Electric circuits and devices LAB

(EDC)
Lab Manual

Name: Shees Nadeem

Reg. # 2020-MC-299

Department of Mechatronics & Control Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore

(Faisalabad Campus)
 EXPERIMENT NO 1
Objective:
To study the electric circuit lab equipment.
Apparatus:
 Digital Multimeter
 Triple Output Variable DC Power Supply
 Dual Channel Digital Oscilloscope
 Function Generator

a) Digital Multimeter (DMM)

A multimeter is the mix of a DC voltmeter, AC voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. An un-intensified
simple multimeter consolidates a meter development, range resistors and switches; VTVMs are
enhanced simple meters and contain dynamic hardware.
For a simple meter development, DC voltage is estimated with an arrangement resistor associated
between the meter development and the circuit under test. A switch (typically turning) permits more
prominent protection from be embedded in arrangement with the meter development to peruse higher
voltages. The result of the essential full-scale avoidance current of the development, and the amount
of the arrangement obstruction and the development's own opposition, gives the full-scale voltage of
the reach. For instance, a meter development that necessary 1 mA for full-scale diversion, with an
inner opposition of 500 Ω, would, on a 10 V scope of the multimeter, have 9,500 Ω of arrangement
resistance
For simple current reaches, coordinated low-opposition shunts are associated in corresponding with
the meter development to redirect the greater part of the current around the curl. Again for the
instance of a theoretical 1 mA, 500 Ω development on a 1 A reach, the shunt opposition would be
simply over 0.5 Ω.

Figure No. 3: Digital Multimeters

Procedure:
 1. For the measurement of the voltages put the black probe into COM and red probe into
mAVΩ.
2. For measuring the resistance set the range according to the resistor on multimeter.
3. For measuring the current we need to interrupt circuit physically then insert the multimeter in
line so that it can measure the current as it follows.

b) DC POWER SUPPLIES
DC power supplies are power supplies which produce an output DC voltage. Power supplies are
devices that deliver electric power to one or several loads. They generate the output power by
converting an input signal into an output signal (in this case, a DC output).
Composition and Operation
To illustrate the general structure of a power supply, we will use a typical DC power supply. A basic
DC power supply can be built with four circuits (or sections)
Transformer: The transformer's main function is to step-down (lower the amplitude) or step-up
(increase the amplitude) the signal to produce the desired DC level required at the output of the power
supply. The transformer also plays the role of an isolator. In many applications it is important to
isolate the input AC signal from the signals generated internally by the device.
Rectifier: The signal at the output of the transformer is fed to the rectifier. This device provides a
rectified pulsating DC signal. The rectifier can be a half-wave or full-wave rectifier. A pulsating DC
signal is a signal (voltage or current) that does not change polarity, but its magnitude is a function of
time. Typical rectifiers are built with diodes and resistors.
Filter: In order to convert the pulsating DC signal into a non-pulsating DC signal, a filter is needed.
Normally a simple capacitor filter suffices. The output of the filter is DC voltage, which usually has
some ripple or small AC variations.
Regulator: The regulator has two functions: (1) To smooth the signal from the filter producing a DC
signal with no ripple, and (2) to produce a constant voltage at the output. The voltage at the output of
the regulator remains constant even with variations in the input voltage or variations in the load (not
shown in the diagram).
To illustrate the four steps or block needed to create a DC voltage from the line voltage, the following
figure shows the conversion of a 115 V(rms) signal to a constant 110 V(DC) voltage.
 Figure No. 4: DC Power Supply

FIGURE NO .5: DC POWER SUPPLY FRONTAL VIEW

1. ON/OFF key
2. Ground, Negative, Positive output
3. Current output displays
4. Voltage output displays
5. Indicator of constant voltage operation mode (C.V)
6. Indicator of constant current operation mode (C.C)
7. Control to adjust output voltage
8. Control to adjust output current
9. Indicator of active output
10. Key for output abiling
11. Key for selecting the connection mode
 12. Indicator of the power source 5V/3A Overload

FIGURE.NO.6:REAR VIEW

1. power supply voltage selection switch

2. fuse holder
3. power supply input socket
4. ventilation opening

Specifications :

 Input voltage is the magnitude and type of the voltage applied to the power supply.
 Input frequency is the frequency of the input signal.
 Output voltage is the magnitude of the DC voltage at the output of the device.
 Output current is the current associated with the output voltage.
 Output power is the power (in watts) delivered to the load.
 Regulation indicates the stability of the output voltage.
o Line regulation is the maximum steady-state amount that the output voltage changes
as a result of a specified change in input line voltage.
o Load regulation is the maximum steady-state amount that the output voltage changes
as a result of a specified change in load.
 board mount
 Circuit mount
 Wall mount

 DIN rail mount

 Rack mount
 Desktop

c) Dual Channel Digital Oscilloscope

Oscilloscopes are a type of signal analyzer they show the experimenter a picture of the signal,
usually in the form of a voltage versus time graph. The user can then study this picture to learn
the amplitude, frequency, and overall shape of the signal, which may depend on the physics
being explored in the experiment.
It is a used to capture, process, display, and store data that represent the signal generated by the
function generator and set them according to the choice to simplify the calculation. It also shows
the voltage per division and time per division.

