Focus Smart Plus Science Textbook M2 NP

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© Pelangi Publishing (Thailand) Co., Ltd. 2019 ISBN 978-616-541-315-2
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Contents
Human Body Systems 1
1
Chapter
1.1 Respiratory System 2

1.2 Excretory System 9
1.3 Circulatory System 11
1.4 Nervous System 18
Conceptual Map 23
Basic Recall 24
STEM Activity 25
Mastery Practice 27
Human Reproduction 28
2
Chapter
2.1 Male Reproductive System 29

2.2 Female Reproductive System 31
2.3 Puberty 33
2.4 Menstrual Cycle 35
2.5 Fertilization and Pregnancy 37
2.6 Importance of Pre-natal Care 40
2.7 Importance of Research in Human Reproduction 41
Conceptual Map 46
Basic Recall 47
Mastery Practice 48
Mixtures 49
3
Chapter
3.1 Separating Mixtures 50

3.2 Solutions 54
Conceptual Map 60
Basic Recall 61
STEM Activities 62
Mastery Practice 64
Forces 65
4
Chapter
4.1 Resultant Force on the Same Plane (Net Force) 66

4.2 Liquid Pressure and Buoyancy 73
4.3 Friction 82
4.4 Moment of Force 89
4.5 Natural Fields 94
Conceptual Map 97
Basic Recall 98
STEM Activity 99
Mastery Practice 101
Motion 103
5
Chapter
5.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities 104

5.2 Distance and Displacement 108
5.3 Speed and Velocity 110
Conceptual Map 112
Basic Recall 113
STEM Activity 114
Work and Energy 117
6
Chapter
6.1 Work and Power 118

6.2 Simple Machines 120
6.3 Energy 122
Conceptual Map 127
Basic Recall 128
STEM Activity 129
Earth 132
7
Chapter
7.1 Layers of the Earth 133

7.2 Slow Processes that Change the Surface of the Earth 134
7.3 Sources of Energy 136
Conceptual Map 142
Basic Recall 143
STEM Activity 144
Soil 147
8
Chapter
8.1 Soil 148

8.2 Soil Formation 153
8.3 Soil Uses and Soil Improvement 154
Conceptual Map 157
Basic Recall 158
STEM Activity 159
Water 162
9
Chapter
9.1 Surface Water and Groundwater 163

9.2 Hazards due to Surface Water and Groundwater 165
Conceptual Map 168
Basic Recall 169
Special
s
Featureok Evaluates the
o
in This B
understanding
Includes the latest development of the students for
and / or extra information on every subtopic.
science and technology.
Learning Outcomes
States the learning objectives of
each chapter.
Provides information on the

potential developments of
Points out the important tips for science and technology. Explains the scope of career
students to take note. which requires the relevant
knowledge of scientific concepts.
Provides direct access to useful Provides extra information

websites by scanning the QR and / or statistical information
codes given. that are relevant to the concept
learned.
Points out the common mistakes
that students make and the correct
ways of answering questions.
Helps students to recall the Provides subjective questions

concepts and definitions covering the entire learning
learned in the chapter. outcomes of each chapter.
Provides direct access to

the interactive exercises by
scanning the QR codes given.
Explains how scientific concepts Guides students to test a

are applied in our daily life. hypothesis in order to make
a discovery.
The 4C’s of the 21st Century
Skills are:
Communication
Sharing thoughts, questions,
ideas and solutions.
Assists students in reviewing Collaboration

the entire chapter. Working together to reach a
Guides students to find an answer
through observations using goal. Putting talent, expertise
scientific methods. and smarts to work.
Focus Smart + AR Critical Thinking

Download the free Looking at problems in a new
“PelangiThai” app. way and linking learning
across subjects and disciplines.
Provides an activity that engages Creativity

in the application of knowledge Trying new approaches to get
of scientists, mathematicians things done equals innovation
and engineers. and invention.
e
o yo u re cognize th
D ans?
above org
hey do?
What do t
1
Chapter
Human Body
Systems
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to
• identify the organs and describe the functions of the organs

identify the organs and describe the functions
involved in the respiratory system.
involved in the respiratory system.
• explain the mechanisms of inhalation and exhalation and the
process of gas exchange.
• identify the organs and describe the functions of the organs in the
excretory system for the elimination of waste products in kidneys.
• describe the structures and functions of the heart, blood vessels
and blood.
• explain the process of circulatory system using a model.
• design and conduct an experiment to compare the normal heart
rate and the heat rate after doing activities.
• identify and describe the functions of organs in that control
and coordinate the human body.
• realize the importance of our systems by suggesting guidelines
how to take care of them.
1.1 Respiratory System
The human respiratory system provides an area for gas exchange between the blood and
the environment. It allows oxygen acquisition and carbon dioxide elimination.
The gas exchange in lungs is called breathing (external respiration). This exchange
involves inhalation and exhalation. Inhalation (taking in of air) allows us to take in oxygen to
be used by the body cells. Exhalation (letting out of air) allows us to get rid of carbon dioxide
from our body.
Structure of the human respiratory system
The air enters the respiratory system through the nasal cavity. As the air passes the nasal cavity,
it is warmed and moistened. Dust is trapped by the hair on the nasal cavity. After the air
leaves the nasal cavity, it enters the trachea.
The wall of the trachea contains C-shaped rings of cartilage which give it support and
prevent it from collapsing during inhalation.
The trachea branches into two bronchi (singular:bronchus) One bronchus enters the
right lung, the other enters the left lung. Each bronchus branches into smaller tubes called
bronchioles. The bronchioles end in millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli (singular: alveolus).
Bronchus Nasal cavity
Bronchiole
Alveolus
Capillaries
Trachea
Intercostal muscle
Bronchus
Bronchiole Rib
Left lung
The human respiratory system
The lungs are made up of alveoli, bronchioles and blood capillaries. The lungs are located in
a space called the thoracic cavity. The lungs are protected by the ribcage which consists
of ribs and intercostal muscles. A sheet of muscle called the diaphragm separates the
thoracic cavity from the abdomen.
2 Science
Focus Smart M A T H A Y O M 2
Adaptation of the alveoli for efficient gas
exchange
The alveoli are adapted to make gas exchange in th lungs happen

easily and efficiently. Here are the features of the alveoli that allow
them to do so:
Large surface area

The lungs have millions of alveoli to provide a large surface area for
gas exchange.
Very thin walls

Visit this website for
more information
The wall of each alveolus is one cell thick to provide a very short
on the human distance for the diffusion of gases.
respiratory system.
Moist inner surface
The inner surface of each alveolus is moist so that oxygen can
dissolve in the moisture before diffusing across the alveolar wall.
Surrounded by numerous blood capillaries

The blood capillaries help to transport gases to and from the alveoli
quickly.
Air movement
Alveolar wall
(one cell thick)
Entry of blood
Exit of blood
Alveolar Thin layer of moisture

cavity
Red blood cell
Capillary
Detailed structure of an alveolus
In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses from the air in the alveolar cavity into
the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolar
cavity.
Do not confuse breathing Mechanism of human breathing

with respiration. Breathing
is the process of getting
oxygen into the lungs and
carbon dioxide out of the
The breathing mechanism consists of two phases. The taking in of air
lungs. Respiration is the is called inhalation. The letting out of air is called exhalation.
release of energy from the
reaction of glucose. During breathing, the lungs expand and return to their normal size to
pump air into and out of them.
Chapter 1 3
Human Body Systems
The movements of the ribs and the diaphragm bring about breathing.
Air enters lungs. Air exits lungs.
Ribs and Ribs and ster num

ster num rise. return to original
Volume of
Volume of position.
thorax
thorax decreases.
increases.
Diaphragm
Diaphragm relaxes and
contacts and arches upwards.
flattens out.
a nhalation b Exhalation
The breathing mechanism
The table below shows the comparison of the mechanisms of inhalation and exhalation.
Inhalation Exhalation
• Diaphragm muscles contract. • Diaphragm muscles relax.

