UNIT I Electro-Physiology and Biopotenti

UNIT I - ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING
EC8073 – MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
UNIT I
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND
BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING
Sources of Bio-medical signals, BioPotentials, Biopotential
electrodes, biological amplifiers, ECG, EEG, EMG, PCG, typical
waveforms and signal characteristics
Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 1

1.1 SOURCES OF BIOMEDICAL SIGNAL :
Biomedical signals are those signals (phenomenon that conveys information)

which are used primarily for extracting information on a biological system under
investigation. The process of extracting information could be as simple as feeling the
pulse of a person on the wrist or as complex as analyzing the structure of internal soft
tissues by an ultrasound scanner.
Biomedical signals originate from a variety of sources such as:
1. Bioelectric Signals: These are unique to the biomedical systems. They are
generated by nerve cells and muscle cells. Their basic source is the cell membrane
potential which under certain conditions may be excited to generate an action
potential. The electric field generated by the action of many
cells constitutes the bio-electric signal. The most common examples of bioelectric
signals are the ECG (electrocardiographic) and EEG (electroencephalographic) signals.
2. Bioacoustic Signals: The measurement of acoustic signals created by many

biomedical phenomena provides information about the underlying phenomena. The
examples of such signals are: flow of blood in the heart, through the heart’s valves
and flow of air through the upper and lower airways and in the lungs which generate
typical acoustic signal.
3. Biomechanical Signals: These signals originate from some mechanical function of

the biological system. They include all types of motion and displacement signals,
pressure and flow signals etc. The movement of the chest wall in accordance with the
respiratory activity is an example of this type of signal.
4. Biochemical Signals: The signals which are obtained as a result of chemical

measurements from the living tissue or from samples analyzed in the laboratory. The
examples are measurement of partial pressure of carbon-dioxide (pCO2), partial
pressure of oxygen (pO) and concentration of various ions in the blood.
5. Biomagnetic Signals: Extremely weak magnetic fields are produced by various

organs such as the brain, heart and lungs. The measurement of these signals provides
information which is not available in other types of bio-signals such bio-electric
signals. A typical example is that of magneto-encephalograph signal from the brain.
6. Bio-optical Signals: These signals are generated as result of optical functions of

the biological systems, occurring either naturally or induced by the measurement
process. For example, blood oxygenation may be estimated by measuring the
transmitted/back scattered light from a tissue at different wavelengths.
7. Bio-impedance Signals: The impedance of the tissue is a source of important

information concerning its composition, blood distribution and blood volume etc. The
measurement of galvanic skin resistance is a typical example of this type of signal.
The bio-impedance signal is also obtained by injecting sinusoidal current in the tissue
and measuring the voltage drop generated by the tissue impedance. The measurement

of respiration rate based on bio-impedance technique is an example of this type of
signals.
1.2 BIOPOTENTIAL (OR) BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL:

The various system of our body generates its own monitoring signals while
carrying out various functioning. Such generated signals convey useful
information about the function of each system. These signals are bioelectric
potentials associated with nerve conduction, brain activity, heartbeat, muscle
activity etc.
Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced as a result of
electrochemical activity of certain special types of cells such as nerve cell or
muscle cell.
Our body is made up of trillions of cells. These cells are in different
shapes and sizes. These tiny structures are the basic unit of living
organisms. These cells are bounded by a cell membrane (Or plasma
membrane). About 80% of a cell is made up of water. The fluid inside the cell
is known as Internal Cell Fluid or intracellular fluid (ICF). The fluid outside
the cell is known as External Cell Fluid or extracellular fluid (ECF). The
composition of ECF and ICF are different. ICF is rich in Potassium (K  ) ,

Magnesium (Mg   ) , Proteins, Phosphate (HPO 4 ) and ECF is rich in Sodium
(Na  ) ,Chloride (Cl  ) , Calcium (Ca   ) .
The cell membrane is made up of 2 layers of phospholipids. The

thickness of cell membrane is about 0.1nm. Cell membrane separates ECF
and ICF. It acts as a selectively permeable membrane and thus the difference
of composition between ECF and ICF is maintained.
Lipid soluble substance can pass through the cell membrane by
diffusion. various substance which are not lipid soluble (Sodium, Potassium,
Chloride, etc.) can pass through the membrane only through selective
channels and only at special times.
There are two types of channels. They are,
1. Leak channel : Few sodium, potassium and calcium ions can
pass through this channel
2.Gated channel:
a) Ligand gated channel: Opens in response to ligand (some
chemical signal)
i) ECF Ligand gated channel,
ii) ICF Ligand gated channel
b) Voltage gated channel: Opens in response to voltage
i) Sodium channel
ii) Potassium channel
iii) Calcium channel
During rest, the cell membrane is practically impermeable to sodium
(Na ) and Calcium (Ca   ) . When a cell is stimulated, the permeability is

altered. The sodium ions enter massively from the ECF to inside of the cell
and as a result the action potential develops.
The quantity of different ions in ECF and ICF is given below:
Ion ECF (meq/Lt) ICF (meq/Lt)

Sodium (Na  ) 145 10
Potassium (K+) 5 140

Chloride (Cl ) 140 9
Calcium (Ca   ) 1.2 0.00005
Resting Potential:
The cells of the body are surrounded by conductive fluid. These conductive fluid
contains ions. Principal ions present are Sodium (Na  ) ,Chloride (Cl  ) and Potassium
(K  ) . The cell membrane of the cells readily permits (K  ) and (Cl  ) to move from ECF
to ICF , but effectively blocks (Na+) Ions moving into ICF. According to concentration
and electric charge, various ions seek a balance between inside and outside of a cell.
Due to inability of Na+, to penetrate the cell membrane results in two conditions:
i) The concentration of Na+ ions inside the cell become much lower than
in the Extracellular fluid outside. (Sodium ions are +ve. It tends to
make outside of cell more +ve than inside).
Or
ii) In an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional K  ions, which are
also +ve, enter the cell causing a higher concentration of potassium on

the inside than on the outside. This charge balance cannot be achieved,
due to imbalance concentration of K  ions.
Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the
membrane, -ve on inside and +ve on the outside. This membrane potential is
called as resting potential of cell. This potential is maintained until some
disturbance upsets the equilibrium. Since measurement of the potential is
made from inside the cell w.r.to the body fluids, the resting potential of a cell
is given as -ve rating from -60mV to -100mV. A cell in the resting state is
said to be polarized. The figure below shows the cross section of cell with
resting potential.
Polarized cell with resting potential
Magnitude of the resting Potential:

Assuming that the potential difference is mainly due to the concentration of (K  ) in
ICF and ECF, the magnitude of the potential difference can be predicted from Nernst
equation and Goldman's Equation.
i) Nernst Equation:
RT K  
PD   log e  o 
nF  K i 
RT K  
PD   2.303 log  o 
nF  K i 
Where, R - Gas constant (8.314 J/mol.K)
T - Absolute Temperature (300K)
n - Valence of the ion concerned (n=1 for Sodium, Chloride, Potassium;
n=2 for Calcium)
F - Faraday (96,500 Columbs/mol)
 
K o , K i - Concentration of K+ outside and inside the cell
8.314  300  5  10 3 
PD   2.303 log  3 
(Or)
1 96500 140 10 
 5  10 3 
PD  60 log  3 
140 10 
PD = -86mV

ii) Goldman's Equation (Or) Goldman Hodgkin Katz Equation:
Goldman introduced a constant field equation to include the effects of Na  , Cl 
in addition to K  . By Goldman's equation, the resting potential of a cell can be written
as,
RT  PK [K  ]O  PNa [Na  ]O  PCl [Cl  ]i 
PD   log e     
F  PK [K ]i  PNa [Na ]i  PCl [Cl ]O 
Where, PK - Permeability of Pottasium
PNa - Permeability of Sodium
PCl - Permeability of Chloride
Action potential:
When a section of the cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by
some form of externally applied energy, the membrane changes its characteristics and
begins to allow some of sodium ions to enter. This movement of sodium ions into the
cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further reduces the barrier of the membrane
to sodium ions. The net result is an avalanche effect in which sodium ions literally

rush into the cell to try to reach a balance with the ions outside. At the same time, K
ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during resting state, try to
leave cell but are unable to move as fast as Na+ ions. As a result, the cell has a

slightly positive potential on the inside due to imbalance of K ions, This potential is
known as the action potential. The action potential is nearly +20 mV.
(a) Depolarization of a cell b) Depolarized cell during an action potential
The cell that has been excited and that displays an action potential is said to be
"depolarized" and the process of changing from the resting potential to action
potential is called as depolarization.
Once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped (a new
state of equilibrium is reached), the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium
ions are no longer present and the membrane reverts back to its original, selectively
permeable condition. Now passage of sodium ions from the outside to inside of the cell
is again blocked. However, it would take a long time for a resting potential to develop
again. But such is not the case. By an active process, called a sodium pump, the
sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell, and the cell again
becomes polarized and assumes its resting potential. This process is called
Repolarization. The rate of pumping is directly proportional to the sodium
concentration in the cell.