Figure No. 7: Digital Oscilloscope

FEATURES:
All oscilloscopes share certain basic features
 Where typical controls the most recognizable feature: a screen. On older analog scopes this is
a cathode-ray tube or CRT; the signal creates a moving dot or \trace" across the screen. On
newer digital scopes, the screen is a CRT or at-panel display that operates like a computer
monitor. The basic use of the screen is to display the signals in a voltage versus time graph.
The screen usually has a gratitude on it of about 1 cm squares.
 At least two (maybe more) signal inputs, or \channels", typically called \CH1", \CH2", etc.
And one external \trigger" input, typically called \EXT TRIG".
 A collection of controls related to vertical part of the display associated with the input signals.
These control the kind of coupling to the DC", through a capacitor|\AC", or
disconnected|\GND". The amount of amplification applied to the signal is controlled by a
knob
 A collection of controls related to the horizontal part of the display. These controls set the
time axis and are calibrated in seconds per division, The horizontal controls are sometimes
called the timebase" and the setting is called the \sweep rate".
 In addition to the above features which are common to both analog and digital varieties,
digital oscilloscopes typically come with the ability to save data and control settings to
memory, perform mathematical operations on data traces
 FIGURE NO.8:OSCILLOSCOPE FRONT VIEW

HOW TO USE:
1. Turn on a function generator.
2. Turn on the digital oscilloscope. After the scope completes its internal tests, press the \Clear
menu" button at the lower right hand corner of the display screen.
3. Get a couple of BNC cables. Use the BNC cables to connect the \main" output of the
generator to CH1 of the oscilloscope and the \aux" (or \sync" or \TTL") output to CH2.
4. Set the controls of the function generator to produce a sine wave of desired frequency and a
few volts amplitude. Depending on your generator
5. In order to start from a uniform setting, reset the oscilloscope to its factory default values by
pressing the SAVE/RECALL button, and then using the softkeys to choose the \factory
default" setup. Then press the CH1 and CH2 buttons to turn on both of these channels.
Finally, press AUTOSET on the oscilloscope panel

Most of the time you need only worry about four settings: the trigger level, the slope, the mode and
the source. Let's see how these work.
1. Press AUTOSET again to reestablish the settings
2. Press the TRIGGER MENU button.
3. Look at the softkey selections along the bottom of the display, select the \Level" menu, and
turn the LEVEL knob. The source for the trigger should be CH1. Note what happens on the
screen. In particular, note how the sine wave shifts horizontally as you change the level.
4. Select the \Slope" menu, and note how the waveform changes when you switch between the
positive and negative slope settings (from the softkeys on the side of the display). Pay
attention to the shape of the waveform right at the \T" marker.
5. Select the \Mode" menu, and make sure the mode is set to \Auto (Untriggered Roll)". Turn
the LEVEL knob clockwise until the arrow marker denoting the trigger level is well above the
sine wave. You should see the trace lose stability and drift horizontally. Now switch the mode
to \Normal". The trace should freeze. When you adjust the level back down, the trace will
become active again once the scope senses a valid trigger.
6. Select the \Source" menu, and select \Ch 2". Notice how the trigger markers change to the
second trace. Now disconnect the sync signal going into CH2 and plug it into the EXT TRIG
input. You should lose triggering but recover it when you select \Ext" from the source menu.
 The sine wave shown by the oscilloscope is as follow:

Figure No. 9: Sine wave

d) Function Generator:
The signal generator is exactly what its name implies: a generator of signals used as a stimulus
for electronic measurements. Most circuits require some type of input signal whose amplitude
varies over time. The signal may be a true bipolar AC1 signal (with peaks oscillating above and
below a ground reference point) or it may vary over a range of DC offset voltages, either positive
or negative. It may be a sine wave or other analog function, a digital pulse, a binary pattern or a
purely arbitrary wave shape.
The signal generator can provide “ideal” waveforms or it may add known, repeatable amounts
and types of distortion (or errors)
to the signal it delivers. This characteristic is one of the signal generator’s greatest virtues, since
it is often impossible to create predictable distortion exactly when and where it’s needed using
only the circuit itself. The response of the DUT is the presence of these distorted signals reveals
its ability to handle stresses that fall outside the normal performance envelope

Figure No. 10: Function Generator

Signal Generation Techniques:
There are several ways to create waveforms with a signal generator. The choice of methods depends
upon the information available about the DUT and its input requirements; whether there is a need to
add distortion or error signals, and other
Variables. Modern high-performance signal generators offer at least three ways to develop
waveforms:
Create: Brand new signals for circuit stimulus and testing
Replicate: Synthesize an unavailable real-world signal
(captured from an oscilloscope or logic analyzer)
Generate: Ideal or stressed reference signals for industry
standards with specific tolerances

Basic Waves
Waveforms come in many shapes and forms. Most electronic measurements use one or
more of the following wave shapes, often with noise or distortion added:
 Sine waves
 Square and rectangular waves
 Sawtooth and triangle waves
 Step and pulse shapes
 Complex waves

The types of waveform by the function generator are as follow:

Figure No. 11: Waveforms

Procedure
1. First of all we turn ON the function generator and the oscilloscope.
2. Set the waveform from the function generator to the desired sine waves.
3. We set the voltage of function generator at 10.4 Volts.
4. We set the frequency of the function generator at 2.010 kHz.
5. We connect the function generator probes with the oscilloscope probes i.e.positive with the
positive and negative with the negative probe.
6. Adjust the waveform shown on the oscilloscope.
7. We note the voltage per division and time per division data.
8. We note the observation i.e. number of boxes.
9. We calculate the required data.
Precautions
 Turn ON the function generator and digital oscilloscope very carefully.
 Check the insulation of the power supply.
 Make the connections of the function generator with the oscilloscope carefully.
 Insert the jumper wire in the breadboard carefully.
 Insert the circuit elements in the breadboard accurately.
 Connect the negative probe with negative and positive with the probe
 Experiment no:2
Objective:
1. To find cut-in Voltage Silicon P-N Junction diode.
2. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions of
Silicon P-N Junction diode.

3. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.

Apparatus:
 Semiconductor diode
 Bread board
 Resistor (1000Ω)
 DMM
 Jumper wires
 Power supply.

Diode:
A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one direction only
is called diode.
Symbol:

THEORY:-
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero,
circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit
current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected
to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when
diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether
eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be
in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to –ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse
saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current
due to minority charge carriers.

PROCEDURE FOR FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected to the
cathode of the diode,
3. Switch ON the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis.
Circuit diagram:

Observations and calculations:

Sr. NO Applied voltage (Vin) Voltage across the

diode (VD) mV Current through
diode ‘If’ ‘(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Cut-in Voltage of ‘Si’ diode is ________________.

PROCEDURE FOR REVERSE BIAS (For ‘Si’ Diode):

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected to
the anode of the diode.
3. Switch ON the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. The Graph is plotted between voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis.
Circuit diagram:

Observations and calculations:

Sr. NO Applied voltage (Vin) Voltage across the

diode (Vr) mV Current through
diode ‘Ir’ ‘(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Break down Voltage of ‘Si’ diode is ________________.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage the
diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
 Experiment no: 3
Objective:
1. To observe and draw the V-I characteristics and Regulation characteristics of a Zener
diode.
2. To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
3. To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both forward and
reverse biased conditions.

Apparatus:
 Zener diode
 Resistor
 DC power supply
 DMM
 Jumper wires

A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in
the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the
reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break
down Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting
it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it
has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators
The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series resistor, after which it
stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.The voltage point at which the
voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, (Vz) and for zener diodes this
voltage can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts. Zener diodes have a very thin depletion
region that’s why they allow more current to flow . The name Zener diode was named after the American
physicist Clarance Melvin Zener who discovered the Zener effect. Zener diodes are the basic building
blocks of electronic circuits.

Fig no:3.1
Zener Regulaion :
The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminal essentially constant is
the key feature of Zener diode. A Zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator because
it maintains nearly constant voltages across its terminal over a specific range of reverse current value. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in
spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the Zener diode will
continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum I Z(min) value in the
reverse breakdown region.
 Fig no:3.2

Procedure:
(i) V-I CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) on y-axis and zener voltage (Vz) on x-axis.

Observations and calculations:

Fig no: 3.4 Forward bias

Sr.No: VIN (v) VD(v) VR(v) IF(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
 10

Procedure:
(ii) REGULATION CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The voltage across the diode (Vz.) remains almost constant although the current through the diode
increases. This voltage serves as reference voltage.
4. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the tabular form.

5. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) on y-axis and zener voltage (Vz) on x-axis.

Observations and calculations:

Fig no: 3.5 Reverse bias

Sr.No: VIN (v) -VD (v) VR (v) IF (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Graph:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the zener diode. This may lead to damage
the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram

Result:
I studied the behavior of forward and reverse bias condition of zener diode, compare the
theoretical and experimental result, and understood it.
 Experiment No. 4
Objective:
1.To obtain the load regulation and ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier by using

(a). without Filter

(b). with Filter

2. To observe the input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.

Apparatus
 Resistor
 Bread Board
 Jumper wires
 DMM
 Diodes
 Capacitor
 Transformer with center tapped secondary
 CRO

Theory

The process of converting alternating current into direct current is rectification. Any offline
power supply unit has the block of rectification which converts either the AC wall receptacle
source onto high voltage DC or stepped down AC wall receptacle source into low voltage DC.
The further process will be filtering, DC-DC conversion, etc.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is in forward bias and conducts through
the load resistor. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor, which
has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage. During the negative half-cycle of
the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no current through the circuit. i.e , the
voltage across is zero .The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears
across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured
on dc voltmeter.

Let us now consider an AC voltage with lower amplitude of 15Vrms and rectify it into dc voltage using a
single diode. The diode conducts only during positive half cycle. However, the output will be
discontinuous pulsed positive DC voltage. It has to be further filtered to make it a pure DC with lesser
ripple. Point to be kept in mind is all the voltage, current that we measure through DMM is rms in nature.
Hence the same is considered in simulation also.
 Half wave Rectifier Waveform input and output

The output waveform above is as expected, a discontinuous pulsed DC waveform. In order to

smoothen the waveform or to make it continuous, we add a capacitor filter in the output. The
working of parallel capacitor is to maintain a constant voltage at the output. It decides the
amount of ripple present in the output.

Operation with capacitor

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and the capacitor gets charged as
well as the load gets supply. During negative half cycle the diode gets reverse biased and the
circuit is open during which the capacitor supplies the stored energy in it. The more the energy
storage capacity the lesser the ripple in the output waveform.

