and Digital Culture factors, but most of all teachers’
Digital Attitudes effected directly on Teachers’ Digital Activities they claimed to be
doing, whereas from Environmental factors only Schools’ Digital Agenda was
impacting Teachers’ Digital Action both directly and indirectly through Teachers’
Digital Training (ZPA). The model specifically highlighted that in observed Ghanaian
schools the ZFM factors Digital Infrastructure and Digital Support to Digital Teaching
did not associate with the ZPA factor Digital Teacher Training and overall to Teachers’
Digital Knowledge, Competence and Action factors.

Keywords Digital teaching and learning . ICT in basic schools . ICT in Ghana . School-
based ICT framework . Teacher ICT perspectives

* James Sunney Quaicoe

[email protected]

Kai Pata
[email protected]; [email protected]

1
School of Digital Technologies, Centre for Educational Technology, Tallinn University, Narva mnt
29, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia
1160 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

1 Introduction

It is proposed that digitally ready teachers are expedient for the success of ICT
integration in schools to promote twenty-first century learning (Bukaliya and
Mubika 2011; Plessis and Webb 2012; Wallet 2015). Twenty-first century
learning practices prepare learners to fit into the information society.
However, various empirical studies in developing countries point to the pre-
vailing ICT related challenges associated with teachers roles in promoting
students’ digital teaching and learning practices in schools (Hennessy et al.
2010; Isiyaku et al. 2015; Tedla 2012). Searching for solutions, research has
provided insights into ICT in schools from many multi-focused perspectives
such as; ideological and policy (Ololube 2006), instrumental in the form of
tools/resources deployment and support (Tondeur et al. 2009). Other perspec-
tives included application - access, availabity, usage and integration(Inan and
Lowther 2010; Živković 2016), professional - teacher competence, readiness,
motivation and usage (Chigona et al. 2014; Isiyaku et al. 2015) and outcome -
relevance of ICT, digital activities, and learning output(Alzaidiyeen and
Almwdiah 2012; Lim et al. 2013; Plomp and Voogt 2009; Sarfo and Ansong-
Gyimah 2010) perspectives. Research about ICT integration in schools cannot
be delineated from factors such as:

1. Teacher ICT-related factors, for instance, readiness (Aremu and Adediran 2011;
Mndzebele 2013; Plomp et al. 2007), knowledge, attitude competence and
usage(Aremu and Adediran 2011; Kandasamy and Shah 2013);
2. Schools’ digital conditions (Fu 2013; Gudmundsdottir 2010; Khalid et al. 2013;
Plomp et al. 2007; Aktaruzzaman and Clement 2011);
3. ICT/Digital tools and resources (Gyamfi 2005; InfoDev 2007; Kumar et al. 2008;
Natia and Seidu 2015; Plomp et al. 2007), and
4. Other externally induced factors (Bennison and Goos 2013; Goos 2009; Ifeoma
and Olusola Adu 2013; Isiyaku et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2008; Plomp et al. 2007).

We claim that there is paucity of holistic research information on teacher ICT-

related factors such as personal attitudinal, cultural, school ICT conditions, ICT
training; and digital tools as constraints and enablers to teachers’ digital teaching
and learning in the Ghanaian basic schools’ context. Hence, this study explored
the basic schools’ teachers’ perspectives to Digital Teaching and Learning model-
ing the relationships of different factors in the light of the theories of Valsiner’s
Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) and Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA) and
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The overall objective was to
propose a school-based model explaining the effects of Zone of Free Movement
(ZFM) in schools (comprising Digital environment factors and Personal attitudinal
and digital culture factors) and Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA) (comprising
Teacher Training factor) on the Teachers’ Digital Knowledge, Competence and
Action (TDKCA) factors within the teachers’ Zone of Proximal Development. This
study sought answer to the question BHow do teachers perceive different ICT
related factors promoting their Digital Teaching and Learning in the context of
Ghanaian basic schools?^
Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173 1161