Sodium Pumping Action: The process of moving sodium and pottasium ions across
the cell membrane in an active transport process involving the hydrolysis of ATP to
provide the necessary energy. It involves an enzyme referred to as Na  / K  - ATPase.
This process is responsible for maintaining the large excess of Na  outside the cell and
large excess of K  ions inside the cell. It transports 3 Na  ions to the outside of the
cell and transports 2 K  ions to the inside of the cell. This unbalanced charge transfer
contributes to the separation of charge across the membrane.
The Figure below shows a typical action-potential waveform, beginning at the
resting potential, depolarization, and returning to the resting potential after
repolarization. The time scale for the action potential depends on the type of cell
producing the potential. In nerve and muscle cells, repolarization occurs so rapidly
following depolarization that the action potential appears as a spike of as little as
1msec total duration.
Waveform of the Action potential
Heart muscle, on the other hand, repolarizes much more slowly, with the action
potential for heart muscle usually lasting from 150 to 300msec.
All-or-nothing law: Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the

intensity of the stimulus (provided it is sufficient to activate the cell), the action poten-
tial is always the same for any given cell. This is known as the all-or-nothing law.
Net Height: The net height of the action potential is defined as the difference between
the potential of the depolarized membrane at the peak of the action potential and the
resting potential.
Refractory Period: Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief

period of time during which the cell cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period
is called the absolute refractory period, lasts about 1msec in nerve cells. Following
the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory period, during
which another action potential can be triggered, but a much stronger stimulation is
required. In nerve cells, the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.

Magnitude of the Action Potential:
The potential difference is mainly due to the concentration of Na  in ICF and
ECF, the magnitude of the potential difference can be predicted by Nernst equation
RT  Na o  
PD   log e
  
nF  Na i 
RT  Na o  
PD   2.303 log   
nF  Na i 
145  10 3 
PD  60 log  3 
 10 10 
PD = 69.14 mV
1.3. PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

When a cell is excited, it generates an action potential, ionic currents begin to
flow. This process can, in turn, excite neighboring cells or adjacent areas of the same
cell. In the case of a nerve cell with a long fiber, the action potential is generated over
a very small segment of the fiber's length but is propagated in both directions from
the original point of excitation.
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is propagated from cell to
cell is called the propagation rate. In nerve fibers the propagation rate is also called
the nerve conduction rate, or conduction velocity. This velocity varies widely,
depending on the type and diameter of the nerve fiber. The usual velocity range in
nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second (m/sec). Propagation through heart
muscle is slower, with an average rate from 0.2 to 0.4m/sec.

1.4 BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES

In order to measure bioelectric potentials a transducer capable of converting
ionic potentials and currents into electric potentials and currents are required. Such a
transducer consists of 2 electrodes, which measure the ionic potential difference
between their respective points of application.
The Biopotential electrode is a simple type of transducer to change an ionic
current into an electronic current.
To understand how such electrodes work, first we must discuss some of the
basic properties of an electrode-electrolyte interface.
1.4.1 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface:

The Electrode-Electrolyte interface is as shown in the figure below. The line
drawn in the figure shows the interfacing line between the electrode and electrolyte.
The left side of the interfacing line is the electrode side and the right side of the
interfacing line is the electrolyte side.
Electrode consists of metallic atom C and electrolyte consists of cations C+ and
Anions A-. The total current is the combination of these 2 ions. When the net current I
flows from the electrode side to electrolyte side, the electrons and Anions are moving
in the opposite direction as that of current and the cations C+ are moving in the same
direction as that of the current.
When electrode is placed in electrolyte, 2 reactions takes place. one is oxidation

reaction and the other is reduction reaction.

The oxidation reaction causes the loss of electrons and the reduction reaction
causes the gain of electrons. So, in oxidation the electrons are released and in
reduction reaction, the electrons are combined with the atom. where, ‘n’ is the valance
of C and ‘m’ is the valance of A.
Oxidation is dominant when the current flows from electrode to electrolyte and
reduction is dominant when the current flows from electrolyte to electrode. since only
one electrode is considered, the potential developed across the interface can be
considered as halfcell potential.
Half cell potential:

The voltage developed across the electrode-electrolyte interface is known as
Half-cell potential.
1.4.2 Electrode - Electrolyte interface circuit model:
where, Ehc - Half cell Potential

Rd, Cd - Distributed Impedance of Electrode - Electrolyte interface
Rs - Electrolyte resistance
Since measurement of bioelectric potential requires 2 electrodes, the voltage measured

is the difference between the potential of 2 electrodes as shown in the figure below.
Measurement of biopotentials with two electrodes-equivalent circuit

If two electrodes are of same type, then the potential difference depends on the ionic
potential between two points of the body from which measurements are taken.
If two electrodes are of different type then the electrodes may produce a DC
voltage that cause current to flow through both the electrodes as well as through the
input circuit of the amplifier to which they are connected.
The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potential is called the
electrode offset voltage. The most commonly used electrode is Ag/Agcl.
1.4.3 Electrode - Skin interface circuit model:

Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- is used to maintain good contact
between the electrode and the skin. The electrode-skin interface is as shown in figure
below. From the figure, we come to know that we have two interfaces. One interface
between electrode and gel (Electrode - Electrolyte interface). Second interface is
between gel and skin (electrolyte-skin interface).
Ehe - Half cell potential due to Electrode - Electrolyte interface
Cd, Rd - Distributed impedance of Electrode - Electrolyte interface
Rs - Resistance of gel
Ese - Half cell potential due to electrolyte-skin interface
Ce, Re - Distributed impedance of electrolyte-skin interface
Ru - Resistance of skin
1.5 POLARIZABLE AND NON-POLARIZABLE ELECTRODES:

There are two basic types of Biopotential electrodes
 Perfectly polarizable electrodes
 Perfectly Non-polarizable electrodes
Perfectly polarizable electrodes:

 A perfectly polarized electrode is one in which there is no net transfer of charge
across the metal/ electrolyte interface when a current is applied.

 The current across the interface is a displacement current.
 The electrode behaves like a capacitor.
 Over potential is due to concentration
 Example: Platinum electrode (Used for Stimulating)
Perfectly Non-polarizable electrodes:

 Electrodes in which current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte
interface requiring no energy to make the transition.
 The electrode behaves like a Resistor.
 These electrodes see no over potential.
 Example: Silver electrode (Used for Recording)
1.5 TYPES OF BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES

Many different forms of electrodes have been developed for different types of
biomedical measurements. But some of the most commonly used electrodes can be
classified as,
1. Microelectrode:
These electrodes are used to measure bioelectric potentials within a single cell.
These electrodes are also called as Intracellular electrodes.
2. Skin surface Electrode:
These electrodes are used to measure bioelectric potentials from the surface of
the skin. It is used to sense the signal from heart, brain and muscles.
3. Needle Electrode:
These electrodes are used to measure bioelectric potential from a specific group
of muscles (EMG) or from a local region of a Brain (EEG).
1. MICROELECTRODE:
 Electrodes with tip sufficiently small to penetrate a single cell in order to obtain
potential from within the cell are called as microelectrode. The size of the
microelectrode must be small with respect to the cell dimensions to avoid cellular
injury and cell damage thereby changing the cell’s behaviour.
 In addition to small in size, the electrode used for measuring intracellular potential
must also be strong enough so that it can penetrate the cell membrane and remain
mechanically stable.
 Microelectrodes have tip diameters ranging from approximately 0.05 to 10µm.
 Microelectrodes are of two types-
1. Metal Microelectrode and
2. Micropipet Microelectrode
1. Metal Microelectrode:
 Metal microelectrodes are formed by electrolytically etching the tip of fine tungsten
or stainless steel wire to the desired size. Then the wire is coated with an insulating
material almost to the tip.

