Introduction to Manufacturing Process

Aim of experiment:

Introduction to various machine tools and demonstration on machining

Apparatus required:

1. Conventional Lathe
2. Conventional Milling
Procedure:

1. Study various type of machine tools as mentioned above 2.

Note down the specifications, capabilities of various machines
3. Study various machining that can be done on each machines.

Known Theory

Lathe

Function Of Lathe:
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the required shape and
size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it
against cutting tool which will remove metal from the work in the form of chips. To cut the material
properly the tool should be harder than the material of the work piece, should be rigidly held on the
machine and should be fed or progressed in a definite way related to the work.

Specification Of Lathe:
1. Height Of Centre: The height of the centers measured over the lath bed.
2. Swing Over Bed: Swing or max diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways.
3. Swing Or Diameter Over Carriage. This is the largest diameter over carriage. This is the largest
diameter over carriage of work that will revolve over the lathe saddle.
4. Distance Between Centre’s: Max job length in mm that may be held between the Centers
(head stock & tail stock)
5. Bed Length: Bed length in meters which may include

PARTS OF LATHE:

The following are the main parts of a lathe.

Milling Machine

INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE:

A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast rate
with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be mounted
simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling machine finds wide
application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured
surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-
sections. Typical components produced by a milling are given in Fig. In many applications, due to its
higher production rate and accuracy, milling machine has even replaced shapers and slotters.

Principle of Milling Machine:

In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges. For
cutting operation, the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the work piece moves against
the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of trochoid shape.
Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be machined is held in
a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between centers, in a special
fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotator speed of the cutting tool and the feed rate of the work
piece depend upon the type of material being machined.

Specification of Milling Machine:

• Table Overall Size : 1245 X 230 MM

• Longitudinal Movement : 560 MM
• Transverse Movement : 250 MM
• Vertical Movement : 390 MM
• Speed Range : 45 – 2000 RPM

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES:

Milling machine rotates the cutter mounted on the arbor of the machine and at the same time
automatically feed the work in the required direction. The milling machine may be classified in several
forms, but the choice of any particular machine is determined primarily by the size of the work piece to
be undertaken and operations to be performed. With the above function or requirement in mind, milling
machines are made in a variety of types and sizes. According to general design, the distinctive types of
milling machines are:

1. Column and Knee Type Milling Machines

(A) Hand Milling Machine
(B) Horizontal Milling Machine
(C) Universal Milling Machine
(D) Vertical Milling Machine
2. Planer Milling Machine 3. Fixed-
Bed Type Milling Machine (A)
Simplex Milling Machine.
(B) Duplex Milling Machine.
(C) Triplex Milling Machine.
4. Machining Center Machines 5.
Special Types of Milling Machines
(A) Rotary Table Milling Machine.
(B) Planetary Milling Machine.
(C) Profiling Machine.
(D) Duplicating Machine.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE & THEIR FUNCTIONS:

The principal parts of a column and knee type vertical milling machine are described as under.
Base
It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column at its one
end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box shaped,
heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and table feed. The front
vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail guide way for
supporting the knee.
Knee
The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the
column face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee
and it also supports the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different
controls to operate it.
Saddle
The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guide ways set exactly at 90°to the column
face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.

Table
The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw under the table
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power. In universal machines,
the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted on a circular base.
The top of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for clamping the work and other
fixtures on it

Spindle
It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears and clutches and transmits it to the arbor.

4.5 MILLING METHODS:

There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-Milling or Conventional Milling
2. Down-Milling or Climb Milling

UP-Milling or Conventional Milling:

In the up-milling or conventional milling the metal is removed in form of small chips by a cutter
rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece. In this type of milling, the chip thickness is
minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut. As a result the cutting force also varies
from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the milling cutter. The major disadvantages of
up-milling process are the tendency of cutting force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor surface
finish obtained. But being a safer process, it is commonly used method of milling.

Down-Milling or Climb Milling:

Down milling is also known as climb milling. In this method, the metal is removed by a cutter
rotating in the same direction of feed of the work piece. The effect of this is that the teeth cut downward
instead of upwards. Chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum in the end. In this
method, it is claimed that there is less friction involved and consequently less heat is generated on the
contact surface of the cutter and work piece. Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of
work to increase the number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish. With climb milling,
saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling. Another advantage is that slightly
lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling, since there is no need to drive the table against
the cutter.