1.1 Zones theories approach for modeling teachers perspectives to digital teaching
and learning

The study proposes using the concepts of Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) and Zone of
Promoted Action (ZPA) (Valsiner 1997) and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
(Vygotsky 1978) as theoretical underpinning for modeling the ICT Teaching and
Learning situation. Vygotsky (1978) defined ZPD as Bthe distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or
in collaboration with more capable others^. Implementing ICT successfully in stu-
dents’ and own teaching processes is a generalized problem situation, where ZPD
concept is applicable. Valsiner (1997) extended Vygotsky’s theory proposing that ZPD
is influenced by factors such as experiences and assisted performance towards the
attainment of higher capacities which he conceptualized as Zone of Free Movement
(ZFM) and Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA) (Bennison and Goos 2013; Galligan 2008;
Rahardi 2011; Valsiner 1997). ZFM comprises of environmental, cultural and personal
factors a learner encounters or brings into the learning situation in the process of
pursuing new levels of attainments (Galligan 2008). ZPA consist of those activities
that provide assistive opportunities to the learner to progress and offer the needed
orientation or assistance for the attainment of self-mastery beyond the ZPD. Thus, ZFM
and ZPA provide the settings in which a learner would be able to progress within the
ZPD. In line with these theoretical Zones’ concept, we defined the ICT factors for
modeling holistically teachers perspectives to Digital Teaching and Learning (see
Table 1):

1. ZFM comprises of the variables of i) Schools’ Environment (Digital agenda, ICT

equipment and ICT support system) and ii) Teachers’ personal attitudinal and ICT-
cultural beliefs (Digital attitudes, Opinions on ICT in Education, Perception on ICT
projections, Perception about ICT obstacles, and Perceptions about ICT impact and
interventions for teaching and learning);
2. ZPA is defined as the targeted intervention in the ZPD occurring within the ZFM
constraints, and comprises in our study the teachers’ Digital training factor;
3. Teachers’ new capacities beyond ZPD are Digital confidence, Digital knowledge,
Digital skills, Digital activities, and Digital application – constituting the TDKCA.

1.2 Digital teaching and learning in Ghana

The history of implementing computers and the Internet in the Ghanaian society is
traced to the 1990s, however, it was in the 2000s that a national ICT agenda
(ICT4AD) and its related legal instruments were enacted (Frempong 2010, 2011;
GOG 2003). The national ICT ideology aimed at facilitating the process of
transforming Ghana into an information society built upon a knowledge-based
economy (GOG 2003). Education constituted one of the essential pillars for the
realisation of the national ICT agenda. Consequently, a national agenda of ICT in
education was designed (MOE 2008). This agenda informed the New Education
1162 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

Table 1 Internal consistency indicators and descriptive statistics of the composite variables

Name of Variable Measurements Mean SD Internal Consistency

(Cronbach’s α)

ZFM Environmental Factors

Digital Agenda ICT plan/ digital agenda in schools 1.08 0.27 0.80
ICT/Digital equipment Availability of digital tools and 1.21 0.41 0.86
resources
ICT Support Systems Leadership and technical support in 1.73 0.27 0.82
schools
ZFM Teachers’ Personal Attitudinal
and ICT-Cultural Factors
Opinion about ICT in Opinion on ICT position in education 2.53 0.97 0.97
Education
ICT Projections Perceptions on planning for future ICT 2.96 1.36 0.98
use
ICT obstacles Perceptions on inhibitions to ICT use 2.01 0.93 0.94
Digital Attitude Perceptions about professional ICT 3.67 0.63 0.85
attitudes
Impact of ICT Interventions Perception on ICT impact of 2.35 0.69 0.92
on teaching and learning interventions on teaching and
learning
ZPA - intervention factor
Digital Training Claimed ICT trainings 1.53 0.64 0.82
Beyond ZPD Factors - Teachers’
knowledge, competence and
action factors (TDKCA)
Digital Application Perceptions about ICT use 3.28 0.84 0.93
Digital Confidence Claimed ICT confidence 2.75 0.87 0.95
Digital Skills Perceptions about ICT skills 3.42 0.84 0.89
Digital Knowledge Perceptions about ICT knowledge 3.41 0.77 0.87
Digital Activities Claimed ICT engagements 1.88 0.68 0.89