 Some electrolytic processing like chloriding the tip is also carried out to reduce the
tip impedance.
 The electrode-electrolyte interface takes place where the metal tip contacts the
electrolyte either inside or outside the cell.
 The etched metal needle is then supported in a larger metallic shaft that can be
insulated. This shaft serves as a mechanical support for the microelectrode and
lead wire is connected to it.
 The microelectrode and the supporting shaft are insulated by a thin film of
polymeric material or varnish. Only the extreme tip of the electrode remains
uninsulated.
Supported metal microelectrodes:

Some examples of supported metal microelectrode is as shown in the figure
below. A glass tube is drawn to a micropipette structure with its lumen filled with an
appropriate metal. This type of microelectrode is prepared by first filling a glass tube
with a metal that has a melting point near the softening point of the glass. The tube
can then be heated to the softening point and pulled to form a narrow constriction.
Metal inside Glass Glass inside Metal
When it is broken at the constriction, two micropipets filled with metal are
formed. In this type of structure, the glass not only provides the mechanical support
but also serves as the insulation. Only the active tip is exposed. Metals such as silver-
solder alloy and platinum - silver alloys are used.
In new supported metal electrode, a solid rod or glass tube is drawn to form
micropipet. A metal film is deposited uniformly on this surface to a thickness of the
order of tenths of a µm. A polymeric insulation is coated over this. Only the tip with
the metal film will be exposed.
The position of the metal microelectrode and its equivalent circuit diagram is as
shown below.

UNIT
T I - ELEC
CTRO-PHY
YSIOLOGY
Y AND BIO-POTEN
NTIAL REC
CORDING
G
Position
n of Electtrode
Ele
ectrical Equivalent
E t circuit of
o the abo
ove figure
Approxim
A ate Equiv
valent of the
t above
e figure
RA, RB - Resista
ance of con
nnecting w wire,
RS - Res
sistance off the shaft of the miccroelectrod de.
R1, C1 - Impedaance of miccroelectrodde tip - IC
CF interface
RICF - Resista
ance of intrracellular fluid interrface.
CD - Distributed capacitanc
c e betweenn the metall and ECF F
E1 - Half cell potential due to microelectrode - ICF interface
Emp - Membrane potential
R2, C2 - Impedance of microelectrode tip - ECF interface
RECF - Resistance of extracellular fluid interface.
E2 - Half cell potential due to microelectrode - ECF interface
Ri - Resistance of intracellular fluid.
Emp - variable cell membrane potential
The actual equivalent circuit and the simplified equivalent circuit is shown in
above figure.
In the simplified equivalent circuit, the impedance of the reference electrode,
series resistance contribution from the intracellular and Extracellular fluid,
distributed capacitances are neglected.
Since the area of the reference electrode is many times greater than the metal
electrode’s tip, its impedance is negligible.
When the electrode output is coupled with an amplifier, the low frequency
components of the bioelectric potential will be attenuated if the input impedance of
the amplifier is not high. Thus when the input impedance of the amplifier is not high
it behaves as a high pass filter.
Micropipet Microelectrode:
Glass micropipet microelectrodes are fabricated from glass capillaries. The
center region of the capillary is heated with a burner to the softening point, and then
the capillary is rapidly stretched to produce the constriction.
Section of fine bore glass capillary Capillary narrowed through heating and
stretching
Final structure of Glass pipete microelectrode
The two halves of the stretched capillary structure are broken at the
constriction to produce a pipette structure that has a tip diameter of the order of 1µm.
now the pipette is fabricated into the electrode form as shown in the above figure.
The electrode is filled with an electrolyte solution (3M KCl). A cap containing a
metal electrode is then sealed to the pipette. The metal electrode contacts the
electrolyte within the pipette.

A thin, flexible metal wire from chlorided silver, stainless steel or tungsten is
inserted into the stem of the micropipet. The friction between the wire and the stem of
the micropipet hold the wire. One end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid support
and the other free end of it is resting on the cell as shown in the figure below.
Position of Electrode Electrical Equivalent circuit of the

above figure
RA, RB - Resistance of connecting wire,

RS - Resistance of the taper of the microelectrode.
R1, C1 - Impedance of inner electrode - KCl interface
CD - Distributed capacitance between the metal and ECF
E1 - Half cell potential due to inner electrode - KCl interface
Emp - Membrane potential
R2, C2 - Impedance of microelectrode tip - ICF interface
RIN - Resistance of intracellular fluid interface.
E2 - Half cell potential due to microelectrode - ICF interface
Emp - Cell membrane potential
R3, C3 - Impedance of microelectrode tip - ECF interface
RECF - Resistance of extracellular fluid interface.
E3 - Half cell potential due to microelectrode - ECF interface
E = EA+EB+ED
Approximate Equivalent of the above figure

2. SURFACE ELECTRODES:
 Surface Electrodes are used to measure Bioelectric potential available from the
surface of the skin. These electrodes are placed in contact with the skin of the
subject.
 Surface Electrodes vary in diameter from 0.3 to 5 cm.
 Surface Electrodes are used to record ECG, EEG & EMG signals.
 Large surface Electrodes are used for ECG measurement and smaller surface
electrodes are used for EEG and EMG measurements.
 The different types of electrodes for recording various potential on the body surface
are,
1. Metal plate Electrode.
2. Metal Disc Electrode.
3. Disposable foam-pad Electrode.
4. Metallic suction cup Electrode.
5. Floating Metal Body Surface Electrode.
6. Flexible Body Surface Electrode.
1) Metal plate Electrode:-

 One of the oldest forms of ECG Electrode in clinical use is metal plate Electrode.
 Metal plate Electrode consists of a flat metal plate that has been bend to form a
concave surface. A terminal is placed on its outside surface near one end to attach
the lead wire.
 The electrode is connected to the limbs of the patient.
 A post is placed near the center to connect a rubber strap to the electrode and hold
it in place on arm or leg.
 The electrode is made up of German silver (Nickel-Silver alloy).
 These electrodes are 1 to 2 sq. inches in size.
 A conductive gel or paste is applied on its concave surface before it is attached to
the body to reduce the impedance between the electrode and the skin.
 The metal plate surface electrodes are of 2 types
i) Rectangular (3.5cm x 5cm)
ii) Circular (4.75cm dia)
2) Metal Disc Electrode:-

 This electrode has a lead wire soldered or welded to the back surface.
 The connection between the lead wire and electrode is protected by a layer of
insulating material such as epoxy or polyvinyl chloride.
 This electrode is used for recording ECG for long term recordings.
 The electrode is made up of silver with an electrolytically deposited layer of AgCl
on its contacting surface.

 An electrolyte gel or paste is applied on its bottom surface before it is attached
to the patient’s chest wall to reduce the impedance between the electrode and
the skin.
 This electrode is fixed to patient’s body by a strip of surgical tape.
 This electrode is also used for recording EEG and EMG.
 The metal disk electrode used for monitoring EEG or EMG is smaller in
diameter than electrodes used in recording ECG.
 These electrodes are also manufactured using stainless steel, platinum or gold.
3) Disposable foam-pad Electrode:-
 It is a disposable electrode with adhesive already in place.

 These electrodes can be readily applied to the patient.
 Since these electrodes are disposable type, it is not reused so, the time spent for
cleaning the electrode is minimized.
 This disposable electrode is constructed by a plastic foam material with a silver-
plated disk on one side attached to a silver-plated snap in the center of the
electrode on the snap.
 The silver plated disk serves as the electrode and may be coated with an AgCl
layer.
 A layer of electrolyte get covers the disk.
 The electrode side of the foam is covered with an adhesive material.
 A protective cover or strip of release paper is placed over this side of the
electrode and foam.
 The complete electrode assembly is packaged in a foil envelope so that the water
component of the gel will not evaporate away.
 To apply the electrode to the patient, the technician has to clean the area of the
skin on which the electrode is to be placed.
Advantage:-
 No skilled technicians are required.
 No special technique need to be learned such as using correct amount of gel or
cutting strips of adhesive tape to hold the electrode in place.