Observation

Name of Type No of axis Machining that can

machine(make) be performed

Conclusions: Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
 (Experiment no-01)

Aim of experiment
Manufacturing of A cylindrical work piece containing different operations like Facing, turning, step
turning, chamfering, taper turning.
Apparatus required:

• Lathe machine

• OD turning tool

• Dead center

• Vernier caliper(0-150mm)

• Chuck ley

• Tool holder key

• Double ended spanner

Procedure:

1. Cut the material to size 105.0mm

2. Load the part in three jaw self-centering chuck.

3. Load the tool in the tool post and do the center height adjustment of the tool.

4. Do the facing, chamfering, OD turning of Ø26.0 up to length40.0mm

5. Reverse the job.

6. Do the facing.
7. Do the OD turning of Ø12.0, taper turning, chamfering, and step turning as per drawing.

8. Unload the part and deburr it.

Drawing of part

Conclusions:

Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
 (Experiment no-02)

Aim of experiment

Manufacturing of Regular polygon by vertical indexing method containing square profile.

Apparatus required:

• Horizontal milling arbor ISO-40 with arbor support

• Vernier caliper(0-150mm)
• Chuck key
• Vertical Indexing device
• Universal milling machine
• Side and face cutter dia 120 with insert.
• DRO
• Second cut file
Procedure:

1. Collect the raw material and check the dimension

2. Hold the work piece in 3 jaw self-centering chuck of the vertical indexing head having a projected
length of 40 mm outside the chuck.
3. Fix the cutter in the arbor and tighten it.
4. For cutting of square first touch the cutter to the top of the work piece and make Z axis zero in the
DRO.
5. Then touch the Cutter in Y axis to the job and make Y axis zero in the DRO.
6. Move the table to one side of cutter, give the depth of cut by 1mm in Z-axis and shift the Y axis by
2mm and then move the table in X- axis. Repeat the cut in Z –axis up to the depth of 10mm and
after completion of Final Z value, move the table in Z axis to the Z zero point in DRO. Move the Y
axis by another 2 mm and Repeat the cut up to Z -10mm. Maintain the 1st side of the square to a Y
axis Value of (39.6-20.0)/2=9.8mm.
7. Similarly machine remaining 3 side as per the point no 6.
8. After completion, remove the part from the chuck and debur it.
 Figure of the part:

Observation

Dimension as per Measuring Reading Conclusion

drawing instrument used

Conclusions:

a) Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
(Experiment no-03)
 (Experiment no-04)

Aim of experiment

Preparation of a sand mould using a split pattern.

Apparatus required:

1. Sand
2. Moulding flask
3. Foundry accessories

Theory

Foundry practice deals with the process of making castings of moulds, formed in either sand or some
other material. The involves the operations of pattern making, sand preparation, molding, melting of metals,
pouring in moulds, cooling, shake – out, fettling, heat treatment, finishing and inspection. Casting is the process
of making parts by pouring the molten metal into moulds and allowing them to solidify.
There is no limit to the size and shape of the article to be produced by the casting process. It also offers one of the
easiest and most economical methods of producing intricate parts.

Mould is a cavity formed by a pattern. It is similar in shape and size to that of the actual casting plus some
allowances for shrinkage, machining, etc. molding is the process of making moulds.

Moulds are classified as temporary and permanent. Temporary moulds are made of refractory sand and other
binding materials and may be produced either through hand molding or machine molding. Permanent moulds are
made of ferrous metals and alloys, i.e., cast iron, steel etc.
Manual methods of green sand moulds are presented. The stages involved in the sand molding process are: sand
preparation, pattern making, and core making (if required), molding and closing.

Melting furnaces convert the charge materials into the molten state by heating to a temperature above their
melting point. Melting furnaces can be fired on liquid, solid or gaseous fuel or heated by electric energy.

For production requirements, a cupola furnace is used for producing molten metal (cast iron).
MOLDING SAND
Sand is the principal material used in a foundry. The principal ingredients of molding sands are: (1) silica sand, (2)
clay sand, (3) moisture. Clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the molding sand. Moisture when added
in correct proportion provides the bonding action to the clay. Special additives and binders are also added to
develop certain desired properties to the molding sands. Silica sand can withstand very high temperatures and
does not react with the molten metal.

Natural molding sand is either available in riverbeds or dug from pits. They possess an appreciable amount of clay
and are used as received, with the addition of water. The percentage of clay in this sand is around 20%. It needs 5
to 8 % of water for making moulds.

Synthetic sands are prepared by adding clay, water and other materials to silica sand, so that the desired strength
and bonding properties like permeability and refractoriness and are suitable for making heavy castings.