• Diaphragm flattens out. • Diaphragm arches upwards.
• External intercostal muscles contract. • External intercostal muscles relax.

• Internal intercostal muscles relax. • Internal intercostal muscles contract.
• Ribcage moves upwards and

• Ribcage moves downwards and inwards.
outwards.
• Volume of thoracic cavity increases. • Volume of thoracic cavity decreases.
• Air pressure in the lungs decreases. • Air pressure in the lungs increases.
• Air flows into the lungs. • Air is forced out of the lungs.
Comparison of the mechanisms of inhalation and exhalation
Investigating the relationship between the

air pressure in the thoracic cavity and the
process of inhalation and exhalation
Materials/Apparatus: Elastic sheet, balloons, glass jar, Y-tube and cork
Procedure:
1. A model is set up as shown in the next page.
2. The elastic sheet is pulled down. Are there any changes to the size of the balloons?
3. The elastic sheet is pushed up. Are there any changes to the size of the balloons?
4 Science
Cork
Y-tube
Balloon
Glass jar
Elastic
sheet
4. All observations are recorded.
Observation:
1. The balloons inflated when the rubber sheet is pulled down.
2. The balloons deflated when the rubber sheet is pushed up.
Discussion:
The table below shows the parts of the human respiratory system which are represented
by the material/apparatus in the model.
Material/
Glass jar Y-tube Balloons Elastic sheet
Apparatus
Respiratory Thoracic Respiratory
Lungs Diaphragm
system cavity tract
Conclusion:
1. When the elastic sheet is pulled down, the pressure inside the glass jar decreases. Air
from outside enters the balloons.
2. When the elastic sheet is pushed up, the pressure inside the glass jar increases. Air is
forced out of the balloons.
The table below shows the composition of inhaled air, exhaled air
and alveolar air respectively.
Content Inhaled air Exhaled air Alveolar air
Oxygen 21% 16% 14%

There is more carbon
dioxide than oxygen in Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4% 6%
exhaled air.
Nitrogen 79% 79% 80%
Water vapor Variable Saturated Saturated
Temperature Variable 34°C 37°C
Composition of air in respiration

Exhaled air contains
16% oxygen, 4%
carbon dioxide and 79% The changes in the contents of air after entering the lungs are due to
nitrogen. gas exchange in the alveoli.
Chapter 1 5
Human Body Systems
Gas exchange
The diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood capillaries
During inhalation, air is taken into the lungs through the nasal cavity, passing through the
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and finally alveoli.
Air that reaches the alveoli is called alveolar air. It is rich in oxygen and poor in carbon
dioxide. Blood that reaches the capillaries surrounding the alveoli is poor in oxygen and
rich in carbon dioxide.
Gas exchange takes place in the lungs by diffusion. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli
into the red blood cells in the capillaries. At the same time, the red blood cells in the
capillaries release carbon dioxide which diffuses into the alveoli.
The transport of oxygen by blood

The red blood cells contain the oxygen-carrying
pigment called hemoglobin. Oxygen combines
with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin. The
blood cells are transported around the body.
The diffusion of oxygen from the blood capillaries into the body cells
Gas exchange also takes place between the capillaries and the body cells. Oxygen has a
higher concentration in the capillaries than in the body cells. Carbon dioxide has a higher
concentration in the body cells than in the capillaries.
Oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen which diffuses into the body cells. Carbon dioxide
diffuses into the blood at the same time.
Air flow
CO2 Alveolus of lung

O2
O2 carried as
oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin in
red blood cells
Capillaries
Oxyhemoglobin
CO2 O2 releases oxygen.
Body cells
Gas exchanges at the lungs and body cells
6 Science
Taking care of our respiratory system
Our respiratory system is responsible for obtaining oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide
and aiding in speech production and in sensing odors. There are some factors that can affect
the health of our respiratory system and cause respiratory problems.
(a) Harmful substances

The air we breathe in may contain substances that are harmful to our respiratory system.
These substances may come from air pollutants such as cigarette smoke, gases from
factories, exhaust fumes from vehicles and haze. The table below shows the types of
harmful substances and their effects on our respiratory system.
Harmful
Sources Effects
substances
Nicotine Cigarette smoke • Causes addiction
• Constricts blood vessels, increases
blood pressure and stimulates the
heart, and raises the blood fat levels
Tar Cigarette smoke • Contains several cancer-causing
chemicals (carcinogen)
• Irritates the respiratory tract, causing
‘smoker’s cough’
Sulphur dioxide Cigarette smoke • Irritates the respiratory tract
Gases from factories • Causes temporary and permanent
damages to the lungs
Carbon Cigarette smoke • Reduces the ability of the blood to
monoxide Gases from factories carry oxygen as it combines with the
Fumes from vehicles hemoglobin in the red blood cells
faster than oxygen
• Can be fatal in high concentration
Dust Haze • Irritates the respiratory tract
• Causes difficult breathing in old and
sick patients
(b) Diseases of the respiratory system

Asthma is a chronic disorder of the lungs in which the airways are prone to constrict. This
may due to the patient’s sensitivity to air pollutants.
The patient may suffer wheezing, chest tightness,
coughing, and breathlessness that range in severity
from mild to life-threatening.
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi. This

may due to the infection by bacteria or viruses, or
chemicals such as those in the cigarette smoke.
Someone with chronic bronchitis has a chronic cough
and most of the symptoms of acute bronchitis, such
as shortness of breath and chest tightness almost We should consult a doctor if we have a
every day for months or years. cough that persists for a week or more.
Chapter 1 7
Human Body Systems
Emphysema is a condition due to the loss of air sacs within the lungs. This reduces the
surface area for gas exchange, leaving the person constantly short of breath. Smoking is the
leading cause of this disease.
Lung cancer is caused by uncontrolled growth of cells in the lungs. Cigarette smoking is the
leading cause of lung cancer. There is usually no clear symptom at the early stages, but once
detected the cancer cells may have spread from the lungs to other organs.
We must keep our respiratory system healthy in order for it to function properly. We must
practice good habits that help improve the quality of air we breathe in. We can
(a) avoid smoking
(b) avoid being a second-hand smoker
(c) minimize the use of air conditioners
(d) keep floor and carpet dust-free
(e) make sure a supply of fresh air
(f) avoid open burning
(g) turn off our vehicle if we are waiting for more than a minute
(h) practice the 3Rs
(i) implement laws and regulations to control air pollution
Q1. (a) Name the muscles that are used for breathing.
(b) Explain how the muscles mentioned in (a) are involved in inhalation.
Q2. If there is a hole in the chest wall, a person may not be able to breathe
even though his lungs are not damaged. Explain.
Q3. By what physical process does oxygen enter the blood capillaries from
1.1 the alveoli?
Q4. How does blood supply the body tissues with oxygen?
Q5. How do we keep our respiratory system healthy?
8 Science
1.2 Excretory System
Metabolism refers to all the chemical processes that take place in
the body. Metabolism may result in the production of waste products
Secretion is a form
which are often toxic.
of excretion.
The elimination of the metabolic waste products from the body is
called excretion. This is done by the excretory organs.
Defecation is not excretion because feces contain undigested