4) Suction Electrode:
 A modification of the metal-plate electrode that requires no traps or adhesives
for holding it in place is the suction electrode.
 Suction electrodes are used for recording ECG.
 Suction electrode consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that makes
contact with the skin at it base.
 A terminal for the lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder and a rubber
suction bulb is fitted over its base.
 To apply the electrode to the patient, the technician has to clean the area of the
skin on which the electrode is to be placed.
 Then apply the electrolyte gel on the cleaned surface.
 Now, the bulb of the electrode is squeezed placed it on the surface of the skin
and bulb is released and applies suction against the skin, holding the electrode
assembly in place.
Disadvantage:-
1. This electrode can be used only for short periods of time.
2. The suction and the pressure of the contact surface against the skin can cause
irritation.
3. The electrode is larger in size but the contacting area is very small.
4. This electrode has high source impedance when compared to metal plate
electrodes.
5) Floating Electrodes:
A floating electrode is as shown in the figure below.
 The electrode looks like hat structure.

 The electrode is constructed in such a way that the metal disk does not come in
contact with the skin. The metal disk is recessed in a cavity. The metal disk is
surrounded by electrolyte gel in the cavity.

UNIT
T I - ELEC
CTRO-PHY
YSIOLOGY
Y AND BIO-POTEN
NTIAL REC
CORDING
G
 The cavity
c does not mov ve with res spect to metal
m disk so, it will not produ
uce any
artifa
acts.
 In prractice, th
he electrod
de is filled with elec
ctrolyte gell and thenn attachedd to the
skin surface by y means of a double e sided adh
hesive tape e ring.
 The metal
m disk
k is made up
u of silver coated with
w AgCl.
6)
6 Flexible e Electrod des:
As th
he name im mplies, fle
exible elecctrodes aree flexible a
and can be
b applied on any
irrregular su
urface of th he body.
The different
d ty
ypes of flexxible electrodes are –
i) Carbon-ffilled silico
one rubberr electrode e.
ii) Flexible thin film neonatal
n e
electrode.
i)) Carbon--filled silicone rubb ber electrode:-
A carrbon filled
d silicone rubber compound in i the form m of a thin strip or disk is
used
u as the
e active eleement of ana electrod de.
A pin
n connecto or is pusheed into the e lead connector holle and the electrode is used
inn the same e way as a similar ty ype of mettal- plate electrode.
e
Flexible electroodes are used for detecting the e ECG in premature
p e infants.
ii) Flexible
e thin-film
m neonata al electrod
de:-
This electrode consists of
o a 13μm thick Myla
ar film on which an Ag and AgCl film
have
h been deposited.
d .
3.
3 Needle Electrod
de
Basic needle e electrodde consis sts of a solid n needle us sually made of
stainless steel
s with
h a sharp point. Th he shankk of the needle is insulated
i with a
coating su uch as ann Insulating varniishes. Onnly the tip
p Is left exposed.
e A lead
wire
w is atttached to the otherr end of the
t needle
e and thee joint is encapsul
e ated in
a plastic hum to prote ect it T
This ele
ectrode iis freque ently us
sed in
electromyography as shown in fig (a). When placed in a particular muscle it
obtains an EMG from that muscle acutely and can then be removed.
Shielded percutaneous electrode can be fabricated in the form shown in

Fig. (b) which consists of a small gage hypodermic needle that has been
modified by running an insulated fine wire down the center of its lumen and
filling the remainder of the lumen with an insulating material such as an
epoxy resin. When the resin has set, the tip of the needle is filled to its original
bevel exposing on oblique cross section of the central wire which serves as the
active electrode. The needle itself is connected to ground through the shield of
a coaxial cable, thereby extending the coaxial structure to its very tip.
A multiple electrodes in a single needle can be formed as shown in the fig (c).
There are many different types of wire electrodes and schemes for introducing them
through the skin. The principle can be illustrated as shown in fig (d). A fine wire made
up of stainless steel ranging in diameter from 25-125um is insulated with an
insulating varnish to within a few millimeters of the tip. This non insulated tip is bent
back on itself to form a J-shaped structure. The tip is introduced into the lumen of the
needle as shown in fig (d).
The needle is inserted through the skin into the muscle at the desired location
to the desired depth. It is then slowly withdrawn leaving the electrode in place as
shown in fig (e). The bent over portion of the wire serves as a barb holding the wire in
place in the muscle and to remove the wire, the technician applies a mild uniform
force to straighten out the barb and pulls it out through the wire’s tract.

1.6 BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

Biosignals are recorded as voltages. The measured voltages are at very low
levels, typically ranging between 1 μV and 100 mV, with superimposed interference
signals and noise. The biosignals must be amplified to make them compatible with
devices such as displays, recorders, or A/D converters for computerized equipment.
Amplifiers adequate to measure these signals have to satisfy very specific
requirements. They have to provide amplification selective to the physiological signal,
reject superimposed noise and interference signals. The Amplifiers that are designed
specifically for processing biopotentials are known as biopotential amplifiers.
" Bioamplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to amplify the biological
signal such as ECG, EEG, EMG etc., without changing its characteristics to drive the
output circuit".
BASIC BIOAMPLIFIER REQUIREMENTS:

The basic requirements that a biopotential amplifier has to satisfy are:
1. Gain. The signals resulting from electrophysiological activity usually have
amplitudes in the order of a few microvolts to a few millivolts. The voltage of such
signals must be amplified to levels suitable for driving display and recording
equipment. Thus, most biopotential amplifiers must have gains of 1000 or greater.
Most often the gain of an amplifier is measured in decibels (dB).
2. Frequency response. The frequency bandwidth of a biopotential amplifier should

be such as to amplify, without attenuation, all frequencies present in the
electrophysiological signal of interest. The bandwidth of any amplifier is the difference
between the upper cutoff frequency f2 and the lower cutoff frequency f1. The gain at
these cutoff frequencies is 0.707 of the gain in the mid frequency.
3. Common-mode rejection. The human body is a good conductor and thus will act
as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic radiation present in the environment. one
common type of electromagnetic radiation is the 50Hz wave and its harmonics coming
from the power line and radiated by power cords. In addition, other spectral
components are added by fluorescent lighting, electrical machinery, computers, and
so on. The resulting interference on a single-ended bioelectrode is so large that it often
blocks the underlying electrophysiological signals.
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a biopotential amplifier is
measurement of its capability to reject common-mode signals (e.g., power line
interference), and it is defined as the ratio between the amplitude of the common-
mode signal to the amplitude of an equivalent differential signal (the biopotential
signal under investigation) that would produce the same output from the amplifier.
Common-mode rejection is often expressed in decibels.
4. Noise and drift. Noise and drift are additional unwanted signals that contaminate
a biopotential signal under measurement. Both noise and drift are generated within
the amplifier circuitry. The former generally refers to undesirable signals with spectral
components above 0.1 Hz, while the latter generally refers to slow changes in the
baseline at frequencies below 0.1 Hz.

5. Recovery. Certain conditions, such as high offset voltages at the electrodes caused
by movement, stimulation currents, defibrillation pulses, and so on, cause transient
interruptions of operation in a biopotential amplifier. This is due to saturation of the
amplifier caused by high-amplitude input transient signals. The amplifier remains in
saturation for a finite period of time and then drifts back to the original baseline. The
time required for the return of normal operational conditions of the biopotential
amplifier after the end of the
saturating stimulus is known as recovery time.
6. Input impedance. The input impedance of a biopotential amplifier must be

sufficiently high so as not to attenuate considerably the electrophysiological signal
under measurement.
7. Electrode polarization. Electrodes are usually made of metal and are in contact
with an electrolyte, which may be electrode paste or simply perspiration under the
electrode. Ion–electron exchange occurs between the electrode and the electrolyte,
which results in voltage known as the half-cell potential. The front end of a
biopotential amplifier must be able to deal with extremely weak signals in the
presence of such dc polarization components. These dc potentials must be considered
in the selection of a biopotential amplifier gain, since they can saturate the amplifier,
preventing the detection of low-level ac components.
Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers (Summary)
1. The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The range of
value lies between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications. Higher
impedance value reduces distortion of the signal.
2. When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body, the input circuit
should be protected. Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection
circuits, to prevent the patients from electrical shocks.
3. Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range,
the voltage gain value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.
4. Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.
5. A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
6. A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater than
80dB to reduce the interference from common mode signal.
8. The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.
Types of Bio Amplifiers