Pure silica sand is not used as molding sand, due to its lack of binding properties. Any material added to the pure
silica sand or available in the natural sand that imparts cohesiveness to it is called binder. The binder holds the
sand grains together, imparts strength and resistance to erosion.

Clay is a naturally available binder. There are three types of synthetic binders in use. These are: (1) Clay type
binders, Ex: Bentonite; (2) Organic binders, Ex: Resins (3) Inorganic binders, Ex: Sodium silicate.

Most of moldings is done with green sand, i.e., sand containing 6 to 8 percent moisture and 10 percent clay content
to give it sufficient bond. Green sand molds are cheaper and take less time to prepare. These are used for small
and medium size castings.

Dry sand moulds, obtained after drying or backing green sand moulds, are used for large castings.

Parting sand, which a clay free, fine grained silica sand, is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern
and also to prevent the cope and drag from clinging.

Core sand is used for making cores. This is silica and mixed with core oil and other additives.
PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SAND
The essential requirement of good molding sand is that it should produce sound castings, which are free
from defects. For producing sound castings, molding sand or mold should possess the following
properties; to quote a few:

Porosity or permeability
When molten metal is poured into a mold, gases and steam will be formed. The sand mold should
have sufficient porosity to allow the gases and steam to pass through it. If they are not removed,
casting defects such as blowholes will be formed.

Plasticity is the property of the molding sand by virtue of which, it flows to all the corners around
the pattern in the mold, when rammed. Only due to this property, the molding sand gets the shape
of the pattern in the mold.

Cohesiveness

It is the property by which the sand particles stick to each other. Coarse-grained sand particles
give better cohesiveness than spherical grained sand particles.

Adhesiveness

Sticking of the sand particles to another body is known as adhesiveness. The molding sand sticks to the sides of
the cope and drag parts of the molding box.

Refractoriness

It is the property of the molding sand, to resist high temperature, without undergoing any changes.

Collapsibility

It is the property of the molding sand, by which mold should disintegrate with minimum force after casting has
solidified.
NOTE:

Sand moulds are suitable for all types of ferrous castings, i.e., cast iron, wrought iron, steel, etc. However the main
drawback is that a mould is suitable for one casting only and it has to be made a fresh for another casting, with
the help of the patterns. Further, sand molding contributes to rejections and rework done to casting defects, costly
machining and generally lower quality in mass production.
To overcome the above problems, permanent or metal moulds are used. Though, initial cost of
metal molding equipment is high, it can be justified with the large number of castings that can be
cast per mould repeatedly.

Tools Used In Moulding

(1) Vent wire for sticking vent holes through the sand of the mould.

(2) Pattern lifter.

(3) Joint trowel and (4) heart trowel for smoothing and finishing the parting and flat surfaces of the
mould.

(5) Gate cutter and pattern lifter.

(6) Slick and oval spoon for finishing mould surfaces.

(7) (8) Sand lifters and slicks.

(9) Yankee heel lifter and flat slick.

(10) Flange and bead slick.

(11) Corner slick.

(12) Edge slick.

(13) Bound corner slick.

(14) Pipe slick.

(15) Button slick. (16.) Oval Slick.

(17) Hand rammer for ramming sand in flasks

(18) Spirit level for leveling open sand moulds

 Fig. Tools Used In Moulding

Flasks for Green and Dry Sand Moulds

Other Equipment

Shovel; Gate Cutter; Trowels; Smoothers and corner slices; Anvil

Casting

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material (usually metal and polymers) is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are
usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together such as
epoxy, concrete, plaster or clay. A typical casting mold is shown in Figure below. Casting is generally used for
making intricate shapes (difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods).
 (Experiment no-05)

Aim of experiment

Practice on Manual arc welding and welding of different joints like Butt joint, lap joint And T-joint.
Apparatus required:

1. Arc welding machine

2. Welding Electrode
3. Electrode holder
4. Earth clamp
5. Welding helmet
6. Hand screen
7. Safety shoe
8. Welding cable/leads
9. Gloves
10. Apron

Safety precaution

Arc UV Light

1. Arc welding tends to be used for thick metal at high amps, so the light generated by the arc is
very bright. Any exposed skin will become sunburned quickly so overalls and welding gauntlets
(gloves) are a must.
2. Looking directly at a welding arc even for a short time causes arc eye where the UV from the arc
burns the cornea. Expect to be awake all night with the sensation that someone is sticking pins
in your eye. Also warn others in the area not to look at the arc and keep the welding area
screened from public view.
3. Auto-darkening helmets are very useful for arc welding - with fixed shade helmets is difficult to
judge where the end of the rod will first make contact with the work. A shade between around
10 and 12 would be suitable for arc.