Reform (NER 2007) rolled out in 2007. NER 2007 saw the introduction of ICT in
schools both as a separate ICT subject and as a cross curricula theme taught in
other subjects - in the form of ICT integration across all subjects. From 2007 up to
now, the ICT in education policy had gone through various reviews and imple-
mentation phases. However, the core ICT ideology has stayed unaltered and which
aims at:Benabling graduates from Ghanaian educational institutions - formal and
non-formal - to confidently and creatively use ICT tools and resources to develop
requisite skills and knowledge needed to be active participants in the global
knowledge economy at all times. BIn its revised form the policy is meant to
accomplish following expectations: Ba) ICT as a learning and operating tool, b)
ICT as integrated into the teaching and learning, c) ICT as a career option for
students B(MoE 2015).
Literature, research and media (Mereku and Yidana 2011; MOE/PR 2015a, 2015b)
lay credence to the efforts made by the successive governments in Ghana in the pursuit
Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173 1163

of the ICT in education agenda. Ghana piloted the One Laptop Per Child Policy
(OLPCP) project (Owusu-Ansah 2015) in the early 2000s, but it was discontinued
due to political reasons. Schools’ computerisation programme was rolled out in 2011
(Natia and Seidu 2015), that aimed at massive deployment of ICT tools into schools
and training for teachers. Ministry of Education (MOE) and Ghana Education Service
(GES) supplied various basic schools across the country with over 60,000 computers.
In addition, training for teachers ICT skills and digital literacy was run in all the 10
regions of the country. Added to the government efforts, individuals and institutions
such as non-governmental organistions, Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs), philan-
thropists and corporate institutions have occasionally supported schools by providing
computers and other digital resources.
Empirical studies in sampled schools across the country point to the fact that the
national ICT ideology in education is evident in schools (Amenyedzi et al. 2011;
Mereku and Yidana 2011; Natia and Seidu 2015). These studies also identified several
gaps that need academic and professional attention. For instance, Mereku and Yidana
(2011) observed that in the context of training for digital literacy "emphasis had been
on deployment of ICTs for the development of the students' skills in operating the
machines and not necessarily for developing ICT literacy". Several studies in the basic
schools point to the lack of ICT implementation in teaching – in Tema Metropolis
(Amenyedzi et al. 2011), Northern and Volta Regions of Ghana (Natia and Seidu 2015)
and Western Region of Ghana (Quaicoe et al. 2016) few teachers were found to be
integrating ICT in subject teaching.
Though there are evidences of Ghanaian schools pursuing the national ICT agenda,
research suggests of the existence of instrumental and institutional setbacks in the
school system (Agyei and Voogt 2011; Amenyedzi et al. 2011; InfoDev 2007; Mereku
and Yidana 2011; Natia and Seidu 2015) that appear to affect teachers’ uptake of digital
tools and resources for teaching and learning. There is the lack of ICT tools and
resources in schools located in deprived communities (Addy 2013). There is inequity
of the availability of ICT resources in schools – while some schools have computers
and ICT laboratories, others do not; and most computers in schools lack internet
connectivity or local networking (Mereku and Yidana 2011; Natia and Seidu 2015).
Findings from these studies show that ICT tools and resources are not sufficient (high
student-computer ratio) and in addition, the computers are gradually becoming obsolete
and others broken (Kubis 2015; Mereku and Yidana 2011). Recent observation
(Quaicoe et al. 2016) in 17 schools of the Takoradi-Sekondi Metropolis in Ghana
found that many of the computers(Laptops) supplied to schools are out of use and some
not in use because of lack of maintenance and support.
Professionally, most teachers in Ghana have participated in a nationwide ICT
training, but the extent to which the training is affecting the teachers’ digital
literacy and professional practice is unclear. Empirical studies across the coun-
try concluded that basic schools lacked ICT teachers, and some teachers trying
to teach ICT as prescribed in the primary school syllabus lacked the requisite
ICT knowledge and skills (Acquah 2012; Agyei and Voogt 2011; Boakye and
Banini 2008; Mereku and Yidana 2011; Natia and Seidu 2015). Findings
pointed out that ICT integration in schools was minimal or non-existent in
some cases(Natia and Seidu 2015). In some schools teachers lacked the knowl-
edge in creating ICT mediated learning scenarios using technology in their
1164 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