Procedure

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By using the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc
voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,
Vdc=Vm/П
5. Where, Vm=sqrt(2)Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.) Now, the
Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula
Γ = ac output voltage (Vac)/dc output voltage (Vdc)

6. By increasing the value of the resistance from 1 KΩ to 10KΩ, the voltage across the load
7. (VL) and current (IL) flowing through the load are measured.
8. Draw a graph between load voltage (VL) and load current (IL) by taking VL on X-axis and IL on
y-axis.
9. From the value of no-load voltage (V NL) , the % regulation is to be calculated from the theoretical
calculations given below
 THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR & % REGULATION:

(a) WITH OUT FILTER:

For a Half-Wave Rectifier,

Vrms=Vm/1.41

Vdc=Vm/П

Therefore, Ripple factor Γ=√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 1.21

% regulation = [(VNL-VFL)/VFL]*100

(b) WITH FILTER:

Ripple factor for a Half-Wave Rectifier is Γ=1/ (2√3 fRC).

Where f =50Hz

C =100µF

R=(110)k

Therefore, for 1KΩ, Ripple factor, Γ = 0.0577

% regulation = [(VNL-VFL)/VFL]*100

Observations & Calculations

(Without Capacitor)

VNL = V
 No. of R Vac Vdc Γ= Vac/ Vdc % Regulation
Observations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(With Capacitor)

VNL = V
No. of R Vac Vdc Γ= Vac/ Vdc % Regulation
Observations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Graphs:
(without capacitor circuit)

(with capacitor circuit)

With 100Uf Capacitor

With 1000UF Capacitor

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first Full load should be applied and then it should be
decremented in steps.
 Experiment No. 5
Objective:
1.To obtain the load regulation and ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier by using

(a). without Filter

(b). with Filter

2. To observe the input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.

Apparatus
 Resistor
 Bread Board
 Jumper wires
 DMM
 Diodes
 Capacitor
 Transformer with center tapped secondary
 CRO

Theory
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load resistor. When point A of the
transformer is positive, diode conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive in the negative half of the cycle with respect to C point, the diod
conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same
direction for both half-cycles of the wave.
The output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms, it is also known
as a bi-phase circuit.The spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being
filled in by the other. The average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now double that
of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage by assuming
no losses. VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and VRMS
is the rms value

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave rectifier
provided each half of the transformer winding have the same rms voltage. To obtain a different
DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be used. The disadvantage of this type of full
wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a given power output is required with two
separate but identical secondary windings makes this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly
compared to the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

you can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge, readymade bridge rectifier
components are available off-the-shelf in a range of different voltage and current sizes that can
be soldered directly into a PCB or be connected by spade connectors. The full-wave bridge
rectifier gives us a greater mean DC value with less superimposed ripple while the output
waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply. Therefore increase its average DC
output level even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the
bridge circuit.
Procedure
10. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
11. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
12. By using the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc
voltage at the output of the rectifier.
13. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,
Vdc=2Vm/П
14. Where, Vm=sqrt(2)Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.) Now, the
Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula
Γ = ac output voltage (Vac)/dc output voltage (Vdc)

15. By increasing the value of the resistance from 1 KΩ to 10KΩ, the voltage across the load
16. (VL) and current (IL) flowing through the load are measured.
17. Draw a graph between load voltage (VL) and load current (IL) by taking VL on X-axis and IL on
y-axis.
18. From the value of no-load voltage (V NL) , the % regulation is to be calculated from the theoretical
calculations given below
 THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR & % REGULATION:

(c) WITH OUT FILTER:

For a Half-Wave Rectifier,

Vrms=Vm/1.41

Vdc=2Vm/П

Therefore, Ripple factor Γ=√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.48

% regulation = [(VNL-VFL)/VFL]*100

(d) WITH FILTER:

Ripple factor for a Half-Wave Rectifier is Γ=1/ (2√3 fRC).

Where f =50Hz

C =100µF

R=(110)k

Therefore, for 1KΩ, Ripple factor, Γ = 0.0577

% regulation = [(VNL-VFL)/VFL]*100

Observations & Calculations

(Without Capacitor)
 VNL = V
No. of R Vac Vdc Γ= Vac/ Vdc % Regulation
Observations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(With Capacitor)

VNL = V
No. of R Vac Vdc Γ= Vac/ Vdc % Regulation
Observations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Graphs:
(without capacitor circuit)

(with capacitor circuit)

Precaution:
4. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully identified.
5. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.
6. While determining the % regulation, first Full load should be applied and then it should be
decremented in steps.
 Experiment No. 6
Objective:
To design a dc power supply using full bridge rectifier, capacitor filters and voltage
regulator.
Apparatus
 Step down transformer
 IN4007 diodes
 1000uf/35V capacitor
 Voltage regulator (LM317,7805)
 Connecting wires
 Oscilloscope

Theory
Transformer step down the input 220V AC to the required AC level. Then an output voltage of
transformer is converted into dc with the bridge rectifier. After that, a capacitor filter is added to
smooth the pulsating dc to pure dc.
After that, an indicator added and then connected to voltage regulator either variable or
fixed. At the end, another capacitor is added to avoid any variation in pure dc.
Voltage regulator:
There are two types of voltage regulator, one is fixed and other is variable.
In fixed regulator the voltage is controlled by regulator on one level and cannot be changed