Fumes

Welding fume (in total) should be controlled to ensure there is less than 5mg per cubic metre of clean
air. Keep the work area well ventilated, and keep your head out of the fumes.
Spatter

There can be a lot of sparks and spatter flying around especially when learning to arc weld. Cotton
overalls are more resistant to spatter than man made fabrics, and leather aprons offer excellent
protection. Spatter down the neck or shoes can be especially annoying. A welding cap can help protect
the head when overhead welding.

The welding area should be cleared of inflammable materials. Fires can be difficult to notice while
wearing a welding helmet.

Keep a fire extinguisher nearby - Both CO2 and dry powder types are suitable. Any type that contains
water (foam or water types) should not be used near mains powered electrical equipment.

Electric Shock

For a shock you would need to bridge between the electrode and the earth return. Minimise the
extent of live parts by making sure all cables are in good condition (with no bare insulation or frayed
wires), and that the rod holder is insulated.

Slag

Slag is lightweight and brittle so can fly a fair distance. Wear eye protection when chipping.

Arc welders don't have a button to start the arc. Unlike MIG welders the rod (electrode) will become live
as soon as the machine is switched on.

The arc is started by touching the electrode momentarily against the work to complete the electrical
circuit before raising the electrode to establish the arc. This needs to happen quickly to avoid welding
the rod to the work. "Tap Starting" and "Scratch Starting" are the two common methods of starting the
arc.

Because the rod is live at all times it needs to be kept insulated from the earth when not in use. In the
photo the welding bench is earthed, and a piece of wood is being used to isolate the rod from the bench.
After welding the rod is returned to the piece of wood.

Starting the ARC

Tap Starting

A sharp tap of the rod against the work will remove excess flux from the end of the rod and create the
electrical contact needed to start the arc.

A sharp wrist action should allow a momentary contact with the work before quickly pulling the rod a
short distance away. Too heavy a contact or too slow an action can cause the rod to stick.
Scratch Starting

An alternative starting method is to lightly scratch the rod against the work. Moving the rod
against the work removes excess flux from the rod and allows electrical contact from the steel in the
middle. As soon as the rod starts to spark it is lifted from the work to start the arc.

A tip to make starting much easier

Keep some scrap material near the work and start the rod on that before beginning your weld.
This will remove excess flux and warm up the rod which will make it much easier to start your weld.

Arc length fault

• Arc Length Too Short

This weld was laid with the end of the rod covered by the molten slag. The surface of the weld is uneven
where it has been dragged along by the rod, and the weld will be low on power and contain slag
inclusions.
• Arc Length OK
A normal arc weld. The weld has a consistent profile and minimal spatter.
• Arc Length Too Long
Too great a distance between the rod and the work will increase the voltage resulting in a flat and wide
weld with a great deal of spatter. It also makes the arc unstable, and the slag will be difficult to remove
from the edges of the weld. Sectioning this weld reveals undercutting to the left side.

Travel Speed Faults

• Speed OK
The bead is fairly consistent. The ridges in the weld are semi-circular.
• Speed Too Fast
Excessive speed results in a thin, weak bead. The ridges in the weld are elongated and triangular. Had the
current been increased to compensate for the speed the ridges would still remain elongated.
• Speed Too Slow
Welding too slowly results in a wide tall buildup of weld. The shape of the weld is not consistent as the
weld pool has built up and then collapsed into the crater. The poor control of the weld pool can result in
cold joints and slag inclusions.

Conclusions:

Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
 (Experiment no-06)

Aim of experiment

Preparation of flat surface using shaper machine.

Apparatus required:

1. Shaper Machine
2. Vernier caliper(0-150mm)
3. Machine Handle
4. Second cut file
5. Shaper Machine cutting tools.
6. Machine vice.
Theory

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the work piece and
a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except
that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical.
A wood shaper is a similar woodworking tool, typically with a powered rotating cutting head and
manually fed work piece, usually known simply as a shaper in North America and spindle moulder in
the UK.
A metalworking shaper is somewhat analogous to a metalworking planer, with the cutter riding a ram
that moves relative to a stationary work piece, rather than the work piece moving beneath the cutter.
The ram is typically actuated by a mechanical crank inside the column, though hydraulically
actuated shapers are increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper can yield helical tool paths,
has also done in helical planning.