subject areas and few teachers were integrating ICT in teaching (Agyei and
Voogt 2010). In the aforementioned discourse, the researchers shared a common
view point that teacher training for digital literacy or ICT competence is needed
to fill the teacher gap in ICT integration capabilities into schools (Acquah
2012; Boakye and Banini 2008; Mereku and Yidana 2011).
In spite of the infrastructural, training, ideological challenges and other subtle ICT
related setbacks some positive indicators about the ICT policy in education have been
observed in Ghanaian schools (Agyei and Voogt 2011; Amenyedzi et al. 2011; InfoDev
2007; Mereku and Yidana 2011; Quaicoe et al. 2016). Government and sector level
attitude to the ICT agenda has been positive over the years. Students study ICT as a
subject in schools and participate in the national ICT examination. Growing numbers of
teachers are digitally competent and leading their schools to pursue ICT integration.
Generally, teachers have positive attitude about computers and the Internet; and their
potential to improve student learning with ICT. Teachers also expressed interest in
pursuing further training in digital literacy to enhance their ICT integration skills.
Consequently, we posit that the quest for success in ICT integration in Ghana’s basic
schools be aligned with the positive disposition of teachers. Teachers training for
further digital literacy needs to be structured in a manner that it would potentially
address personal ICT conflicts, give them opening for lifelong professional learning and
empowerment in the roles of co-implementers of the ICT policy (Mckenney 2013).

2 Methodology

The study used a survey method and the survey instrument constructed using the compo-
nents from ICT-enhanced Teacher Standards for Africa (ICTeTSA) (UNESCO-IICBA
2012), and European Union survey of ICT in schools (European Union 2013). The contents
were modified to suite the conditions of schools in digitally inadequate communities (ITU
2015) such as developing nations; and as well as in the Ghanaian context. The survey items
were integrated into 14 composite variables (see Quaicoe and Pata 2015b). The internal
consistency of the variables was estimated with Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Test. For
modeling teachers’ perceptions to teaching and learning with ICT the variables were
associated with the Zones theories (Galligan 2008; Valsiner 1997; Vygotsky 1978) (see
Table 1).
The study was conducted in the Western Region of Ghana, with the focus on
basic schools. Six (6) districts randomly selected in the Western Region partic-
ipated in the study. In the districts, schools were grouped into urban, peri-urban
and rural types; and the participating schools selected using random sampling
technique on these pre-categorised schools. The final sample consisted of forty-
five (45) schools. Teachers in the sampled schools voluntarily responded to the
questionnaire; a total of (n = 256) teachers participated in the study.
To address ethical issues, a relation of trust was built with the respondents. Mutual
agreements were hatched on issues relating to the modalities for the data collection. By
consensus, individual identities were not to be disclosed as we use the data and the
information given was to be analysed confidentially. The study acknowledged the
voluntary participation of the subjects in the exercise. The data collection activity took
place between February and March 2016.
Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173 1165

Data was analyzed using Regression path analysis - as the statistical approach to
generate information. A hypothesised School–based Teacher Digital Teaching and
Learning framework (Fig. 1) defined by the theories of Vygotsky’s and Valsiner
(Valsiner 1997; Vygotsky 1978) - Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) and Zone of
Promoted Action (ZPA) and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was composed
and validated. The framework consists of six (6) regression layers (RL). The under-
pinning hypothesis was that 1) External factors (School Environment and Cultural)
factors have either direct or indirect effects on TDKCA and 2) Digital Training
mediates the external factors and in turn exerts a direct effect on Teachers’ digital
knowledge, competence and action factors (TDKCA). Thus, this constitutes the per-
ceived teacher digital teaching and learning (TD-TaL) framework as presented in Fig. 1.
Based on this premise, unidirectional regression path analysis was used in determining
the effects the ZFM and ZPA variables have on the TDKCA factors on one hand; and
effects of the ZFM factors on the ZPA on the other hand.