1. Differential Amplifier
2. Instrumentation Amplifier
3. Chopper Amplifier
4. Isolation Amplifier

1. Differential Amplifier:
Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to amplify the difference
between the voltages applied at its inputs.
An Op-Amp operating in differential mode can readily act as a differential amplifier
as it results in an output voltage given by
Vd  A d (V1  V2 )
Where V1 and V2 represent the voltages applied at its inverting and non-inverting
input terminals (can be taken in any order) and Ad refers to its differential gain. As per
this equation, the output of the OpAmp must be zero when the voltages applied at its
terminals are equal to each other. However practically it will not be so as the gain will
not be same for both of the inputs.
Thus, in real scenario, the mathematical expression for the output of the differential
amplifier can be given as,
(V  V2 )
VO  A d (V1  V2 )  A C 1
2
Where AC is called the common mode gain of the amplifier. Thus, functionally-good
difference amplifiers are expected to exhibit a high common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) and high impedance.
However, it is to be noted that an Op-Amp can be suitably configured to result in a

much practical differential amplifier, as shown in figure below. If closely observed,
one can note that this circuit is just a combination of inverting and non-inverting
amplifier. Hence its output voltage will be equal to the sum of the output voltages
produced by the Op-Amp circuit operating as an inverting amplifier and the Op-Amp
circuit operating as a non-inverting amplifier. Thus, one gets,
Rf Rf  R 
VO   V1  V2 1  f 
R1 R2  R3
 R1 
Now, if R1 = R2 and R3=Rf, then
Rf Rf  R1  R f 
VO   V1  V2  
R1 R1  R f  R1 

Rf R
VO   V1  V2 f
R1 R1
Rf
VO   (V1  V2 )
R1
This implies that the gain of the differential amplifier circuit is given by (‐Rf / R1)
2. Instrumentation Amplifier
In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input impedance are attained
with an instrumentation amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier setup forms the
instrumentation amplifier circuit. The output from the transducer is given as input to
the instrumentation amplifier. Before the signal goes to the next stage, a special
amplifier is required with high CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading
effects. Such a special amplifier is an instrumentation amplifier, which does all the
required process.
To each input of the differential amplifier, the non-inverting amplifier is connected.

From the figure, the amplifier on the left side acts as non-inverting amplifiers. They
are combined together to form the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier. The
third op-amp is the difference amplifier, and it is the output of the instrumentation
amplifier. The output from the difference amplifier Vout is the difference between two
input signals given at the input points. VO1 is the output from op-amp 1 and VO2 is the
output from op-amp 2.
R
Vout  3 (VO1  VO2 )
R2
3. Isolation Amplifier
Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation circuits. An isolation amplifier
increases the input impedance of a patient monitoring system. It also helps to isolate
the patient from the device. Using the isolation amplifier prevents accidental internal
cardiac shock. It provides up to 1kΩ insulation between the patient and the power line
in the hospital.

The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes. The signals received goes to
the amplifier block, where signals amplification occurs. After amplification, the signal
enters the modulation block. When either it goes to the isolation barrier, optical cable
or transformer can be used. If in case of optical cable, modulator output travels to
LED. The LED converts electrical signals into light energy. If the transformer acts an
isolation barrier, modulator output connects the primary winding of the transformer.
Energy from primary transfers to the secondary winding based on the mutual
induction principle. At the next stage, secondary output enters the demodulation
block. Finally, the amplified demodulated signal is obtained.
ECG Isolation Amplifier

During ECG measurement, signals generated from all leads are sent to the low
pass filter. This filter is named as Electro surgery filters because it decreases the
interference between electrosurgery and radio frequency. Next block is the high
voltage and overvoltage protection that can withstand large voltage during
defibrillation. Proceeding further, it goes to Lead Selector Switch block, which selects
the required configuration. Lead selection output goes to the DC amplifier. We have a
transformer, whose primary winding is connected to the oscillator and secondary to
rectifier and filter. ECG signal is modulated with the Synchronous modulator. The
second transformer delivers the output from the synchronous modulator to the
synchronous demodulator. The output from the demodulator is fed as input to the
power amplifier.


4. Chopper Amplifier:
When recording biopotentials noise and drift are the two problems encountered.
Noise is due to the recording device and by the patient when they move. Drift is a shift
in baseline created due to various thermal effects. A DC amplifier has a shift or
sudden peak in the output when the input is zero. Therefore, a chopper amplifier
solves the problems of drift in DC amplifiers. The name Chop means to sample the
data. The amplifier circuit samples the analog signal. So it is known as chopper
amplifier.
The general diagram of a chopper amplifier is as shown below. The first block
chopper accepts the DC input signal and converts them to an AC signal. The AC
amplifier block amplifies the chopped AC signal. Next, in the demodulator rectifier
block, an amplified chopped AC signal is converted to amplified DC signal.

Differential Chopper Amplifier
A type of chopper used for EEG measurement is a differential chopper. It has a
transformer. A chopper vibrator connects the input of the transformer. The center tap
of the transformer acts as one of the terminals for the input connector. The chopper
switch acts as another terminal. AC coupled amplifier provides the gain. The output
from this amplifier goes to filter and demodulator block. Finally, an amplified DC
output signal is obtained.
ECG
Electrocardiography:
This is the technique by which the electrical activities of the heart are studied.
Electrocardiograph:
This is the instrument by which the electrical activities of the heart are
recorded.
Electrocardiogram:
This is the record or graphical registration of electrical activities of the heart.
1.7.1 ELECTROCARDIOGRAM:
The basic waveform of the normal Electrocardiogram is shown in figure below.
The P, Q, R, S, T and U waves reflect the rhythmic electrical depolarisation and
repolarisation of the myocardium associated with the contractions of the atria and
ventricles. The electrocardiogram is used clinically in diagnosing various diseases and
conditions associated with the heart. Some normal values for amplitudes and
durations of important ECG parameters are as follows:
Amplitude: P wave - 0.25 mv
R wave - 1.60mv
Q wave - 25% of R-wave
T wave - 0.1 to 0.5mv
Durations: P-R interval - 0.12 to 0.2 sec
Q-T interval - 0.35 to 0.44 sec
S-T interval - 0.05 to 0.15 sec
P interval - 0.11 sec
QRS interval - 0.09 sec

The normal value of heart rate lies in the range of 60 to 100 beats per minute. A
slower rate than this is called as bradycardia (slow heart) and a higher rate is called
as tachycardia (fast heart).
The P-wave, PR interval and PR segment:

ECG interpretation traditionally starts with an assessment of the P-wave. The P-
wave reflects atrial depolarization. The PR interval is the distance between the onset of
the P-wave to the onset of the QRS complex. The PR interval is assessed in order to
determine whether impulse conduction from the atria to the ventricle is normal.
The flat line between the end of the P-wave and the onset of the QRS complex is
called as PR segment and it reflects the slow impulse conduction through the
atrioventricular node. The PR segment serves as the baseline (also referred as
reference line or isoelectric line) of the ECG curve.
The QRS complex:

The QRS complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles. QRS complex
is actually a reflection of left ventricular depolarisation because the electrical vector
generated by the left ventricle is many times larger than the vector generated by the
right ventricle. QRS duration is the time interval from the onset to the end of the QRS
complex.
A short QRS complex indicates that the ventricles are depolarised rapidly. A
wide QRS complex indicates that the ventricular depolarisation is slow due to
dysfunction in the conduction system.
ST Segment:
The ST segment corresponds to the second phase of the action potential. there
are two types of ST segment deviation. They are, 1. ST segment depression and 2. ST
segment elevation. ST segment depression implies that the ST segment is displaced,
such that it is below the level of the PR segment. ST segment elevation implies that
the ST segment is displaced, such that it is above the level of the PR segment.

T-wave:
The T-wave reflects the rapid repolarization of contractile cells.
The U-wave:
The U-wave is seen occasionally. It is a positive wave occuring after the T-wave.
Its amplitude is generally on-fourth of the T-wave's amplitude. The U-wave is most
frequently seen in leads V2-V4.
QT Duration:
QT Duration reflects the total duration of ventricular depolarization and
repolarisation. It is measured from the onset of the QRS complex to the end of the T-
wave. The QT duration is inversely proportional to heart rate, i.e., the QT interval
increases at slower heart heart and decreases at higher heart rates. Therefore to
determine whether the QT interval is within normal limits, it is necessary to adjust for
the heart rate. The heart rate adjusted QT inteval is referred to as the corrected QT
interval (QTc interval).
Table: waves of normal ECG
S.No Wave/ Segment Cause

1 P Wave Depolarisation of atria
R Wave
2 Repolarisation of atria and Depolarisation of ventricles
(QRS Complex)
3 T Wave Repolarisation of ventricles
Slow repolarisation of intra ventricular (Purkinje fibers)
4 U Wave
system
1.7.2 ECG LEAD CONFIGURATION (Or) 12 LEAD SYSTEM:

ECG signals can be measured between pairs of electrodes placed on the human
body. In electrocardiography, a pair of electrodes are called as ECG lead. Over the
years, a standard has been established in electrocardiography and this standard
specifies 12 separate leads and the corresponding positions of the electrodes on the
human body. Each ECG lead provides a different view of the same cardiac activity.
The 12 standard ECG leads are divided in to
i) Bipolar limb leads or Standard Leads or Einthoven lead system
1. Lead I
2. Lead II
3. Lead III
ii) Unipolar limb leads or Wilson Lead System
a) Augmented unipolar limb lead
1. aVR
2. aVL
3. aVF
b) Unipolar chest leads
The limb leads provide views of the cardiac activity in the frontal plane and the
chest leads provide views in the horizontal plane of the heart.