Working principle of shaper Machine

A single point cutting tool is rigidly held in the tool holder, which is mounted on the ram. The work
piece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table. The table may be supported at the outer
end. The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder moves forwards and backwards
over the work piece. In a standard shaper, cutting of material takes place during the forward stroke of
the ram the backward stroke remains idle. This is obtained by "Quick Return Mechanism". The depth of
the cut is adjusted by moving the tool downwards towards the work piece. The feed motion is given to
the work piece and follows the "Pawl and Ratchet mechanism"
Types
Shapers are mainly classified as standard, draw-cut, horizontal, universal, vertical, geared, crank,
hydraulic, contour and traveling head,[1] with a horizontal arrangement most common. Vertical shapers
are generally fitted with a rotary table to enable curved surfaces to be machined (same idea as
in helical planning). The vertical shaper is essentially the same thing as a slotter (slotting machine),
although technically a distinction can be made if one defines a true vertical shaper as a machine whose
slide can be moved from the vertical. A slotter is fixed in the vertical plane.
Operations
The work piece mounts on a rigid, box-shaped table in front of the machine. The height of the table can
be adjusted to suit this work piece, and the table can traverse sideways underneath the reciprocating
tool, which is mounted on the ram. Table motion may be controlled manually, but is usually advanced
by an automatic feed mechanism acting on the feed screw. The ram slides back and forth above the
work. At the front end of the ram is a vertical tool slide that may be adjusted to either side of the
vertical plane along the stroke axis. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and tool post, from which the
tool can be positioned to cut a straight, flat surface on the top of the work piece. The tool-slide permits
feeding the tool downwards to deepen a cut. This adjustability, coupled with the use of specialized
cutters and tool holders, enable the operator to cut internal and external gear tooth
The ram is adjustable for stroke and, due to the geometry of the linkage, it moves faster on the return
(non-cutting) stroke than on the forward, cutting stroke. This action is via a slotted
link (or Whitworth link).
N.B.:
The work piece is made out of mild steel or low carbon steel & cutting tool is made out of High
carbon steel, High speed steel, Tool steel or Tungsten carbide.
Uses
The most common use is to machine straight, flat surfaces, but with ingenuity and some accessories a
wide range of work can be done. Other examples of its use are:

 Keyways in the boss of a pulley or gear can be machined without resorting to a

dedicated broaching setup.
 Dovetail slides
 Internal splines and gear teeth.
 Keyway, spline, and gear tooth cutting in blind holes
 Cam drums with tool paths of the type that in CNC milling terms would require 4- or 5-axis
contouring or turn-mill cylindrical interpolation
 It is even possible to obviate wire EDM work in some cases. Starting from a drilled or cored hole, a
shaper with a boring-bar type tool can cut internal features that don't lend themselves to milling or
boring (such as irregularly shaped holes with tight corners).
 Smoothness of a rough surface

Safety precaution

1. No alteration or adjustment should be done on the machine parts while the machine is
2. Clamps holding the work should not be adjusted while the machine is in
3. The machine is to be stopped before cleaning the metal
4. The sharp edges of the work should be handled with
5. The measuring of the work should be done only after the machine is switched
6. The operator should not seek the assistance of others for starting and stopping the
7. Machining of precise parts and internal surfaces of the work piece are to be carried out with great
care and
8. The operator should stay away from direction of the ram

Conclusions:

Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
 (Experiment no-07)

Aim of experiment

Hand practice on gas welding and demonstration on different types of flame

Apparatus required:

7. Oxygen cylinder(black colour)

8. Dissolved Acetylene cylinder(maroon colour)
9. Oxygen pressure regulator
10. Acetylene regulator
11. Rubber hose pipe and connection
12. Blow pipe and nozzle
13. Goggles
14. Safety shoe
15. Gloves
16. Apron
Safety precaution
1. All inflammable materials should be kept away from the welding area.
2. Always use goggles with filter during welding
3. Wear fire resistant clothes, asbestos gloves and apron during welding always keep fire
extinguisher handy and in working order 4. Keep the cylinder valve close when not in use.
5. Always use correct size of cylinder key.
6. Check the leakage before using oxy acetylene welding equipment.

Types of oxyacetylene flame:

Why acetylene is used for gas welding?

The oxy acetylene gas flame is used for gas welding

Because

1-it has a well-controlled flame with high temperature.

2-The flame can be easily manipulated for proper melting of base metal.

3-It doesn’t change the chemical composition of base metal.

Neutral flame
Oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportion in the blow pipe. This flame doesn’t have a bad
effect on the base metal/weld i.e. the metal is not oxidized and no carbon is available for reacting with
the metal.

Use:- Mild Steel, Cast iron, Stainless steel, copper and aluminum

Oxidizing flame:
It contains an excess of oxygen over acetylene as the gas comes out of nozzle.