In variable voltage regulator the output voltage is set according to requirement with the help
of potentiometer/variable resister.
Procedure
1. Connect the wires of two pin shoe to primary wires of transformer. Then connect the
secondary wires of transformer to the bridge rectifier as shown.
2. Then connect the voltage regulator fixed and variable such that both receive the same input
voltages.
3. Connect the ground terminal (pin 2) directly to negative terminal of the supply (for fixed).
Output is from vout terminal (pin 3).
4. Connect resistor of 470 ohm’s between pin 1 and pin 2.
5. Pin2 is output terminal connect 470uf capacitor between pin 2 and ground as shown in the
diagram.

Graph
Precautions
1. Insulation of wires should not be damaged.
2. Do not short the adjust terminal to ground, otherwise IC damaged.
3. Heat sink is attached from preventing any damage.

Conclusion
We have concluded that the waveform changes as Integrated circuit is
removed from circuit
 Experiment No. 7
Objective:
To construct and analyze unbiased and biased positive and negative clippers.
Apparatus
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope
 Rectifier diode
 Resistor
 DC power supply

Theory

A cliper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level
without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit moves the
whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the signal at the
desired level. The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input
signal. A clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the input signal to push it to the
positive side. Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the input signal to
push it to the negative side.

If the circuit pushes the signal upwards, then the circuit is said to be a positive clamper. When
the signal is pushed upwards, the negative peak of the signal meets the zero level.

On the other hand, if the circuit pushes the signal downwards then the circuit is said to be a
negative clamper. When the signal is pushed downwards, the positive peak of the signal meets
the zero level. The construction of the clamper circuit is almost similar to the clipper circuit. The
only difference is the clamper circuit contains an extra element called capacitor. A capacitor is
used to provide a dc offset (dc level) from the stored charge.

Unbiased clippers:
The clipper circuit in which DC battery is not added.
The unbiased clipper is used to clip a circuit of voltage level up to 0.7V. After clipping the
clipped portion voltage is regained with amplification of remaining portion.
Biased clippers:
The clipper circuit in which DC battery is added which either support or
opposes the diode.

Positive clamper:

The positive clamper is made up of a voltage source Vi, capacitor C, diode D, and load resistor
RL. In the below circuit diagram, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load. So the
positive clamper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is reverse biased and
blocks the input signal when the diode is forward biased.

Negative clamper:

During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and hence no
signal appears at the output. In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current
through it. This current will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input
voltage in inverse polarity -Vm.

Procedure
1. Connect the positive terminal of function generator to the anode of diode and cathode to
resistor terminal another terminal of resistor to negative of function generator (negative
clipper).
2. Connect oscilloscope at function generator and another channel of oscilloscope parallel to
resistor.
3. On oscilloscope bring both channel reference at a single point, observe and take a picture.
4. Repeat all procedure by changing connection of diode (positive clipper).
5. For biasing clipper add a battery in series with diode positive terminal to anode and
negative terminal to input ac and observe on oscilloscope.
6. Now repeat procedure 5 by reversing the battery terminal.
7. Now repeat procedure 5 and 6 by changing the terminal of the diode.
 8. Now connect diode parallel to diode and their parallel combination in series with a resistor
diode and observe.
9. Then reverse the diode connection and observe graph on oscilloscope.
10. Repeat procedure 8 by adding a battery in series with diode such that positive terminal
is connected
11. Repeat procedure 10 by reversing the direction of battery.
12. After that reverse the diode terminals observe graph on oscilloscope when battery support
diode.

Circuits and graphs

Unbiased
Negative clipping

Positive clipping
Biased clipper
Cathode of diode connected with positive terminal of battery

anode of diode connected with positive terminal of battery

cathode of diode connected with negative terminal of battery

anode of diode connected with negative terminal of battery

Precautions
4. Insulation of wires should not be damaged.
5. Do not short the adjust terminal to ground, otherwise IC damaged.
6. Heat sink is attached from preventing any damage.
 Experiment No. 8
Objective:
To construct and analyze unbiased and biased positive and negative clippers.
Apparatus
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope
 Rectifier diode
 Resistor
 DC power supply
 Capacitor
 Diode

Theory

A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level
without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit moves the
whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the signal at the
desired level. The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input
signal. A clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the input signal to push it to the
positive side. Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the input signal to
push it to the negative side.

If the circuit pushes the signal upwards, then the circuit is said to be a positive clamper. When the signal
is pushed upwards, the negative peak of the signal meets the zero level.

On the other hand, if the circuit pushes the signal downwards then the circuit is said to be a negative
clamper. When the signal is pushed downwards, the positive peak of the signal meets the zero level. The
construction of the clamper circuit is almost similar to the clipper circuit. The only difference is the
clamper circuit contains an extra element called capacitor. A capacitor is used to provide a dc offset (dc
level) from the stored charge.

There are major two types of clampers.

a) Unbiased clampers b) biased clampers

They are further classified into positive and negative clampers.

a) Unbiased

Positive clamper:
Unbiased positive clamper is that in which dc source is absent and it shift the input waveform in
positive voltages.
Negative clamper:
Unbiased negative clamper is that in which dc source is absent and it shift the input waveform in
negative voltages.

b) Biased clampers:
Positive clamper:
Biased positive clamper is that in which dc source is present and it shift the input waveform in
positive voltages and voltage level is greater than 0.7 V.