food which has not been absorbed into the cells or taken part in
metabolism.
Secretion is not a form
of excretion because The importance of excretion
secretion produces useful (a) Disposal of toxic or poisonous wastes. For examples, urea and
substances from cells. carbon dioxide.
The addition of digestive
juices to food materials is (b) Disposal of excess substances. For examples, salts and water.
an example of secretion.
The main excretory organs in humans are the skin, lungs and kidney.
Skin
The skin not only protects our body, but also acts as an excretory
organ. The skin has many sweat glands which produce sweat
when the body is hot. Each sweat gland is a long coiled tube.
Not all mammals sweat. The sweat gland leads to a sweat duct which opens on the skin
Dogs, for example, have
sweat glands only on the
surface as a sweat pore. Sweat is extracted from the blood
pads of their paws and capillaries surrounding the sweat glands. Sweat contains water,
they cool themselves mineral salts and urea
mainly by panting. When
a dog pants, water
evaporates from the mouth air
weat pore
weat pore
and tongue.
Epidermis
weat duct
ermis
weat gland
lood vessels
atty layer
Structure of human skin
Lungs
Visit this website to During cellular respiration, the cells produce carbon dioxide and
know more about
human excretory
water as waste products. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
system. capillaries into the alveoli. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are
expelled from the lungs by exhalation.
Chapter 1 9
Human Body Systems
Kidneys
Kidneys are the main organs in the excretory system. Humans have two kidneys found
in the abdomen just above the waist. The main function of the kidneys is to filter waste
products and excess water from the blood and excrete them from the body as urine.
Urine is a yellowish liquid that contains water, mineral salts and urea.
The urine from the kidney enters the ureters to the urinary bladder. The bladder stores
urine. When the bladder is full, the urine flows through the urethra to the exterior.
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
The pathway from the formation of urine to the excretion of urine is shown below:
Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra

We should take good care of our kidneys as they help to filter the blood. They remove
toxic waste materials from our body and regulate the balance of fluid and mineral salts
in our body. Humans can still lead a healthy life with only one healthy kidney. However, if
both kidneys fail, the patient may die if he does not go for treatment.
We must drink plenty of plain water to help flush out the waste materials. We should avoid
salty food. We should exercise more and eat more fruits and vegetables.
Q1. Define the term excretion and explain its importance to the body.
Q2. Complete the table below.
Excretory organ Waste products
Skin
Lungs
1.2 Kidneys
Q3. (a) Where are our kidneys in our body?

(b) State the function of each of these organs:
(i) Urethra
(ii) Urinary bladder
(iii) Ureter
Q4. How do we keep our excretory system healthy?
10 Science
1.3 Circulatory System
All the cells in our body need nutrients, oxygen and water. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide and
other waste materials produced by the cells must be removed.
An internal transport system is needed to deliver useful materials to the body cells and remove
the waste materials from them. The internal transport system is called the circulatory system
because useful materials as well as waste materials circulate the body.
A circulatory system has four basic characteristics:

(a) i tin i
The circulating fluid is called blood. Blood transports useful and waste materials.
(b) Pumping device

The pumping device is the heart. Blood is moved through the body by muscular
contractions of the heart.
(c) Blood vessels

A complex network of blood vessels carries materials to the tissues and back to
the heart. There are three main types of blood vessels, namely arteries, veins and
capillaries.
(d) Valves
Valves are present in some blood vessels to prevent backflow and ensure that blood flows
in one direction only.
Blood supply
to the brain
Arteries and Heart

veins in the arm
Blood supply
to the lungs
Large arteries supply

blood to the legs.
The heart and some major blood vessels
The human circulatory system is a double circulatory system. This means that in each
complete circuit of the body, the blood must flow through the heart twice.
The human double circulatory system consists of

(a) the pulmonary circulation which transports blood between the heart and the lungs, and
(b) the systemic circulation which transports blood between the heart and all other parts of
the body.
Chapter 1 11
Human Body Systems
The advantage of having a double circulatory system is that it
increases the pressure of the blood and the rate of flow, thereby
speeding up the delivery of materials to the tissues.
Head, neck
and arms
Pulmonary Pulmonary
artery Lungs vein
Aorta
Vena
cava
Heart
Hepatic Hepatic
vein artery
Liver
Hepatic Mesentery
portal vein artery
Stomach,
intestine
Key :
Renal vein Renal artery
Kidneys Oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated blood
Femoral vein Femoral artery Pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation
Legs
The human double circulatory system
Blood
Blood is the transport medium in the circulatory system. Blood

transports oxygen, water, and nutrients needed by our body and
waste materials such as carbon dioxide. Blood is made up of red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
ed blood cell carries latelet helps clot blood

oxygen. when there is an in ury.
There are fewer white
blood cells in the blood
than red blood cells. In
every cubic mm of blood,
there are about 3,000 –
7,000 white blood cells
compared to about 5
million red blood cells, that
is one white blood cell for
every 700 red blood cells.
lasma is the medium that carries hite blood cell helps defend
other blood components. the body from infections.
12 Science
Structure of the human heart
An adult human’s heart is about the size of a clenched fist. The heart
lies in the chest between the two lungs. The heart is a muscular
organ with walls made of cardiac muscles. The coronary arteries
supply nutrients and oxygen to the muscles while the coronary veins
remove wastes from the muscles.
The heart is divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers are
called auricles or atria (singular: atrium) and the two lower chambers
are called ventricles. The septum divides the heart into the right and
left halves.
To head and body
Our heart
From head and body
Aorta
Superior To lungs
vena cava
Pulmonary artery
From lungs
Semilunar
valves Pulmonary veins
Right auricle Left auricle
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve

An artificial heart is a
device that is connected Left ventricle
to a failing heart to help
Right ventricle Septum
it temporarily until it
recovers or until a heart Interior
transplant can be carried vena cava
out.
Key:
From trunk and legs Deoxygenated blood
Oxygenated blood
The structure of the human heart
The auricles have thinner walls than the ventricles. When the auricles
contract, blood is pushed into the ventricles below. The left ventricle
has a much thicker muscular wall than the right ventricle.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which lie next to the
heart. The left ventricle has to pump blood from the heart to the rest
of the body. The right auricle is connected to the right ventricle by the
tricuspid valve. The left auricle is connected to the left ventricle by
the bicuspid or mitral valve.
Semilunar valves are situated at the entrances of the aorta and the
pulmonary artery to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles.
The chordae tendineae prevent the valves from turning inside out
when the ventricles contract.
Chapter 1 13
Human Body Systems
Function of the human heart
When the heart squeezes or pumps, it pushes the blood out.
When it relaxes, blood rushes in to fill up the chambers.
The heart is made up of two pumps located side by side. The

right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood it receives
from the tissues to the lungs. Carbon dioxide is removed in the
lungs.
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood it receives

from the lungs to the rest of the body. Oxygen is removed in the
tissues for respiration.
The blood vessels
Smaller lumen
Thick layer of muscles
and elastic fibers
Artery
Very small lumen
One layer of cells
Capillary
Larger lumen Learn more about
your heart here.
Thin layer of muscles
and elastic fibers
Vein
Artery, capillary and vein
There are three types of blood vessels. They are arteries, veins and
capillaries.
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.
They deliver oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary artery.
The walls of arteries are much thicker and stronger than those of
veins because they have to withstand the high pressure of blood
coming from the heart.
14 Science
Veins
Veins are blood vessels which carry blood back to the heart. They deliver deoxygenated
blood, except the pulmonary veins. Veins have thinner walls than arteries because the
blood pressure in the veins is lower than in the arteries. Since the blood in the veins may
be moving against gravity, they contain valves to prevent the blood from flowing back.
Capillaries
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels which connect arteries and veins. They have walls
which are only one cell thick. Oxygen and nutrients move from the blood through the
capillary walls into the body cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide and other waste
products move from the cells into the blood.
B lo o d B o dy cel l
A rt ery V ein
O xyg en a n d n u t rien t s C a rb o n dio xi de a n d

mo ve in t o t h e b o dy cel l s. o t h er wa st e p ro du ct s
mo ve in t o t h e b l o o d.
Exchange of materials in capillaries
A summary of the differences of artery, vein and capillary is given in the table below.
Characteristic Artery Vein Capillary
Cross section • Circular • Oval • Circular
Size of wall • Has thick • Has thin muscular • Has very thin walls, only
muscular walls walls one cell thick
Valves • Absent (except in • Present • Absent

pulmonary artery)
Lumen • Narrow • Fairly wide • Very narrow
Color • Red • Bluish-red • Bluish-red
Oxygen • Oxygenated • Deoxygenated • Oxygenated blood to the

content blood (except in blood (except in tissues
pulmonary artery) pulmonary veins) • Deoxygenated blood
from the tissues
Differences of artery, vein and capillary
Chapter 1 15
Human Body Systems
The path of blood flow
The superior vena cava and interior vena cava carry deoxygenated
blood from various parts of the body to the heart. From the heart, the
pulmonary arteries carry the deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Gas
exchange occurs in the lungs.
Oxygenated blood is returned to the heart by the pulmonary veins.
Lungs
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein
Vena cava Aorta

A cardiologist is a doctor
who is specialized in
finding, treating and
Heart preventing diseases
Key :
of the heart and blood
Oxygenated
vessels. The cardiologist
Whole body blood
may preform heart
(except lungs) Deoxygenated surgeries.
blood
Pathway of blood flow in the circulatory system
Oxygenated blood leaves the heart via the aorta and is distributed
by arteries to all parts of the body (except the lungs). Gas exchange
occurs in the tissues and organs.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues and organs, except
the lungs back to the heart.
Heart rate
Each time our heart pumps or beats, it gives out a sound ‘lup-dup’.
This regular beating of the heart is known as pulse. Heart rate or
pulse rate is the times a person’s heart beat per minute. Normal heart
rate varies from person to person. A healthy adult has a heart rate
between 60 to 100 beats per minute. We can measure our heart rate
by counting the beats for a set period of time.
• Place your index and middle

finger on the underside of
your opposite wrist, below
the base of the thumb.
• Count the number of beats
for 30 seconds.
• Then multiply that number by
2 to get the beats per minute.
16 Science
Com pari n g heart rate at res t an d heart rate
af ter ex erc i s i n g
Materials/Apparatus: Stopwatch
Procedure:
1. Turn your left hand so that your palm is face-up.
2. Put the index finger and middle finger of your right hand on the side of your left wrist,
at the base of your thumb.
3. Press your skin lightly until you can feel your pulse.
4. Using a stopwatch, count your pulse for 1 minute.
5. Now, do frog jumps for 20 times. Then, count your pulse for 1 minute.
6. Sit still for 10 minutes. Count your pulse for a minute after the rest.
Observation:
1. The heart rate before exercising is about 70 beats per minutes.
2. The heart rate immediately after exercising is more than 120 beats per minute.
3. The heart rate after resting returns to about 70 beats per minutes.
Discussion:
More energy is needed to carry out activities. This increases the demand for oxygen and
food in the body to provide the extra energy. Our heart beats faster to deliver both oxygen
and food to the muscles and also to get rid of the waste materials. This is why our heart
rate increases when we exercise.
Conclusion:
Our heart rate increases when we exercise.
We need to take care of our circulatory system. It is responsible for bringing nutrients and
oxygen to all the cells in the body. Heart diseases are the leading cause of death globally
including Thailand. We should
(a) reduce fats in our food. Eat more fruits and vegetables.
(b) exercise regularly to keep body weight down, lower blood pressure and strengthen the
heart.
(c) quit smoking.
(d) relax and get enough of quality rest.
(e) reduce alcohol consumption.
Q1. Relate the characteristics of arteries, veins and capillaries to their

functions.
Q2. Which chamber of the heart has the thickest wall?
Q3. What advantage arises from returning oxygenated blood to the heart
before it circulates around the body?
1.3 Q4. How do we keep our circulatory system healthy?
Chapter 1 17
Human Body Systems
1.4 Nervous System
Our nervous system helps detect changes from inside the body
and outside environment and generate responses to the changes.
It controls the functions of other organs in our body too. The human
nervous system is made up of two main components, namely the
central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Brain
Cranial nerves
Central
nervous system Peripheral
nervous system
Spinal cord Spinal nerves
The human nervous system
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal
cord.
Central nervous system

New drugs are being
developed to improve
our memory.
Spinal cord Brain
Experimental results
have shown that
The brain is encased in the bony skull, which protects it from injuries. genetically modified
It consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, thalamus mice outperform normal
mice in learning and
and hypothalamus.
memory tasks.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is the center for
thinking, reasoning, speech and memory. It also initiates and controls
all voluntary actions like walking, writing and jumping.
The cerebellum is located below the cerebrum near the top of the
spinal cord. It coordinates body movements and maintains the body
balance.
The medulla oblongata controls and coordinates all involuntary

actions such as digestion, respiration and the beating of the heart.
18 Science
Thalamus
Cerebrum
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
The human brain
The hypothalamus plays an important role in homeostasis regulation.

It controls the body temperature, osmoregulation, sexual function,
thirst, hunger, emotional activity and sleep.
The thalamus is responsible for the incoming and outgoing

information in the brain.
The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and emerges from an
opening at the base of the skull. The spinal cord is protected by the
spinal column.
The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves and

spinal nerves.
Peripheral nervous system
Spinal nerves Cranial nerves
The spinal nerves emerge at intervals along the spinal cord. The
cranial nerves emerge from the brain.
Neuron
The human nervous system is made up of nerve cells called neurons.