Use: Useful for welding of brass and for brazing of ferrous metal.

Carburising flame:
It contains an excess of acetylene over oxygen as the gas comes from the blow pipe.

Use: Useful for stelliting (hard facing),” ‘Linde’ welding of steel pipes and flame cleaning
Comparison

Sl no Metal Flame
01 Mild steel Neutral
02 Copper(de-oxidised) Neutral
03 Brass Oxidizing
04 Cast iron Neutral
05 Stainless steel Neutral
06 Alluminium(pure) Neutral
07 Satellite Carburizing

Conclusions:

Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
 Introduction to Manufacturing Process
Name of Experiment - 3D Printing

Aim of Experiment

Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a
component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a
synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a
professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of
material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive
Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine
powder form or in wire form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may
be used.
The technology has especially been applied in conjunction with Rapid Prototyping - the
construction of illustrative and functional prototypes. Additive Manufacturing is now being used
increasingly in Series Production. It gives Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) in
the most varied sectors of industrythe opportunity to create a distinctive profile for themselves
based on new customer benefits, cost-saving potential and the ability to meet sustainability goals.

Types of 3D Printing Technologies

Different types of technology used for 3D printing like FDM, SLA, DLP, SLS, DMLS, SLM,
EBM, Material Jetting, DOD, and Binder Jetting simply explained.

• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Material Extrusion devices are the most commonly available — and the cheapest —
types of 3D printing technology in the world. You might be familiar with them as Fused
Deposition Modeling, or FDM. They are also sometimes referred to as Fused Filament
Fabrication, or FFF.
The way it works is that a spool of filament is loaded into the 3D printer and fed through
to a printer nozzle in the extrusion head. The printer nozzle is heated to a desired
temperature, whereupon a motor pushes the filament through the heated nozzle, causing it
to melt.
The printer then moves the extrusion head along specified coordinates, laying down the
molten material onto the build plate where it cools down and solidifies.
Once a layer is complete, the printer proceeds to lay down another layer. This process of
printing cross-sections is repeated, building layer-upon-layer, until the object is fully
formed.
 Depending on the geometry of the object, it is sometimes necessary to add support
structures, for example if a model has steep overhanging parts.

• Stereo-lithography (SLA)
SLA holds the historical distinction of being the world’s first 3D printing technology.
Stereolithography was invented by Chuck Hull in 1986, who filed a patent on the
technology and founded the company 3D Systems to commercialize it.
An SLA printer uses mirrors, known as galvanometers or galvos, with one positioned on
the X-axis and another on the Y-axis. These galvos rapidly aim a laser beam across a vat
of resin, selectively curing and solidifying a cross-section of the object inside this build
area, building it up layer by layer.
Most SLA printers use a solid state laser to cure parts. The disadvantage to these types of
3D printing technology using a point laser is that it can take longer to trace the cross-
section of an object when comparedto DLP.

• Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Looking at Digital Light Processing machines, these types of 3D printing technology are
almost the same as SLA. The key difference is that DLP uses a digital light projector to
flash a single image of each layer all at once (or multiple flashes for larger parts).
 Because the projector is a digital screen, the image of each layer is composed of square
pixels, resulting in a layer formed from small rectangular blocks called voxels.
DLP can achieve faster print times compared to SLA. That’s because an entire layer is
exposed all at once, rather than tracing the cross-sectional area with the point of a laser.
Light is projected onto the resin using light-emitting diode (LED) screens or a UV light
source (lamp) that is directed to the build surface by a Digital Micromirror Device
(DMD).
A DMD is an array of micro-mirrors that control where light is projected and generate the
light-pattern on the build surface.

• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Creating an object with Powder Bed Fusion technology and polymer powder is generally
known as Selective Laser Sintering (SLS). As industrial patents expire, these types of 3D
printing technology are becoming increasingly common and lower cost.
First, a bin of polymer powder is heated to a temperature just below the polymer’s
melting point. Next, a recoating blade or wiper deposits a very thin layer of the powdered
material — typically 0.1 mm thick — onto a build platform.
A CO2 laser beam then begins to scan the surface. The laser will selectively sinter the
powder and solidify a cross-section of the object. Just like SLA, the laser is focused on to
the correct location by a pair of galvos.
When the entire cross-section is scanned, the build platform will move down one layer
thickness in height. The recoating blade deposits a fresh layer of powder on top of the
recently scanned layer, and the laser will sinter the next cross-section of the object onto
the previously solidified cross-sections.
These steps are repeated until all objects are fully manufactured. Powder which hasn’t
been sintered remains in place to support the object that has, which eliminates the need
for support structures.