The description of the 12 ECG leads and the corresponding electrode positions
is explained here.
Bipolar limb leads or Standard Leads or Einthoven lead system:

In this lead system, the potentials are tapped from four locations of our body.
They are
i) Right arm ii) Left arm iii) Right Leg iv) Left Leg
The Right Leg (RL) electrode always acts as the reference electrode.
Lead I:
 It is a lead obtained between a negative electrode placed on the right arm and a
positive electrode placed on the left arm.
 It gives voltage VI, the voltage drop from the left arm(LA) to the right arm(RA).
Lead II:
 It is a lead obtained between a negative electrode placed on the right arm and a
positive electrode placed on the left foot.
 It gives voltage VII, the voltage drop from the left leg (LL) to the right arm (RA).
Lead III:
 It is a lead obtained between a negative electrode placed on the left arm and a
positive electrode placed on the left foot.
 It gives voltage VIII, the voltage drop from the left leg (LL) to the left arm (LA).
Einthoven Triangle:
The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called as Einthoven Triangle.
The Einthoven triangle is as shown in the figure above. The vector sum of the
projections on all the three sides is equal to zero. Applying KVL, the R wave amplitude
of lead II is equal to the sum of the R wave amplitudes of Lead I and Lead III. The R
wave nominal voltage from different lead is as given below.
Lead I - 0.53 mv (0.07 – 1.13)mv
Lead II - 0.71 mv (0.18 – 1.68)mv
Lead III - 0.38 mv (0.03 – 1.31)mv
By KVL VII = VI + VIII

Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads:

Augmented unipolar limb lead system was introduced by Wilson. The
electrocardiogram is recorded between a single electrode and the central terminal
which has a potential corresponding to the center of the body. Thus two equal and
large resistors are connected to a pair of limb electrodes and the center of this
resistive network. The remaining limb electrode acts as exploratory single electrode.

By means of augmented ECG lead connections, a small increase in the ECG voltage
can be realized. The augmented lead connections are,
 augmented voltage Right arm (aVR)
 augmented voltage Left arm (aVL)
 augmented voltage Foot arm (aVF)
aVR: is a lead obtained between the average signal obtained from three negative
electrodes (left arm, left leg and right foot) and the signal obtained from a positive
electrode placed on the right arm
aVL: is a lead obtained between the average signal obtained from three negative
electrodes (right arm, left foot and right foot) and the signal obtained from a positive
electrode placed on the left arm
aVF: is a lead obtained between the average signal obtained from three negative
electrodes (left arm, right arm and and right foot) and the signal obtained from a
positive electrode placed on the left foot
Unipolar Chest Lead:

In unipolar chest leads, the exploratory electrode is obtained from one of the
chest electrodes. The chest electrodes are placed at six different points on the chest
close to the heart.
By connecting 3 equal large resistors to RA, RL, LL, a central terminal is
obtained. This lead system is known as Wilson lead system.
V1: is a lead obtained between the reference negative electrode and a positive
electrode placed on the chest in the V1 position
electrode placed on the chest in the V6 position.
1.7.3 ECG Recorder

The building blocks of an ECG recorder are as shown in the figure below. The
patient cable connects the electrodes (RA, LA, RL, LL and Chest) from the patient to
the ECG recorder. The lead selector switch is used to select the lead to be recorded.
The lead selector incorporates the resistor network necessary for the unipolar leads.
A push button allows the insertion of a standardization voltage of 1mV to
standardize or calibrate the recorder. It is the standard procedure to calibrate the
machine before recording ECG. While selecting the lead, the lead selector switch may
introduce an artifact on the recorded trace. A special contact on the lead selector

switch turns off the amplifier momentarily whenever this switch is moved and turns it
on again after the artifact has passed.
The signal picked up by the electrodes are amplified by using preamplifier. The
preamplifier is a differential amplifier with CMRR. The gain of the amplifier is varied
by using gain selection knob. The various gain that can be selected are 0.5, 1, and 2.

The preamplifier is followed by a dc amplifier called the pen amplifier, which
provides the power to drive the pen motor that records the actual ECG trace. the
position of the pen on the paper is adjusted by using position knob. usually, the pen
is positioned on the center of the recording paper. All modern ECG recorders use
heat-sensitive paper, and the pen is actually an electrically heated stylus, the
temperature of which can be adjusted with a stylus heat control for optimal
recording trace.
Beside the recording stylus, there is a marker stylus that can be actuated by a
pushbutton and allows the operator to mark a coded indication of the lead being
recorded at the margin of the electrocardiogram.
Normally, electrocardiograms are recorded at a paper speed of 25 mm/sec, but a
faster speed of 50 mm/sec is provided to allow better resolution of the QRS complex
at very high heart rates or when a particular waveform detail is desired.
The power switch of an ECG recorder has three positions, namely ON, OFF and
RUN. In the ON position, the power to the amplifier is turned on, but the paper drive
is not running. In order to start the paper drive, the switch must be placed in the
RUN position.
In older ECG machines a pushbutton polarity test allows the operator to check
whether the recorder is connected to the power line with the right polarity. Because
the improper connection of older machines can create a shock hazard for the patient,
this test must be performed prior to connecting the electrodes to the patient.
1.8 EEG
Electroencephalography: This is the technique by which the electrical activities of
the Brain are studied.
Electroencephalograph: This is the instrument by which the electrical activities of
the Brain are recorded.
Electroencephalogram: This is the record or graphical registration of electrical
activities of the Brain.
1.8.1 Types of Brain waves and their functions: (Or EEG waves Or Berger
waves)
Our brain has approximately 80 to 100 billion neurons specialized cells that
communicate with each other by transmitting electrical impulses through neuronal
connections. The quicker the neurons fire at the same time higher will be the
frequency of waves. The more the neurons fire synchronously the higher will be the
amplitude of the wave. Depending upon the frequency and the type of activity
associated, the different types of brain waves are Alpha, Beta, Theta and Delta.
Alpha Waves:
 Alpha waves are having a frequency of 8 to 10 Hertz.
 Alpha waves are produced in the parietal and the occipital nodes of the brain.
 Alpha waves are always synchronized
 alpha waves are regular waves when the mind is alert.
 Alpha waves are produced when the mind is relaxed, the eyes are closed such as in
yoga or a meditation.
 Alpha waves are produced in very skilled artists like musicians, painters, highly
skilled and creative persons

Beta waves:
 Beta waves are having a frequency of 13 to 30 Hertz.
 Beta waves are produced from the frontal lobes of the brain
 Beta waves are the highest frequency wave among all other waves of the brain.
 Beta waves are irregular waves and they are associated with normal waking and
consciousness
 Beta wave are produced during state of complete alertness and totally focused on
the task
 Beta wave are produced during active conversation, presentation, playing games,
attending job interview, critical or logical thinking.
 The stimulation of beta waves increases concentration and problem-solving ability
which in turn helps to improve our peak performance
Theta waves:
 Theta waves are having a frequency of 4 to 8 Hertz.
 Theta waves are produced from the hippocampus of the brain
 Theta waves are produced when the mind is disappointed
 Theta waves are produced in a rapid REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep i.e., an
interrupted eye movement sleep.
 Theta waves are also produced in the state of hypnosis and lucid dreaming. deep
meditation. before falling sleep and just after waking up from sleep.
 recollecting about the long forgotten memories
 Theta waves helps us to connect to the subconscious state
 Theta waves are produced while performing a repetitive activity such as having a
shower, brushing teeth, watering plants or driving on the same route every day to
reach office.
Delta waves:
 Delta waves are having a frequency range of .5 to 4 Hz.
 Delta waves are produced during deep sleep
 Delta waves have a certain therapeutic effect