3 Results

This study, sought answer(s) to the question; How do teachers perceive different ICT
related factors promoting their Digital Teaching and Learning in the context of
Ghana’s basic schools? We modeled the Hypothesized School-based Framework for.
Teacher Digital Teaching and Learning (Fig. 1) and tested this with Regression path
analysis statistical approach. Six regression layers (RL1 to RL2) were subjected to
unidirectional regression analyses to determine their path weights and their correspond-
ing effects on the respective criterion variables (TDKCA) factors. The RLs structure,
arrangements, and order measured were in this manner:

Fig. 1 Hypothesized school-based framework for school-based teacher digital teaching and learning - (TD-TaL)
1166 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

& RL1: ZPA (digital training) as criterion variable

& RL2: ZPD (digital application) as the criterion, with ZPA and ZFM as the
predictors
& RL3: ZPD (digital confidence) as the criterion, with ZPA and ZFM as the
predictors
& RL4: ZPD (digital skills) as the criterion, with ZPA and ZFM as the predictors
& RL5: ZPD (digital knowledge) as the criterion, with ZPA and ZFM as the
predictors
& RL6: ZPD (digital activities) as the criterion, with ZPA and ZFM as the predictors

This section of the paper presents the model that emerged out of the regression
analysis based on the assumptions about hypothetical school-based teacher TD-TaL
framework (Fig 1). The authors posit that the reduced model represents teachers’
Bstruggles, adjustments and tradeoffs^ towards the attainment of independent digital
professional capabilities. Figure 2 shows the predictor elements (ZFM and ZPA) in the
model, their magnitude and effects on their respective criterion variables (TDKCA).
Out of the nine (9) predicting variables made up of ZFM and ZPA variables
(Table 1), three of the ZFM variables we found to be redundant in the model (Fig.
2). The remaining nine (9) predictors affected the TDKCA factors in various magni-
tudes and directions. The respective outcome of the regression analyses on the layers
yielded the following results. Having ZPA -Digital Training as the criterion variable
and the ZFM School Environment factors and ZFM- Personal Attitudinal and Cultural
factors as the predictors (Table 1), RL1 generated statistically significant (p < .001)
paths (Table 2). Out of the eight (8) predictors, Digital Agenda had a statistically
significant and direct effect on the criterion variable Digital Application; and an indirect
effect on the criterion variable Digital Activities. This layer accounted for 97% of the
variance (E) in the model (Table 2).
Along the second regression layer (RL2), TDKCA factor digital application was the
criterion variable, while ZPA and ZFM factors were the predictors. The layer generated

Fig. 2 Reduced hypothesized model - school-based teacher digital teaching and learning (TDKCA) framework
Table 2 Result of (RL1 – RL6) – model summaries and path weights

RL Variable Name and Path (Predictor → Criterion Variable) Path Weight (β) Sig. E (1-R2) R R2 df F Sig.

1 Digital Agenda → Digital Training .240 p < .001 0.970 .240 .058 1 15.548 p < .001
Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

2 Digital Attitude → Digital Application .529 p < .001 0.806 .591 .350 2 68.074 p < .001
Digital Training → Digital Application .208 p < .001
3 Perceived ICT Projections → Digital Confidence −.266 p < .001 0.955 .295 .087 2 12.064 p < .001
Perceived Impact of intervention on Teaching and .268 p < .001
Learning → Digital Confidence
4 Digital Attitude → Digital Skills .488 p < .001 0.955 .488 .239 1 79.592 p < .001
5 Digital Attitude → Digital Knowledge .472 p < .001 0.882 .475 .222 1 72.673 p < .001
6 Digital Agenda → Digital Activities 0.204 p < .001 0.850 .526 .277 5 17.135 p < .001
Perceived ICT Projections → Digital Activities −.381 p < .001
Perceived ICT Obstacles → Digital Activities .165 p < .001
Perceived Impact of intervention on Teaching and Learning → Digital Activities .273 p < .001
Digital Training → Digital Activities .270 p < .001
1167
1168 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