When battery is reversed output

Negative clamper:
Biased negative clamper is that in which dc source is present and it shift the input waveform in
negative voltages and voltage level is greater than 0.7 V.
 Reverse battery:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of the diode, capacitor and resistor and battery (DC supply) when required
according to circuit diagrams as shown above.
2. Set signal generator to 1k Hz and adjust the amplitude to 10 V.
3. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 to the input where the signal generator is connected and
connect channel 2 to the output across the resistor.
4. Now analyze the clampers circuit one by one on oscilloscope by overlapping the input and
output graphs.

Observation and calculations:

Unbiased positive clamper

Unbiased negative clamper

Biased positive clamper with positive terminal of battery

Biased positive clamper with negative terminal of battery

Biased negative clamper with positive terminal of battery

Biased negative clamper with negative terminal of battery

Conclusion
I understand the working of clampers.
 Experiment No. 9
Objective:
Design and Analyze input output characteristics of common base transistor
configuration.
Apparatus
 Resistor
 AC power supply
 Transistor BC 107/547
 DC voltmeter
 DC ammeter
 DMM

Theory
Transistor is bipolar junction device made from doping of semiconductor. In transistors one
region is common called base. There are two types of transistors one is NPN and other is PNP. If
a n-type region is surrounded by two p-type region transistor is PNP and p-type is surrounded by
two n-type regions then it is called NPN transistor.
Symbols of NPN and PNP transistor as follow:

Transistor is used in different configurations such as common base, common emitter, common
collector.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (Common Base Configuration)

In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and base
terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input and output. That means the emitter terminal
and common base terminal are known as input terminals whereas the collector terminal and common base
terminal are known as output terminals. In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so
the common base configuration is also known as grounded base configuration. Sometimes common base

Figure 9.1: Basic diagram of common-base configuration

The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the corresponding output signal
is taken across the collector and base terminals. Thus the base terminal of a transistor is common for both
input and output terminals and hence it is named as common base configuration.The
supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by V BE while the supply voltage between collector
and base is denoted by V CB.As mentioned earlier, in every configuration, the base-emitter junction J E is
always forward biased and collector-base junction JC is always reverse biased. Therefore, in common base
configuration, the base-emitter junction J E is forward biased and collector-base junction J C is reverse
biased.
PNP

NPN

Procedure:
1. Determine the collector, base, emitter with the help of digital voltmeter.
2. Connect dc supply channel 1 to emitter in series with resistor and ammeter such that it
forward biased the region.
3. Connect voltmeter parallel to emitter negative terminal in case of NPN and positive terminal
in case of PNP transistor and remaining terminal to base of transistor.
4. Connect dc supply channel 2 to collector in series with resistors and ammeter such that it
reverse biased the region.
5. Connect the voltmeter parallel to collector to base according to VCC battery.
6. Now first for input characteristics adjust VCB=0 and take readings of IE & VBE.
7. For output characteristics adjust IE=0 and take readings of VBC and ICB.
8. Take number of readings by changing the value of IE at regular steps.

Circuit diagram

Observation and calculations:

Input characteristics

VBC = 0 V VBC= 1 V VBC = 2 V

IE VBE IE VBE IE VBE
(mA) (V) (mA) (V) (mA) (V)
-1.33 0.67 -1.35 0.650 -1.37 0.634
-3.26 0.73 -3.23 0.722 -3.30 0.698
-5.24 0.75 -5.25 0.752 -5.26 0.742
-7.23 0.77 -7.23 0.768 -7.24 0.762
-9.22 0.78 -9.22 0.779 -9.22 0.775
-11.2 0.79 -11.2 0.788 -11.2 0.785
-13.2 0.796 -13.2 0.793 -13.2 0.793
-15.2 0.797 -15.2 0.796 -15.2 0.796
-17.2 0.798 -17.2 0.798 -17.2 0.798
-19.2 0.799 -19.2 0.799 -19.2 0.799

Output characteristics

IE = 0 IE = 1 mA IE = 2 mA
VBC IC VBC IC VBC IC
(V) (mA) (V) (mA) (V) (mA)
-1.81 0 -1.35 1 -0.645 2
-3.81 0 -3.35 1 -2.63 2
-5.81 0 -5.35 1 -4.63 2
-7.81 0 -7.35 1 -6.63 2
-9.81 0 -9.35 1 -8.63 2
-11.81 0 -11.35 1 -10.63 2
-13.81 0 -13.35 1 -12.63 2
-15.81 0 -15.35 1 -14.63 2
-17.81 0 -17.35 1 -16.63 2
-19.81 0 -19.35 1 -18.63 2
Precautions:
1. Connection should be neat and tight.
2. While making connections of circuit switch off DC power supply.
3. Electrical wire insulation should not be damaged.
4. Jumper wires should not touch each other.
5. Connect the terminals of power supply, then adjust the voltage to desired value
and switch on the output of DC power supply.
 Experiment No. 10
Objective:
BJT CHARACTERISTICS (CE CONFIGURATION)
. To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CE Configuration
2. To find Input Resistance (Ri), Output Resistance (Ro) and Current amplification
Factor (β) of the given transistor.
Apparatus
 Resistor
 AC power supply
 Transistor BC 107
 DC voltmeter
 DC ammeter
 DMM

Theory
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and
out put is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is
common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is
expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to
CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is
higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost
constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes
with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee
voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB. The current amplification factor
of CE configuration is given by β = ΔIC/ΔIB

Input characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (I B)
and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE). First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The
vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal line represents x-axis. The input current or base current
(IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and the input voltage (V BE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal
line).