UNIT
T I - ELEC
CTRO-PHY
YSIOLOGY
Y AND BIO-POTEN
NTIAL REC
CORDING
G
1.8.2
1 Plac
cement of
o EEG Ellectrodes
s:
In EEG,
E electtrodes aree placed in stand dard posittions on the skulll in an
arrangemen
a nt 10-20 system.
s Th
he electroddes in this arrangem ment are pllaced as fo
ollows:
i. Draww a line on n the skuull from thhe nasion,, the root of the no ose, to thee inion,
ossifi
fication cennter (bumpp) on the ooccipital lo
obe.
ii. Draww a simillar line fromf the left prea auricular (ear) poiint to th he right
preauuricular point.
iii.
i Markk the intersection ofo these tw wo lines asa CZ whiich is the midpointt of the
dista
ance betw ween the nasion
n annd inion (or) the d distance between
b t
the two
preauuricular points.
iv.
i Markk points att 10%, 20 0%, 20%, 20%,
2 20% and 10% of the tottal nasion n - inion
dista
ance. Thes se points are FPZ, FZ, CZ, PZ and OZ· The ele ectrodes aare not
connnected at FPZ and OZ points.
v. Markk points ata 10%, 20%,
2 20% %, 20%, 20% and 10% of th he total distance
d
betw
ween two preauricul
p lar points. These points
p are T3, C3, CZ, C4 and d T4. In
thesee odd nummbered po oints T3 annd C3 are on the lefft side and d even nuumbered
pointts C4 and T4 are on the right s side.
vi.
v Meassure the distance be etween Fpz and Oz allong the ciircumferen nce circle passing
p
throu
ugh T4 an nd mark points
p at 10%, 20% %, 20%, 20 0%, 20% and 10% of this
dista
ance. These are the positions
p o
of FP2, F8, T4, T6 andd O2.
vii.
v Repeeat the abo ove step or
o procedu ure on the left side a
and mark the positiions as
FP1, F7, T3, T5 and
a O1.
viiii. Meas sure the distance
d between FP2
P and O2 along the e circle passing thro
ough C4
and mark poin nts at 25%
% intervals. These pooints give the positio
ons of F4, C4 and
P4.
ix.
i Repeeat the abo ove step or
o procedu ure on thee left side and mark k the posittions as
F3, C3 and P3.
x. Check that F7, F3, FZ, F4 and F8 are equidistant along the transverse circle
passing through F7, Fz and F8 and check that T5, P3, PZ, P4 and T6 are
equidistant along the transverse circle passing through T5, PZ and T6.
In the above figure the positions of the scalp electrodes are indicated. Further
there are nasopharyngeal electrodes Pg1 and Pg2 and ear electrodes Al and A2.
Before placing the electrodes, the scalp is cleaned, lightly abraded and electrode
paste is applied between the electrode and the skin. Generally disc like surface
electrodes are used. In some cases, needle electrodes are inserted in the scalp to pick
up EEG.
Both bipolar and unipolar (monopolar) electrode systems are used to facilitate
the location of foci, that is cortical areas from which abnormal waves spread. The
phase relationship of the waves indicates the position of the focus and in some cases,
it enables the velocity at which the waves spread to be calculated. In bipolar
technique the difference in potential between two adjacent electrodes is measured. In
the monopolar technique, the potential of each electrode is measured with respect to
a reference electrode attached to ear lobe or nostrils.
In the 'Wilson technique (or) average mode recording techniques the potential
is measured between one of the electrodes (exploring electrode) and the central
terminal which is formed by connecting all electrodes through high, equal resistors to
a common point. Multichannel electroencephalographs having as many as the
channels permits simultaneous recording from several pairs of electrodes, reducing
the total time required to complete the recordings. Eight channel recorders are very
popular.
1.8.3 EEG Recording Modes:

Three types of electrode connections are used. They are,
1. Bipolar (between pairs of electrodes, usually adjacent)
2. Monopolar (between one electrode and a distant reference electrode usually
attached to one or both earlobes)
3. Average (between one electrode and a reference formed by averaging all the other
electrodes by connecting them through resistors)
Electrodes are small, disposable, self-adhesive and contain their own electrode gel.

EEG recording modes a)Unipolar b)Average c) Bipolar
1.8.4 EEG Recorder (Or) Multichannel EEG Recording system:

The multichannel EEG recorder is as shown in the figure below. The patient
cable consists of 21 electrodes and is connected to the eight channel selector. The
electrodes are attached to the channel selector in groups of eight called a montage of
electrodes.
The electrode connected to the right ear acts as the reference electrode for the
electrodes connected to the right side of the brain and the electrode connected to the
left ear acts as the reference electrode for the electrodes connected to the left side of
the brain The 50 Hz interference is reduced by employing differential amplifiers as
preamplifiers with more than 80 dB CMRR and by use of 50 Hz notch filters. 50 Hz
a.c. interference is greatly reduced by covering the room with ferrous metal screen.
The gain of the amplifier is increased to 106 so as to drive the recorder or the
display. The output signal from the amplifier may either be applied directly to the
eight channel display through the filter bank or it may be stored as data on a tape
recorder or in a computer memory for further processing. The filter bank consists of
appropriate filters to select different types of brain waves. The filter bank consists of
lowpass filter, Highpass filter and Bandpass filter.
Other facilities are also available to record evoked potentials from sensory parts
of the brain such that there are external stimuli like visual stimulus, audio stimulus
and tactile (touch) stimulus. The time delay between the stimulus and response can
also be measured in the signal processing unit.
In the eight channel pen recorder, there are 8 pens such that one pen for each
channel. The normal paper chart speed is 30 mm/second. There are also 60
mm/second for higher frequency recording and 15 mm/second to conserve paper
during setup time.


1.9 EMG
Electromyography: This is the technique by which the electrical activities of the
muscles are studied.
Electromyograph: This is the instrument by which the electrical activities of the
muscles are recorded.
Electromyogram: This is the record or graphical registration of electrical activities of
the muscles.
The electrical activity of the underlying muscle can be measured by placing
surface electrodes on the skin. To record the action potentials individual motor units,
the needle electrode is inserted into the muscle. Thus EMG indicates the amount of
activity of a given muscle or a group of muscles and not an individual nerve fiber.
The action potentials occur both positive and negative polarities at a given pair
electrodes; so they may add or cancel each other. Thus EMG appears, very much like
random noise wave form. The contraction of a muscle produces action potentials.
When there is stimulation to a nerve fiber, all the muscle fibers contract
simultaneously developing action potentials. In a relaxed muscle, there is no action
potential
Recording setup:
The setup for recording the EMG is as shown in the figure below.The surface
electrodes or needle electrodes pickup the potentials produced by the contracting
muscle fibers. The surface electrodes are from Ag-AgCl and are in disc shape. The
surface of the skin is cleaned and electrode paste is applied. The electrodes are kept in
place by means of elastic bands. So, the contact impedance is reduced below 10 kilo
ohms.
There are two conventional electrodes: bipolar and unipolar type electrodes. In
the case of bipolar electrode, the potential difference between two surface electrodes
resting on the skin is measured. In the case of unipolar electrode, the reference
surface electrode is placed on the skin and the needle electrode which acts as active
electrode, is inserted into the muscle. Because of the small contact area, these
unipolar electrodes have high impedances from 0.5 to 100 Mega ohms.
With needle electrodes, it is possible to pickup action potentials from selected
nerves or muscles and individual motor units.
In the case of coaxial electrode which consists of an insulated wire threaded
through a hyperdermic needle with an oblique tip for easy penetration. The
surrounding steel jacket acts as reference and the metallic wire acts as exploring
electrode. The needle is inserted into the muscle. To record the action potentials from
a single nerve, microelectrodes are used.
The amplitude of the EMG signals depends upon the type and placement of
electrodes used and the degree of muscular exertions. That is, the surface electrode
picks up many overlapping spikes and produces an average voltage from various
muscles and motor units. The needle electrode picks up the voltage from a single
muscle fiber. Generally EMG signals range from 0.1 to 0.5 mV. They may contain
frequency components from 20 Hz to 10 kHz. which are in the audio range. But using
low pass filter, the electromyographer restricts this frequency range from 20 Hz to 200
Hz for clinical purposes. The normal frequency of EMG is about 60 Hz. Therefore the
slow speed strip chart recorders are not useful and the signals are displayed on a

cathode ray oscilloscope and photographic recordings are made. Normally there are
two cathode ray tubes, one for viewing and other one for recording. A light sensitive
paper moves over the recording cathode ray tube and the image is produced on that
paper. After developing it, one can see the visible image. For, continuous recording,
the paper speed is about 5 to 25 cm/second. For short duration it is about 50 to 400
cm/second. The paper width is about 10 cm.
The amplifier should have uniform frequency response in the frequency range
from 10Hz to 1 kHz with high CMRR (100 dB) and input impedance greater than 10
Mega ohm. The signal is also recorded in the tape recorder for future reference.
Further the myographer can listen the sounds from the loud speaker and from that he
can diagnose the neuromuscular disorders.
EMG Recording Setup