A neuron transmits information in the form of an electrical impulse.
Alzheimer’s disease is Each neuron consists of a cell body which contains a nucleus and
caused by degenerating fine cytoplasmic extensions called dendrites.
neurons in the brain,
leading to intellectual Cell body Node of Ranvier
impairment, memory loss,
Terminal
confusion and loss of the
dendrites
orientation of time and Dendrites
space. Because of this,
people who suffer of this
disease become very
Dendron
forgetful and often lose
their way. Myelin sheath
Nucleus Axon
The structure of a typical neuron
Chapter 1 19
Human Body Systems
Structure Function
Axon The long fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body.
Dendron The short fiber that conducts impulses towards the cell body.
The terminal branches found at the end of the axons and dendrons
Dendrites
which receive or transmit impulses.
The layer of fatty substance surrounding the axons or dendrons that
Myelin sheath
serves as an insulating layer.
The intervals along the axon without myelin sheath that help to speed
Node of Ranvier
up the transmission of impulses.
Functions of different parts of a neuron
There are three types of neurons, namely sensory neuron, interneuron and motor neuron.
Nucleus
Dendrites Dendrites
Terminal
Axon Nucleus
dendrites
Cell body Cell body

Axon
Nucleus Axon
Flow of impulses
Cell body
Flow of impulses Flow of

Flow of impulses impulses
from receptor Terminal to effector
dendrites
Dendron Axon
Cell body
Nucleus
Dendrites Terminal
Dendrites
dendrites
Dendron
ensory neuron nterneuron otor neuron
Types of neurons
Sensory neuron Interneuron Motor neuron

Axon Short Short Long
Dendron Long Short Short
Cell body In the middle, in the In the middle, in the At one end, in the grey
dorsal ganglion grey matter matter of the spinal cord
Function To transmit nerve To relay impulses To transmit nerve
impulses from the from the sensory impulses from the
receptors to the neurons to motor central nervous system
central nervous neurons to the effectors
system
Comparison of motor neuron, interneuron and sensory neuron
20 Science
Pathway of transmission of information
When a receptor (such as an eye) receives a stimulus (such as a light), it will send out the
information in the form of nerve impulses. These impulses are transmitted along the sensory
neuron to the central nervous system.
Cell body
Stimulus
Central nervous
system Sensory
neuron Receptor
Interneuron
Flow of impulse Effector(brings

about response)
Motor neuron
Pathway of transmission of information
The central nervous system will interpret and then send out impulses to the effectors (such as
hand) via the motor neuron. When the nerve impulses reach the effector, a response is made
(such as moving the hand). Two examples are shown below.
Example 1
Responding to a tap on the shoulder
A Receptors in the B Sensory neurons

skin sense a tap transmit the touch
or other stimulus. message to the brain.
C The message is
interpreted. A
response is sent to
the motor neurons.
E The neck muscles D Motor neurons

are activated, transmit a response
causing the head message to the
to turn. shoulder muscles.
The transmission pathway of information when responding to a tap on the shoulder
Chapter 1 21
Human Body Systems
Example 2
Responding to a mosquito bite
4 The brain receives

the message about
the itchy skin.
4
5 The brain decides that
5
you should scratch
3 The message is sent 3 your arm with your
to the brain. right hand. It sends a
6 message back to the
2 spinal cord.
1 7
2 The receptors send 6 The message is sent
a message to the to the muscles of the
spinal cord via your right hand through
sensory neurons. the motor neuron.
1 Receptors in your 7 The muscles move

skin detect an itch your hand to scratch
on your arm. the itchy skin.
The transmission pathway of information when responding to a mosquito bite
Therefore, for body coordination to take place, there must be a stimulus, a receptor to pick up
the stimulus and an effector to carry out the response. All receptors must send the information
to the brain. The brain will interpret and produce an appropriate response.
The nervous system is very important. As the brain controls almost everything, other parts
of the body may suffer serious effects if the brain is not functioning well. Inherited diseases,
brain disorders associated with mental illnesses, and head injuries can affect the way the
brain works and upset the daily activities of the rest of the body.
We should
(a) avoid injuries to the brain and spinal cord by wearing safety gear when engaging in
extreme sports, safety helmets when riding motorcycles and safety belts when travelling
in cars.
(b) avoid smoking, taking drugs and taking alcohol as these substances can harm the brain.
(c) exercise regularly.
(d) eat a balanced diet.
(e) maintain a healthy weight.
(f) rest well and manage stress well.
22 Science
Q1. Name the components in the human nervous system.
Q2. What are the functions of these parts of the brain?

(a) Cerebrum
(b) Cerebellum
(c) Medulla oblongata
1.4 Q3. (a) What is the smallest functional unit in the nervous system?
(b) How many types are there? State their names and their functions.
Q4. How do we take care of our nervous system?
Inhalation Exhalation
Ways to
Skin Lungs Kindeys take care
Breathing Gas Ways to
Structure mechanism exchange take care
Respiratory system Excretory system
Human Body Systems
Circulatory system Nervous system
Blood Ways to Central Peripheral

Heart Blood Ways to
vessels take care Neuron nervous nervous take care
system system
Vein Artery Capillary Sensory Motor

Interneuron
neuron neuron
Chapter 1 23
Human Body Systems
Fill in the blanks with the given words.
alveoli capillary motor neuron cerebellum

kidneys vein neurons medulla oblongata
trachea interneuron cerebrum central nervous system
diffuses sensory neuron heart artery
lungs
1 The pathway for air entering our lungs:
Nose ➞ ➞ Bronchus ➞ Bronchiole ➞ Alveolus
2. have a large surface area, a very thin wall and moist surface to
assist in the exchange of gases.
3. Oxygen in the alveolus into the blood capillaries surrounding

the alveolus. Carbon dioxide from the blood capillaries diffuses into the alveolus.
4. There are three excretory organs in our excretory system.

Excretory organ Excretory products
Skin Water, urea, mineral salts
Carbon dioxide, water
Water, urea, mineral salts
5. Human’s circulatory system is made up of the , blood and

network of blood vessels.
6. There are three types of blood vessels, namely

• – carries blood away from the heart to other parts of the body
and has no valve.
• – carries blood to the heart from other parts of the body and
contains valves.
• – the finest blood vessel that connects the artery and vein.
7. Our nervous system is made up of which consists of the brain

and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system.
8. The brain consists the , , ,

thalamus and hypothalamus.
9. Nerve cells are known as .
10. There are three types of neurons, namely , ,
and .
24 Science
tifi i n
Scientists are developing artificial lungs for patients with serious lung diseases. The artificial
lung is a prosthetic device that is intended to take over some of the functions of the real lungs.
Scientists create models to study complex systems in our body. Can you and your team
design and create a model of lungs in order to facilitate the study of our breathing process?
Guidelines:
1. Can you use your model to show the effects of smoking on the lungs?
2. Can you use your model to explain the consequences of puncturing your chest
cavity?
What is your need?

Define/describe the problem to be solved and set your goal.
What do you have to know?

Research and cite sources of information your group used to gather.
What are your possible solutions?