statistically significant (p < .001) paths (Table 2). ZFM Digital Attitude (p < .001) and
ZPA Digital Training (p < .001) emerged as statistically significant variables; having
direct effects the criterion variable digital application (Fig. 2). ZFM factor Teacher
digital attitude (β = .529) had the strongest effect within the layer. This layer accounted
for 80.6% of the variance (E) in the model (Table 2).
In the case of Regression layer three (RL3), the TDKCA factor Digital Confidence
was the criterion variable, whereas the predictors were the ZFM School environmental
factors ZFM Personal and cultural factors and TDKCA factor (Digital Training). The
layer generated statistically significant paths (p < .001) as shown on Table 2. Two ZFM
personal attitudinal and cultural variables (Perceived ICT projections (p < .001) and
perceived impact of interventions impact on teaching and learning (p < .001), had direct
statistically significant effect on the criterion variable. However, Perceived ICT
Projections (β = −.266) displayed a negative effect on the criterion variable (Fig. 2);
this path accounted for 95.5% of the variance (E) in the model (Table 2).
Using the TDKCA factor Digital Skills as the criterion variable; and the ZFM
School environmental factors and ZFM Personal cultural factors as predictors RL4
generated a statistically significant (p < .001) layer as shown on Table 2. Out the eight
(8) predictors, one variable, Digital Attitude (p < .001) had a significantly significant
effect on the criterion variable (Fig. 2), and accounted for 87.2% of the variance (E) in
the model.
RL5 (p < .001) produced statistically significant layer (Table 2), using TDKCA
factor Digital Knowledge as the criterion variable, and the ZFM School environmental
factors, ZFM Personal and cultural factors and ZPA factor as predictors. One ZFM
variable, Digital Attitude (β = .488, p < .001) had a statistically significant direct and
strong and effect on the criterion variable (Fig. 2), this path accounted for 88.2% of the
variance (E) in the model.
The final regression layer (RL6) had TDKCA Factor Digital Activities as the
criterion variable, with the ZFM School environmental factors; ZFM Personal attitudi-
nal and cultural factors and ZPA factor (Digital Training) as predicting variables. The
layer (p < .001) was statistically significant (see Table 2). Five ZFM factors directly
affected the criterion variable significantly (see Table 2). However, Perceived ICT
Projections (β = −.381) had negative effects on the criterion variable (see Fig. 2). In
all, the layer accounted for 85% of the variance (E) in the model (Table 2).

4 Discussion

The study aimed at describing holistically the situation of Digital Teaching and
Learning in Ghanaian basic schools using the perspectives of teachers. We proposed
a Teacher Digital Teaching and Learning model (TD-TaL) that bases on Valsiner’s and
Vygotsky’s theories of supportive zones for learning and validated this model with the
empirical data from Western Region in Ghana. Our model assumed that within the
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Galligan 2008; Valsiner 1997;
Vygotsky 1978) teachers as learners of innovative digital technologies/approaches have
the need to be supported to improve their professional capacities and attain higher level
of professional digital competence(Kafyulilo et al. 2016). Within ZPD teachers en-
counter the factors from the Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) (Bennison and Goos 2013;
Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173 1169