Determination of conduction velocities in motor nerves:
The measurement of conduction velocity in motor nerves is used to indicate the
location and the type of nerve lesion. Here the nerve function is examined directly at
various segments of the nerve by means of stimulating it with a brief electric shock
having a duration of 0.2 - 0.5 milliseconds and by measuring the latencies, we can
calculate the conduction velocity in that peripheral nerve. Latency is defined as the
elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscle's action potential.
The measurement procedure is as shown in the figure below. The EMG electrode
and the stimulating electrode are placed at two points on the skin separated by a
known distance l1. A electrical pulse is applied through the stimulating electrode.
When the excitation reaches the muscle, the muscle contracts with a short
twitch. Since all the nerve fibers are stimulated at the same time and the conduction
velocity is normally the same in all nerve fibers, there is synchronous activation of the
muscle fiber. This action potential of the muscle is picked up by the EMG electrode
and is displayed on the oscilloscope along with the stimulating impulse. The elapsed
time 't1' (latency) between the stimulating impulse and muscle's action potential is
measured. Now the two electrodes are repositioned with the distance separation as l2
metres. Among the distances 11 and 12, 12 < 11 .The latency is now measured as ‘t2’
seconds.
The conduction velocity, v = (l1 – l2) / (t1 – t2)
The conduction velocity in peripheral nerves is normally 50 m/s. When we have it
below 40m/s, there is some disorder in that nerve conduction.

Determination of conduction velocity in a motor nerve
1.10 PCG
Phonocardiography: Phonocardiography is the recording of all the sounds made by
the heart during a cardiac cycle.
Phonocardiocardiogram: A Phonocardiogram is a plot of high fidelity recording of the
sounds and murmurs made by the heart with the help of a machine called
phonocardiograph.
1.10.1 Heart Sounds:

First Heart Sound: (LUBB)
 It is due to the closure of mitral and tricuspid valves which permit the flow of blood
from atria into the ventricles.
 It occurs at the end of atrial contraction and at the beginning of ventricular
relaxation.
 It occurs approximately 0.05 sec after the onset of QRS complex.
 The sound is longer in duration (50-100)msec and lower in frequency (30-45)Hz.
 It is best heard in mitral and tricuspid areas.
Second Heart Sound: (DUBB)

 It is due to the closure of Aortic and Pulmonary valves in the arteries.
 It occurs approximately 0.03 - 0.05 sec after the end of T-wave.
 It has higher pitch than first sound and the frequency is 50-70 HZ.
 The duration of the sound is 25 to 50msec.
 It is best heard in aortic and pulmonary areas.

Third Heart Sound:
 It is heard in children and patient with left ventricular failure due to rapid inflow of
blood from the atria into the ventricles.
 This is due to cessation (Stopping) of ventricular filling.
 Frequency is below 30Hz.
 The duration is 0.1 to 0.2 sec
 It starts 0.12 - 0.18 after the onset of second sound.
 It is heard in the apex region.
Fourth Heart Sound:

 It is produced by the contraction of atria.
 It is not audible due to low amplitude and frequency of vibrations.
 It occurs before the first heart sound
 It starts 0.12 - 0.18 sec after the onset of P-wave.
 The duration is 0.03 to 0.06 sec.
 Frequency is (10-50) HZ
1.10.2 Phonocardiograph
Phonocardiography is an instrument used for recording waveforms of the heart
sounds. The figure shows the block diagram of a recording setup used for PCG. The
ECG is also measured for use as reference for PCG.
Microphone:
It has a microphone e.g. piezoelectric crystal microphone, condenser, moving
coil, carbon and dynamic microphones with frequency response from below 5Hz to
above 1000Hz, fastened to the chest wall by an adhesive strip, converts the heart
sounds into electrical signals. The microphones are located at different areas shown in
the figure below.

There are two main categories of microphones used in PCG. They are air
coupled microphone and contact microphone. In the former, the movement of chest is
transferred through an air cushion and presents low mechanical impedance to the
chest. But the second one is directly coupled to the chest wall and presents a higher
impedance, high sensitivity, low noise and light weight. Therefore the second one is
more suitable. Sometimes special microphones are placed at the tips of catheters to
pick up heart sounds from within the chambers of the heart or from the major blood
vessels near the heart.
Preamplifier: The electrical signals from the microphone are amplified by a

phonocardiographic preamplifier. The amplifier must have similar response
characteristics. The preamplifier has two stages with gain 20 and 50 so that total gain
is 1000. The gain is varied through potentiometer. The amplifier must have wide
bandwidth with frequency range of about 20 to 2000Hz.
Filter: The high pass filters are used to separate the louder low frequency components
from the medically interesting soft high frequency murmurs. For heart sounds, high
pass filters with gradual slope are required and for murmurs, high pass filters with
sharper slopes are required.
The readout is high frequency chart recorder, oscilloscope, photographic or

light-galvanometer recorders, optical or high velocity ink jet recorder. Some models
use envelope recording technique in which the frequency components below 80Hz are
recorded directly, but the frequency components above 80Hz are integrated (averaged)
before recording. This allows use of low frequency thermal or ink pen type strip chart
recorder.
Some times a digital computer with high speed analog to digital conversion
capability and Fourier-transform software, is used for spectral analysis of heart
sounds because presence of higher frequencies (murmurs) in the PCG indicates heart
disorder.

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UNIT I - ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING

EC8073 – MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 1

1.1 SOURCES OF BIOMEDICAL SIGNAL :

Biomedical signals are those signals (phenomenon that conveys information)

2. Bioacoustic Signals: The measurement of acoustic signals created by many

3. Biomechanical Signals: These signals originate from some mechanical function of

4. Biochemical Signals: The signals which are obtained as a result of chemical

5. Biomagnetic Signals: Extremely weak magnetic fields are produced by various

6. Bio-optical Signals: These signals are generated as result of optical functions of

7. Bio-impedance Signals: The impedance of the tissue is a source of important

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 2

1.2 BIOPOTENTIAL (OR) BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL:

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 3

Ion ECF (meq/Lt) ICF (meq/Lt)

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 4

Polarized cell with resting potential

Magnitude of the resting Potential:

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 5

(a) Depolarization of a cell b) Depolarized cell during an action potential

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 6

Waveform of the Action potential

All-or-nothing law: Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the

Refractory Period: Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 7

1.3. PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 8

1.4 BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES

1.4.1 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface:

When electrode is placed in electrolyte, 2 reactions takes place. one is oxidation

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 9

Half cell potential:

1.4.2 Electrode - Electrolyte interface circuit model:

where, Ehc - Half cell Potential

Since measurement of bioelectric potential requires 2 electrodes, the voltage measured

Measurement of biopotentials with two electrodes-equivalent circuit

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 10

1.4.3 Electrode - Skin interface circuit model:

1.5 POLARIZABLE AND NON-POLARIZABLE ELECTRODES:

Perfectly polarizable electrodes:

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 11

Perfectly Non-polarizable electrodes:

1.5 TYPES OF BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 12

Supported metal microelectrodes:

Metal inside Glass Glass inside Metal

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 13

Final structure of Glass pipete microelectrode

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 15

Position of Electrode Electrical Equivalent circuit of the

RA, RB - Resistance of connecting wire,

Approximate Equivalent of the above figure

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 16

1) Metal plate Electrode:-

2) Metal Disc Electrode:-

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 17

3) Disposable foam-pad Electrode:-

 It is a disposable electrode with adhesive already in place.

Prepared By R.SANTHANA KRISHNAN,AP/ECE-SCADCET 18