• Material Jetting (MJ)

 Material Jetting (MJ) works in a similar way to a standard inkjet printer. The key
difference is that, instead of printing a single layer of ink, multiple layers are built upon
each other to create a solid part.
The print head jets hundreds of tiny droplets of photopolymer and then cures/solidifies
them using an ultraviolet (UV) light. After one layer has been deposited and cured, the
build platform is lowered down one layer thickness and the process is repeated to build
up a 3D object.
MJ is different from other types of 3D printing technology that deposit, sinter or cure
build material using point-wise deposition. Instead of using a single point to follow a path
which outlines the cross-sectional area of a layer, MJ machines deposit build material in a
rapid, line-wise fashion.
The advantage of line-wise deposition is that MJ printers are able to fabricate multiple
objects in a single line with no impact on build speed. So long as models are correctly
arranged, and the space within each build line is optimized, MJ is able to produce parts at
a speedier pace than other types of 3D printer.
Objects made with MJ require support, which are printed simultaneously during the build
from a dissolvable material that’s removed during the post-processing stage. MJ is one of
the only types of 3D printing technology to offer objects made from multi-material
printing and full-color.

• Drop on Demand (DOD)

Drop on Demand (DOD) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a pair of ink jets.
One deposits the build materials, which is typically a wax-like material. The second is
used for dissolvable support material. As with typical types of 3D printing technology,
DOD printers follow a predetermined path to jet material in a point-wise deposition,
creating the cross-sectional area of an object layer-by-layer.
DOD printers also use a fly-cutter that skims the build area after each layer is created,
ensuring a perfectly flat surface before commencing the next layer. DOD printers are
usually used to create patterns suitable for lost-wax casting or investment casting, and
other mold-making applications.

• Sand Binder Jetting

With Sand Binder Jetting devices, these are low-cost types of 3D printing technology for
producing parts from sand, e.g. sandstone or gypsum.
For full color models, objects are fabricated using a plaster-based or PMMA powder in
conjunction with a liquid binding agent. The printhead first jets the binding agent, while a
secondary print head jets in color, allowing full color models to be printed.
Once parts have fully cured they are removed from the loose unbonded powder and
cleaned. To enhance mechanical properties, parts are often exposed to an infiltrant
material.
 There are a large number of infiltrants available, each resulting in different properties.
Coatings can also be added to improve the vibrancy of colors.
Binder Jetting is also useful for the production of sand cast molds and cores. The cores
and molds are generally printed with sand, although artificial sand (silica) can be used for
special applications.
After printing, the cores and molds are removed from the build area and cleaned to
remove any loose sand. The molds are typically immediately ready for casting. After
casting, the mold is broken apart and the final metal component removed.
The big advantage of producing sand casting cores and molds with Binder Jetting is the
large, complex geometries the process is able to produce at relatively low-cost. Plus, the
process is quite easy to integrate into existing manufacturing or foundry process without
disruption.

• Metal Binder Jetting

Binder Jetting can also be used for the fabrication of metal objects. Metal powder is
bound using a polyer binding agent. Producing metal objects using Binder Jetting allows
for the production of complex geometries well beyond the capabilities of conventional
manufacturing techniques.
Functional metal objects can only be produced via a secondary process like infiltration or
sintering, however. The cost and quality of the end result generally defines which
secondary process is the most appropriate for a certain application. Without these
additional steps, a part made with metal Binder Jetting will have poor mechanical
properties.
The infiltration secondary process works as follows: initially metal powder particles are
bound together using a binding agent to form a “green state” object. Once the objects
have fully cured, they are removed from the loose powder and placed in a furnace, where
the binder is burnt out. This leaves the object at around 60% density with voids
throughout.
Next, bronze is used to infiltrate the voids via capillary action, resulting in an object with
around 90% density and greater strength. However, objects made with metal Binder
Jetting generally have lower mechanical properties than metal parts made with Powder
Bed Fusion.
The sintering secondary process can be applied where metal parts are made without
infiltration. After printing is complete, green state objects are cured in an oven. Next,
they’re sintered in a furnace to a high density of around 97%. However, non-uniform
shrinkage can be an issue during sintering and should be accounted for at the design
stage.

• Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) / Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

 Both Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM) produce
objects in a similar fashion to SLS. The main difference is that these types of 3D printing
technology are applied to the production of metal parts.
DMLS does not melt the powder but instead heats it to a point so that it can fuse together
on a molecular level. SLM uses the laser to achieve a full melt of the metal powder
forming a homogeneous part. This results in a part that has a single melting temperature
(something not produced with an alloy).
This is the main difference between DMLS and SLM; the former produces parts from
metal alloys, while the latter form single element materials, such as titanium.
Unlike SLS, the DMLS and SLM processes require structural support, in order to limit
the possibility of any distortion that may occur (despite the fact that the surrounding
powder provides physical support).
DMLS/SLM parts are at risk of warping due to the residual stresses produced during
printing, because of the high temperatures. Parts are also typically heat-treated after
printing, while still attached to the build plate, to relieve any stresses in the parts after
printing.

• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Distinct from other Powder Bed Fusion techniques, Electron Beam Melting (EBM) uses a
high energy beam, or electrons, to induce fusion between the particles of metal powder.
A focused electron beam scans across a thin layer of powder, causing localized melting
and solidification over a specific cross-sectional area. These areas are built up to create a
solid object.
Compared to SLM and DMLS types of 3D printing technology, EBM generally has a
superior build speed because of its higher energy density. However, things like minimum
feature size, powder particle size, layer thickness and surface finish are typically larger.
Also important to note is that EBM parts are fabricated in a vacuum, and the process can
only be used with conductive materials.
Advantages
The strengths of Additive Manufacturing lie in those areas where conventional manufacturing
reaches its limitations. The technology is of interest where a new approach to design and
manufacturing is required so as to come up with solutions. It enables a design-driven
manufacturing process - where design determines production and not the other way around.
What is more, Additive Manufacturing allows for highly complex structures which can still be
extremely light and stable. It provides a high degree of design freedom, the optimization and
integration of functional features, the manufacture of small batch sizes at reasonable unit costs
and a high degree of product customization even in serial production.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is an additive

manufacturing process that belongs to the material extrusion family. In FDM, an object is built
by selectively depositing melted material in a pre-determined path layer-by-layer. The materials
used are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form.

FDM is the most widely used 3D Printing technology: it represents the largest installed base of
3D printers globally and is often the first technology people are exposed to. In this article, the
basic principles and the key aspects of the technology are presented.

A designer should keep in mind the capabilities and limitations of the technology when
fabricating a part with FDM, as this will help him achieve the best result.

Printer Parameters

What is important from a designer's perspective is build size and layer height:

The available build size of a desktop 3D printer is commonly 250 x 250 x 250 mm, while for
industrial machines this can be as big as 1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm. If a desktop machine is
preferred (for example for reducing the cost) a big model can be broken into smaller parts and
then assembled.

The typical layer height used in FDM varies between 50 and 400 microns and can be determined
upon placing an order. A smaller layer height produces smoother parts and captures curved
geometries more accurately, while a larger height produces parts faster and at a lower cost. A
layer height of 250 microns is used in our StratasysFortus 400 MC .

Operation Procedure of FDM based 3D printer

 1. Design of a solid model using 3d designing software ie. SolidWorks, Catia, Unigraphics,
Pro Engineer etc.
2. Save the file as STL format,because 3D printers software are recognize only STL format.
3. To create the path for layer to build the job in Fortus 400 MC use a software called
Insight. In which several options are given for building of job. After processing in Insight
software another software is used to define the build area to define the place, where the
product will be printed.
4. A spool of thermoplastic filament is first loaded into the printer. Once the nozzle has
reached the desired temperature, the filament is fed to the extrusion head and in the
nozzle where it melts.
5. The extrusion head is attached to a 3-axis system that allows it to move in the X, Y and Z
directions. The melted material is extruded in thin strands and is deposited layer-by-layer
in predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. Sometimes the cooling of the
material is accelerated through the use of cooling fans attached on the extrusion head.
6. After completion of printing process, remove the part from machine & remove support
material from the part by hand tools/ dissolving process.

Safety Precaution for 3D Printing

• Do not operate 3D printer without training in the correct and safe operation of the 3D
printer.
• Use 3D printers in a well-ventilated area.
• Do not open 3D printer covers once a print job is underway.
• Equip the facility with Class D fire extinguishers and train on proper use.
• Wear a protective P100 respirator dust mask when accessing the printer stage area
• Removing of support material processes that use an alkaline bath to dissolve support
material, Wear eye protection around liquid materials that can splash.
• Keep model and support materials away from areas where food and drink is stored,
prepared, or consumed.
• Always cutoff main power supply from the main switch when doing any maintenance or
intervention on the machine.
• 3D printers contains a lot of moving mechanical parts, at the time of machine running do
not put hand inside of machine.
• Always make sure the heating elements are cold before starting any maintenance or
modifications on your machine.