To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V CE is kept constant at zero volts
and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage
level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.
Output characteristics

The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (I C) and output voltage
(VCE).  First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and
horizontal line represents x-axis. The output current or collector current (I C) is taken along y-axis
(vertical line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current I B is kept constant at
0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each
level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.

Procedure:
(i) INPUT CHARACTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage V CE is kept constant at 1V and for
different values of VBE, note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping V CE at 2V and 3V.
4. Tabulate all the readings.
5. Plot the graph between VBE on x-axis and IB on y-axis for constant VCE.

(ii) OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current I B is kept constant at 50μA and for
 different values of VCE, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping I B at 75μA and 100μA.
4. Tabulate the all the readings.
5. Plot the graph between VCE on x-axis and IC on y-axis for constant IB.

Circuit diagram

Observation and calculations:

(i) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 3V

S.No
VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA)

1 0.683 316 0.688 311 0.693 307

2 0.712 1.28 0.723 1.28 0.726 1.27
3 0.738 2.26 0.740 2.26 0.742 2.26
4 0.750 3.25 0.751 3.25 0.753 3.25
5 0.759 4.24 0.760 4.24 0.761 4.24
6 0.766 5.23 0.767 5.23 0.768 5.23
7 0.772 6.23 0.773 6.23 0.774 6.23
8 0.777 7.22 0.778 7.22 0.779 7.22
 Y-Values
8
7.22
7
6.23
6
5.23
5
4.24
4
Ib

3.25
3
2.26
2
1.28
1

0
0.7 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.79
Vbe

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IB = 50 μA IB = 75 μA IB = 100 μA
S.No
VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC( mA) VCE(V) IC (mA)
1 0.025 0.974 0.017 0.982 0.013 0.987
2 0.049 1.95 0.034 1.97 0.027 1.97
3 0.073 2.93 0.049 2.45 0.038 2.96
4 0.103 3.90 0.063 3.94 0.048 3.95
5 0.196 4.80 0.077 4.42 0.058 4.94
6 1.081 4.92 0.093 5.91 0.068 5.93
7 2.024 4.98 0.112 6.89 0.077 6.54
8 2.960 5.03 0.144 7.86 0.087 7.91

6
Y-Values
4.92 4.98 5.03
5 4.8

3.9
4

2.93
3
Ic

1.95
2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vce
CALCULATIONS:

1. Input resistance: To obtain input resistance find ΔVBE and ΔIB at constant VCE on
one of the input characteristics. Then
Ri = ΔVBE / ΔIB (VCE constant)
2. Output resistance: To obtain output resistance, find ΔIC and ΔVCE at constant IB.
Ro = ΔVCE / ΔIC (IB constant)
3. The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
β = ΔIC/ΔIB

RESULT: The input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration are drawn.
The Input (Ri) and Output resistances (Ro) and  of a given transistor are calculated.
1. The Input resistance (Ri) of a given Transistor is 0.026
2. The Output resistance (Ro) of a given Transistor is 0.024
3. The Current amplification factor is 1

Precautions:
6. Connection should be neat and tight.
7. While making connections of circuit switch off DC power supply.
8. Electrical wire insulation should not be damaged.
9. Jumper wires should not touch each other.
10. Connect the terminals of power supply, then adjust the voltage to desired value
and switch on the output of DC power supply.
 Experiment No. 11
Objective:
To find the frequency response of a Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
and to find the Bandwidth from the Response, Voltage gain, Input Resistance, output
resistance.
Apparatus
 Resistor
 AC power supply
 Transistor BC 107/547
 DC voltmeter
 DC ammeter
 DMM

Theory
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward biased.
The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is
applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal. A
very small change in base current produces a much larger change in collector current. When +ve
half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the
collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more –ve. Thus when input cycle varies
through a -ve half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current
to increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input
signal.
NPN
Circuit
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig.1.,Apply Vcc of 12 Volts DC.
2. Apply I/P Voltage of 20mV at 1KHz from the Signal Generator and observe the O/P
on CRO.
3. Vary the frequency from 100 Hz to 1MHz in appropriate steps and note down the
corresponding O/P Voltage Vo in a tabular form .
4. Calculate the Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vs and note down in the tabular form.
5. Plot the frequency (f) Vs Gain (Av).
6. Draw a horizontal line at 0.707 times Av and note down the cut off points and the
Bandwidth is given by B.W = f2 – f1.

INPUT RESISTANCE RI:

1. Apply I/P Voltage of 20mV at 1KHz from the Signal Generator and observe voltage Vi across R2
on CRO.
2. Without Disturbing the setup note Vi.
3. find Ii = (Vs – Vi) / Rs and Ri= Vi / Ii Ohms.