Brainstorm for various solutions and choose the best one.
Chapter 1 25
Human Body Systems
What is your plan?
Draw a detailed sketch of the prototype to be used including materials.
Build your prototype.

Follow your plan and build a prototype to make your ideas real!
How does it work?

Record observations related to the testing and evaluation.
Prepare your presentation.

Reflect on your design solutions.
26 Science
1. Figure 1 shows a part of the respiratory system.
(a) What are the structures labelled Q, R and S?
(b) During inhalation, what happens to
(i) the volume of the thorax,
S
(ii) the pressure in the thorax? R P
(c) What is the function of the structure labelled S?

Q
2. Figure 2 shows three human excretory organs.
J K L
(a) What is excretion?
(b) Name the organs in Figure 2.
(c) List the excretory products removed by each of the organs.
(d) What will happen if the waste products are not removed from our body?
(e) List two ways to take care of our excretory system.
3. The chart below shows the flow of oxygenated blood in our heat.
Left auricle Pulmonary vein Left ventricle Whole body
Lungs
(a) Fill up the chart with the given words.

(b) What is the structure that prevents backflow of blood in the circulatory system?
(c) Why does the left ventricle have a thicker wall than the right ventricle?
Chapter 1 27
Human Body Systems
e
How do w
?
reproduce
2
Chapter
Human
Reproduction
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to
• identify the organs and describe the functions of the

identify the organs and describe the functions
male and female reproductive systems using a model.
male and female reproductive systems
• explain the effects of testosterone and estrogen

hormones that regulate body changes during puberty.
• realize the physical changes when reaching puberty and

know how to take care of themselves both mentally and
physically to cope with the changes.
• explain menstrual cycle, fertilization, pregnancy, zygote

development and the process of giving birth.
• understand the proper methods of birth control.
• realize the impacts of teenage pregnancy by conducting

themselves properly.
2.1 Male Reproductive System
The male sexual organs consist of the testis (plural: testes) and penis. The two testes lie
outside the abdominal cavity in a special sac called the scrotum.
In this position, the testes are maintained at a temperature about 2°C lower than the body
temperature. This favors sperm production.
Each testis is connected to the epididymis and sperm duct. The two sperm ducts lead to
the urethra, which runs through the penis to the exterior. The urethra at different times carries
either urine or sperms.
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Sperm duct
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Cowper’s gland
Urethra
Penis
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum
(a) Front view
The penis contains many blood spaces which during copulation, become filled with blood.
This erects the penis, allowing it to penetrate into the female’s vagina.
Ureter
Urinery bladder Seminal vesicle

Sperm duct
Prostate gland
Cowper’s gland
Urethra
Epididymis
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
b ide view
The human male reproductive system
The head of the penis, called the glans, is covered by the foreskin. The foreskin is removed
by an operation known as circumcision.
Three glands open into the sperm ducts – the prostate gland, Cowper’s glands and seminal
vesicle.
Chapter 2 29
Human Reproduction
Structure Function
Testes • Produce sperms.
Scrotum • Holds the testes outside the body.
• Protects the testes.
Penis • Places sperms in the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Epididymis • Stores sperms.
Sperm ducts • Carry sperms from the testes to the urethra.
Urethra • Carries sperms and urine out of the body.
Seminal vesicle • Secretes fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms.
Prostate gland • Secretes fluid that neutralizes the acidity of urine and the female
vagina.
Cowper’s gland • Secretes a lubricating fluid that aids sperm movement.
Structures and functions of the male reproductive system
Sperms
The male gametes are the sperms. Each sperm consists of a head, a middle piece and
a long tail.
Middle
le piece
Tail Head
Nucleus
The structure of a human sperm
The role of the sperm is to swim towards the female gamete (ovum) and fuses with it to form
a zygote.. The zygote will develop into an adult individual.
Q1. The figure at the side shows the side view

of the male reproductive system. P
Q
(a) Name structures P, Q and R.
(b) What are the functions of P, Q and R ?

2.1 Q2. (a) What are sperms?
R
(b) State the parts of a sperm
(c) In your opinion, can the sperms move?

Give your reason.
30 Science
2.2 Female Reproductive
System
A female has a pair of ovaries attached to the lower part of the
abdomen.
The Fallopian tubes (oviducts) are thin, muscular tubes. At one end,
the Fallopian tubes open out as funnel-shaped structures close to the
ovaries. At the opposite end, they lead into the uterus (womb).
The pear-shaped uterus has thick, muscular wall. The uterus is

connected to a muscular tube called the vagina.
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Visit this website to Vulva
know more detail
about the organs
in the female (a) Front view
reproductive system.
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Uterus
Urinary bladder Cervix

Vagina
Urethra
b ide view
The human female reproductive system
The cervix is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus where it
joins the vagina. The vagina opens to the outside through the vulva.
Chapter 2 31
Human Reproduction
Structure Function
Ovary • Produces ovum (egg).
Fallopian tube • Carries ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
Uterus • Place where the embryo develops.
• Secretes mucus that enhances sperm movement into the uterus.
Cervix
• Prevents large foreign bodies from entering uterus.
• Place where sperms are deposited.
Vagina
• Birth canal.
Structures and functions of the female reproductive system
An ovum
The female gamete is the ovum. The ovum is larger than the sperm and it is spherical-shaped.
Membrane
Nucleus Cytoplasm
The structure of a human ovum
The ovum fuses with the sperm to form a zygote during fertilization. The ovum stores some
food in its cytoplasm. The food is used to nourish the embryo which develops from the
zygote.
Aspect Male gamete Female gamete Notes

Size • Very small • Larger than • The human egg is 0.1 mm in diameter while
the sperm the sperm has a width of 0.0025 mm at the
widest region of the sperm head.
Number • Very large • Very few • A healthy male produces about 300 million
numbers sperms every day. The ovaries, each
produces one egg on alternate months.
Motility • Motile • Non-motile • Whip-like movement of the tail propels the
sperm towards the ovum.
Differences between male and female gametes
Q1. State the functions of the Fallopian tube, uterus and vagina.
Q2. What are the differences between the human male and female gametes
in terms of size, number and motility?
2.2
32 Science
2.3 Puberty
Puberty is a stage in humans when our body undergoes many changes that make us sexually
mature. Puberty usually begins between the ages of 10 and 13 in girls and 12 and 15 in boys.
Puberty does not happen all at once. It comes in stages and takes many years. Some might
have signs of puberty at an early age, while other changes show up years later. Everyone
goes through puberty at one s own pace as our bodies are unique.
Hormones
When we reach a certain age, our brain releases some hormones known as follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) that start the sign of puberty. Hormones are a
kind substance produced by our body to control and regulate the activities of certain cells
or organs.
In boys, these hormones stimulate the testes to produce testosterone,