Galligan 2008; Valsiner 1997) which cause them addressing Environmental and
Personal and ICT-cultural conflicts - which have the potential to impede the expected
digital learning advancement. Secondly, Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA) (Bennison
and Goos 2013; Valsiner 1997) may be provided within ZPD to offer the needed
assistance – such as Digital training, orientation, workshop and/or scaffolding activities
may mitigate the adverse effects on the path to improved professional development
towards new Digital competences. ZPD is characterised by Bteacher struggles, adjust-
ments of and tradeoffs^ in order to come to terms with new professional direction.
Failure to address teacher digital conflicts in ZPD might account for low Digital
teaching and learning among teachers and consequently, less technology integration
in schools (Lim et al. 2013).
The findings from the reduced regression model revealed that ZFM factors 1)
School environment, and 2) Teachers’ personal and ICT-cultural factors) had the
potential to directly enabling and inhibiting the teachers’ Digital Teaching and
Learning factors. In one hand, teachers’ Personal attitudinal and ICT-cultural factors
(Digital Attitude, Digital Obstacles and Perceived Impact on ICT interventions on
teaching and learning) contributed the largest direct effects in association with Digital
Knowledge, Skills and Application, whereas Perceived ICT projection was directly
inhibiting their Digital Confidence and Digital Activities. Other studies support that
teacher attitude for digital teaching and learning is a prerequisite factor influencing
teachers’ digital skills acquisition, application and digital confidence (Agyei and Voogt
2011; Chen 2008; Kumar et al. 2008). Our findings highlight that there is an unused
potential of considering teachers’ Personal attitudinal and schools’ ICT culture factors
(ZFM) in Digital training (ZPA). This might be a useful medium to enhance teacher
digital competence in the dimensions knowledge, skills, application and confidence
(Kafyulilo et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2008). For example, digital training in actual
school’s environment involving school teams have been proposed as an opportunity
(Quaicoe and Pata 2015a).
School environment factors, on the other hand, had one direct effect path and two
indirect paths to Digital teaching and learning factors. Digital Agenda in schools was
directly associated with teachers’ Digital activities, and indirectly it related with Digital
Training, which in turn contributed to Digital Activities and Digital Application. ICT/
Digital equipment and Support systems for digital activities did not associate with other
variables of the model. This finding revealed one of the main pain points of digital
teaching and learning situation in Ghanaian basic schools – the insufficient digital
equipment and support in using technology. The perceived lack of basic ICT infra-
structure in the sampled basics schools indicated that the deployment of ICT resources
to Ghanaian schools over the recent years (Mereku and Yidana 2011; MoE/PR 2014;
MOE/PR 2015a; Natia and Seidu 2015) have failed to create the expected teaching and
learning conditions with ICT. The results from several studies (Agyei and Voogt 2010;
Natia and Seidu 2015; Quaicoe et al. 2016) across the country have also asserted the
deficiencies of Digital tools and recourses in schools. Though some schools are
fortunate to have resources, they are confronted with problems such as having too
many faulty gadgets, lack of Internet connectivity, absence of ICT agenda/plan and
support (technical, professional and leadership) to effectively use the equipment
(Quaicoe et al. 2016). Empirical studies (Agyei and Voogt 2010; Natia and Seidu
2015) have demonstrated that teachers’ use of ICT tools and resources is constrained by
1170 Educ Inf Technol (2018) 23:1159–1173

lack of Internet access and inadequate computers; coupled with lack of adequate
subject-related ICT training (Agyei and Voogt 2011).

5 Conclusion

The outcome of the study revealed that teachers’ Digital teaching and learning in
Ghanaian basic schools was mostly directly influenced by teachers’ Personal attitudinal
and ICT-cultural factors (ZFM) whereas the Environmental factors of ZFM (such as
schools’ ICT tools and resources and Digital support systems) and the Digital training
(ZPA) appeared not to have the big impact on it. We posit that relating the teachers’
Personal attitudinal and ICT-cultural factors and Environmental ZFM factors to each
other and embedding them into Teacher digital training (ZPA) will empower teachers
Digital Teaching and Learning. This would require new types of school localized and
school team-involving type of Digital trainings. The issue of non-sustainable digital
infrastructure provision and technical support strategies for Ghanaian basic schools is
also highlighted in our model.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for the funding received from Tallinn University, School of
Digital Technologies towards the publication of this article. We also acknowledge individuals, teachers,
departmental heads and directors of education in the Western Region of Ghana whose immense contribution
made this work a success.

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