OUTPUT RESISTANCE (RO):

1. Apply I/P Voltage of 50mV at 1KHz from the Signal Generator and observe the o/p on CRO
2. Connect a Potentio meter across the O/P terminals and without disturbing Vs adjust the
potentiometer such that o/p falls to V0/2
3. The Resistance of the potentiometer is equal to Ro.

Circuit diagram

Observation and calculations:

 Input Voltage, Vs = 20mV
Output Voltage Gain, Av in dB = 20 log
Sr. No. Frequency (Hz)
Voltage, Vo (V) Av = Vo/Vi (Av)
1 100 0.323 18.146 25.18
2 200 0.544 30.90 29.80
3 300 0.673 38.46 31.70
4 500 0.787 45.23 33.11
5 700 0.830 47.98 33.62
6 1k 0.856 49.62 33.91
7 3k 0.880 51.14 34.18
8 5K 0.882 51.26 34.20
9 7K 0.883 51.322 34.21
10 10K 0.883 51.357 34.21
11 30K 0.883 51.372 34.21
12 50K 0.883 51.36 34.21
13 100K 0.880 51.297 34.20
14 500K 0.825 50.3 34.08
15 1M 0.731 48.7 33.7

Graph
 Experiment No. 12

Objective:

1. To observe the action of a Transistor as an electronic switch.

2. To measure the voltage across the transistor when it is ON and when it is
OFF.
Apparatus
 Regulated D.C Power supply 0–30 Volts 1
 Transistor BC – 107 / BC-547 1
 Resistors 4.7K Ω, 2.2K Ω Each 1
 LED 1
 Bread Board and connecting wires - 1 Set

Theory

Bipolar junction transistors (Also known as BJTs) can be used as an amplifier, filter, rectifier,
oscillator, or even a switch, which we cover in our previous lab Experiment. The transistor will
operate as an amplifier or other linear circuit if the transistor is biased into the linear region. The
transistor can be used as a switch if biased in the saturation and cut-off regions. This allows
current to flow (or not) in other parts of a circuit.
The choice between NPN and PNP is really arbitrary. All that matters is that the proper current
directions are maintained for the sake of correct junction biasing (electron flow going against the
transistor symbol’s arrow).
In the above figures, the base of either BJT is not connected to a suitable voltage, and no current
is flowing through the base. Consequently, the transistor cannot turn on. Perhaps, the simplest
thing to do would be to connect a switch between the base and collector wires of the transistor as
in figure (a) below.

Transistor: (a) cutoff, lamp off; (b) saturated, lamp on.

Why Use a Transistor to Control Current?

Two points can be made here. First is the fact that when used in this manner, the switch contacts
need only handle what little base current is necessary to turn the transistor on; the transistor itself
handles most of the lamp’s current. This may be an important advantage if the switch has a low
current rating: a small switch may be used to control a relatively high-current load.
More importantly, the current-controlling behavior of the transistor enables us to use something
completely different to turn the lamp on or off. Consider the figure below, where a pair of solar
cells provides 1 V to overcome the 0.7 V base-emitter voltage of the transistor to cause base
current flow, which in turn controls the lamp.

Solar cell serves as light sensor.

Or, we could use a thermocouple (many connected in series) to provide the necessary base
current to turn the transistor on in the figure below.

A single thermocouple provides less than 40 mV. Many in series could produce in excess of
the 0.7 V transistor VBE to cause base current flow and consequent collector current to the
lamp.

Even a microphone (see the figure below) with enough voltage and current (from an amplifier)
output could turn the transistor on, provided its output is rectified from AC to DC so that the
emitter-base PN junction within the transistor will always be forward-biased:
Amplified microphone signal is rectified to DC to bias the base of the transistor providing a larger
collector current.

The point should be quite apparent by now. Any sufficient source of DC current may be used to turn
the transistor on, and that source of current need only be a fraction of the current needed to
energize the lamp.
Here we see the transistor functioning not only as a switch, but as a true amplifier: using a relatively
low-power signal to control a relatively large amount of power. Please note that the actual power for
lighting up the lamp comes from the battery to the right of the schematic. It is not as though the small
signal current from the solar cell, thermocouple, or microphone is being magically transformed into a
greater amount of power. Rather, those small power sources are simply controlling the battery’s power to
light up the lamp.
The BJT as Switch REVIEW:
 Transistors may be used as switching elements to control DC power to a load. The
switched (controlled) current goes between emitter and collector; the controlling current
goes between emitter and base.
 When a transistor has zero current through it, it is said to be in a state of cutoff (fully no
conducting).
 When a transistor has maximum current through it, it is said to be in a state
of saturation (fully conducting).

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect ‘0’ volts to the input terminals.
3. Measure the voltage across collector to emitter(VCE), collector to base(VCB) and base to
emitter(VBE).
4. Connect ‘5’ volts to the input terminals. Measure the voltage across collector to emitter(VCE),
collector to base(VCB) and base to emitter(VBE).
5. Observe that the LED glows when the input terminals are supplied with ‘0’ volts. And the
LED will not glow when the input is ‘5’ volts.
Observations:
Input
VCE (V) VCB (V) VBE (V) Mode ON/OFF Mode of LED
Voltage
0V 3.202v 5.05v 23.738uv on Blue/on
5V 2.086mv -712.459mv 714.545mv off off