testosterone a sex hormone.
This sex hormone is responsible for a wide variety of secondary sex characteristics in boys.
Testosterone stimulates the production of sperms in the testes too.
rain
and
and and
and
estis in
estis in
vary in
boys
girls
estosterone Estrogen
Estrogen and
hysical, social and
hysical, social and progesterone
emotional changes
emotional changes
In girls, the hormones released by the brain target the ovaries. They stimulate the maturation
of ova and the production of estrogen and progesterone, the main sex hormones. Estrogen
is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in girls. These hormones are important
for normal reproductive functions including the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Changes during puberty
With the onset of puberty, adolescences undergo many physical, social and emotional
changes due to the surge of hormones. Some of the physical changes are for both boys and
girls, whereas there are some that depend on the gender. Both genders experience
acne problem
rapid gains in height and weight
growth of underarm hair and pubic hair
Chapter 2 33
Human Reproduction
Beside these common physical changes, they also experience certain specific changes.
eepening of voice
ore body hair

reast eniargement
ider hip
enis and testes enstruation

enlargement et
dreams
Specific changes in boys Specific changes in girls
Both genders go through some social changes. They usually will

search and begin to set for their own identity with their own set of beliefs and moral values.
They tend to be closer to their friends than to their parents.
seek more independence, experiences and responsibility. They want to be like adults,
doing what adults do even when it is not age-appropriate. They are likely to engage in
more risk-taking behaviors.
Some of the emotional changes the adolescence might experience are
emotional ups and downs. Their moods might seem unpredictable, showing strong feelings
and emotions at different times. This can lead to conflicts.
becoming more self-conscious. They are more conscious of how they talk and dressed,
and how others think of them.
being bulletproof’. They often do things without thinking of the consequences.
Coping with changes
Knowing how to deal with the changes during puberty is important for both genders to
experience a smoother transition into adulthood. They need to accept and be prepared for
changes. Everyone go through puberty. Some have it earlier and some have it later. They can
talk to parents or look for information from books or internet to address the worrying issues.
Adolescences need to learn to manage their mood swings. If they are feeling angry, they can
try counting to 10 and taking a few big deep breaths before they say or do anything. They can
try to relax by exercising, listening to music and writing down their thoughts.
Q1. What is puberty?
Q2. Where are the sex hormones produced in girls and boys?
Q3. List the physical changes a boy and a girl undergo during puberty.
2.3 Q4. List the ways to deal with the changes during puberty.
34 Science
2.4 Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle is the repeated cycle of events which occurs every 28 days from
puberty (when ovum production begins) to menopause (when ovum production stops).
The main function of the menstrual cycle is to provide a favorable environment in the
uterus for the development of the zygote.
In most women, the menstrual cycle varies from 24 to 34 days, averaging 28 days. The
menstrual cycle starts when the female is about 12 years old and menopause occurs when
the female is about 45 years old.
Menstruation is the discharge of the uterine lining and blood through the vagina. The start of
the menstrual cycle is considered as the first day of menstruation (day 1) and ends the day
before the next menstruation starts.
Decrease in If ovum is
thickness of Lining becomes not fertilized,
lining to a thicker with increased Lining becomes very thick; uterine lining
minimum. blood supply. ready to receive the ovum if fertilized. breaks down.
Thickness
of uterine
lining
Developing
ovum
Menstruation Ovulation Menstruation

Time
0 5 14 28 (days)
Beginning of End of
menstruation menstruation
The menstrual cycle
Days in the cycle Event in the menstrual cycle
1–5 • Menstruation
Discharge of unfertilized egg, uterine lining and blood.
6 – 13 • Rebuilding and thickening of the uterine lining.
14 • Ovulation
Release of ovum from the ovary.
15 – 25 • Continued thickening of the uterine lining by increasing blood

supply and tissue.
26 – 28 • terine lining begins to break down.
Major events in the menstrual cycle
Chapter 2 35
Human Reproduction
The fertile period is the period around the time of ovulation when a
woman can become pregnant if she has intercourse. It is between
day 11 and day 17 of the cycle.
The fertile period is calculated based on the assumption that sperms

can survive up to three days in the woman’s body while ovulation can
occur any time between day 13 and day 15 and the ovum lives for
about 36 hours after ovulation.
Personal hygiene during menstruation

Sanitary pads (sanitary towels) are worn as a lining on the
underwear to absorb the menstrual discharge. This will prevent
the discharge from staining the clothes.
The sanitary pads should be changed about every four hours to
prevent unpleasant odor.
Some women prefer to wear tampons which are inserted into the
vagina by means of an applicator.
Tampons should not be used continually throughout the menstrual Visit this website to
period. know more about the
menstrual cycle.
Tampons should be changed every four hours during the day and
external sanitary pads should be worn at night.
Q1. The figure below shows the relative thickness of

the uterine lining during a menstrual cycle of a
healthy woman.
uterine lining
Thickness of
2.4
Time
P Q R S T (days)
(a) Explain what happens between day P and

day Q ?
(b) What is the normal length of time between P
and Q ?
(c) What is ovulation ?
(d) Which letter represents the day ovulation
occurs?
(e) What happens to the uterine lining between
day Q and day R ?
(f) What is the average length of time from day
P to day T ?
Q2. Explain what is meant by the fertile period in the

menstrual cycle.
36 Science
2.5 Fertilization and
Pregnancy
Fertilization is the process whereby the sperm fuses with the ovum
to form the zygote. It occurs in the upper part of the Fallopian tube.
Only one sperm is needed to fertilize the ovum.
The rapid growth and development of a baby between the zygote

stage and birth is called pregnancy. The zygote undergoes cell
division as it travels down the Fallopian tube towards the uterus. The
zygote forms a ball of cells and is known as an embryo.
3. Sperms swim along the Fallopian tube.
4. Sperms swim around the

egg if it is present.
2.. Sperms swim up through the uterus.
1.. Sperms enter the vagina.

Visit this website
to watch a short
video on fertilization The journey of the sperms to the Fallopian tube
process in humans.
About seven days after fertilization, the embryo embeds in the tissues
of the uterine lining. This process is called implantation.
2. Zygote undergoes repeated cell divisions.
Embryo
1. Ovum is fertilized by a sperm.

Ovary
Uterus
3. Embryo implants into the uterine wall.
Stages leading to implantation
Besides providing
nutrients to the embryo During this early stage of pregnancy, the embryo obtains its
or fetus, the placenta
attaches the embryo or nourishment from the nutrients in the ovum and the uterine lining.
fetus to the uterine wall
and also transfers waste The surfaces of the embryo and the uterus lining bind firmly to form
products to the mother s a large disc called the placenta. The job of nourishing the embryo is
blood.
taken over by the placenta.
Chapter 2 37
Human Reproduction
By eight weeks after fertilization, the developing embryo becomes clearly human and is
called a fetus.
Placenta Placenta
Umbilical cord Fetus
Embryo
Amniotic fluid
Four weeks
Four weeks Ten weeks
Placenta
Placenta
Fetus
Umbilical cord
Fetus Umbilical cord Amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid
Nine
Ninemonths
months Five months
Growth and development of the fetus in the uterus
At the placenta, the fetal and maternal blood vessels flow very close to each other but do not
mix.
The fetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord has two blood
vessels:
an umbilical artery which carries carbon dioxide and other wastes from the fetus to the
placenta.
an umbilical vein which carries blood containing oxygen and food from the placenta to
the fetus.
Fetus
Umbilical
artery Capillary network
in the placenta
Diffusion of CO2
and urea
Diffusion of O2, food

Umbilical materials and antibodies
vein Blood space
of mother
Placenta Uterine lining
Exchange of materials across the placenta
Oxygen, soluble food, water and salts pass from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood.
Carbon dioxide and nitrogeneous waste pass from the fetal blood into the mother’s blood.
38 Science
The fetus is completely surrounded by a membrane called the
amnion. The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid. The nioti i
protects the embryo and later the fetus by cushioning it from physical
damage.
The time taken for the full development of a fetus is forty weeks. This
is often known as the gestation period. In humans, birth occurs in
three main stages:
The expansion of the cervix so that the baby’s head can pass into
the vagina.
The strong contractions of the uterus which push the baby out of
the mother’s body.
Further contractions of the uterus to expel the umbilical cord and
placenta from the mother’s body.
Q1. Describe how a fetus

(a) receives nutrients from its mother, and
(b) is protected in its mother’s womb from
mechanical injury.
Q2. The figure shows how the fetus is connected to

2.5 the placenta.
Placenta
Fetus
P
(a) (i) Name two substances which pass

along the pathway marked P.
(ii) By what process do the substances
enter the mother s blood?
(b) (i) Name two useful substances which
might pass along the pathway marked
Q.
(ii) Name two harmful substances which
might pass along the pathway marked
Q.
(c) How long does it take after fertilization for
the developing embryo to become a fetus?
Chapter 2 39
Human Reproduction
2.6 Importance of Pre-natal
Care
During the pre-natal period, the fetus relies upon its mother for all
functions. The healthier the mother, the stronger and healthier the
baby will be.
Diet
During pregnancy, the mother has to provide the necessary
nutrients for the growth of her fetus as well as for her own
needs.
Extra protein is required during pregnancy to allow for the
growth of the fetus and extra tissues in the mother such as
the placenta, uterus, blood and breasts.
The mother’s diet should also contain sufficient vitamin D,
calcium, phosphorus, iron, folic acid and vitamin C.
Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium and
phosphorus. Calcium and phosphorus are essential for
the formation of fetal bones. If the mother’s diet is deficient
in these two elements, they will be absorbed from her own
bones.
Iron and folic acid are needed for the formation of fetal
blood.
Deficiency of folic acid is linked to defects in the central
nervous system.
Vitamin C is associated with the formation of healthy skin.
Cigarette smoke
Cigarette smoke contains carbon monoxide, nicotine and
tar.
Cigarette smoking reduces the amount of oxygen available
to the fetus because carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen
carrying capacity of hemoglobin.
Nicotine causes the blood vessels to constrict. This reduces
blood flowing through the placenta.
Mothers who smoke deliver babies with lower-than-average
birth weights.
Premature births and late miscarriages are more common in
smokers.
40 Science
Alcohol
Alcohol can pass through the placenta easily. When a woman drinks heavily during
pregnancy, the baby may be born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
FAS babies have mental retardation, small brains, poor muscle bone, low birth weight
and behavioral problems such as hyperactivity and poor concentration.
Drugs
The fetus is very sensitive to drugs such as cocaine and heroin. If a mother is
addicted to one of these drugs, her fetus is also likely to become addicted and will
show withdrawal symptoms after birth.
Permanent brain damage of the fetus results in mental retardation or behavioral
problems in later life. The babies have low birth weights and heart defects in severe
cases.
Q1. Why should a pregnant woman not smoke cigarettes?
Q2. Why is it important for a pregnant woman to have more vitamin D and
calcium in her diet?
2.6
2.7 Importance of Research in Human

Reproduction
Sterility or infertility, as defined by the World Health Organization, is the failure of a couple
to procreate (to reproduce) despite seriously attempting to do so for at least 12 months.
Male sterility may be due to:
a low sperm count
low motility and energy of sperms
drug abuse such as cocaine
chronic alcoholism
malnutrition
Female sterility may be due to:

blocked Fallopian tube
fibroids in the uterus
hormonal imbalance
weight problem
Chapter 2 41
Human Reproduction
Ways to overcome sterility
Nutrition
Avoid being either significantly overweight or underweight.

Being too thin or too fat can interfere with ovulation.
Zinc is among the most important nutrient minerals because

it is directly related to sperm motility.
L-arginine is necessary to maintain a normal sperm count.
Hormonal treatment
The injection of small amounts of specific female sex hormones

into the body to stimulate the eggs to mature and to induce
ovulation.
Surgery
Surgery is needed for fibroid removal and tubal reconstruction.
In-vitro fertilization (IVF)
IVF is now becoming an accepted medical practice used

when the doctor is convinced that there is an irremediable
obstruction of both Fallopian tubes and the husband’s sperm
can never reach the wife’s ovum.
IVF is what most people think of as ‘test-tube baby’ treatment. A gynaecologist or

obstetrician gives
In IVF, the woman is given daily hormone injections that specialized medical
treatment and advice
stimulate her ovaries to produce ova. The mature ova are related to the female
suctioned from her ovaries and placed in petri dishes filled reproductive system
with culture medium. and care for women
during pregnancy and
The ova are fertilized with her husband’s sperms. The petri childbirth. Much of his/
her work involves caring
dishes are placed in an incubator. for women who have
difficult or complicated
After about 48 hours, one or more embryos are transferred pregnancies.
into the woman’s uterus through a catheter for implantation
to take place.
42 Science
Methods of birth control
Nowadays, most couples have the idea of planning for an ideal family size. This is called
family planning or birth control.
Birth control methods can be natural, mechanical, hormonal, chemical or surgical.
Method Mode of action Advantage Disadvantage Effectiveness

Rhythm • sing cervical • Natural • nreliable • 75 – 99
(Natural) mucus changes • No cost • Requires reliable
and body • No medical or ongoing,
temperature hormonal side accurate record
measurements effects. keeping of fertile
to estimate the • Acceptable in most period.
time of ovulation religions.
and avoiding
intercourse
during the fertile
period.
Condom • Thin, disposable • No side effects • Slight decreased • 86 – 98

(Mechanical) latex sheath that • ives some sensation for the reliable
is placed over protection against male.
the penis prior sexually transmitted • Can break or
to intercourse to diseases (STDs) leak.
prevent sperms including Human • Latex allergies
from entering Immunodeficiency
vagina. virus (HIV).
Intrauterine • Small plastic or • Provides protection • Increases • 98 – 99

contraceptive copper device for 8-10 years. menstrual flow. reliable
device that is placed • Increases
(IUCD) into the uterus risk of pelvic
(Mechanical) by a doctor inflammatory
to prevent disease and
implantation. infertility.
• Does not protect
against STDs.
• Cramps.
Contraceptive • Pills containing • Reliable if taken • May cause side • 95 - 99

pills specific regularly effects such reliable
(Hormonal) hormones • Makes monthly as nausea and
which prevent period more regular. weight gain.
ovulation. • Lowers the risks • Does not protect
of ovarian cancer against STDs.
and endometrial
cancer.
Chapter 2 43
Human Reproduction
Method Mode of action Advantage Disadvantage Effectiveness
Spermicides • Foams, jellies or • Inexpensive • Messy to use • 94 reliable
(Chemical) creams placed • Can be used with • Must be
in vagina prior condom. applied before
to intercourse. intercourse.
They chemically • May cause
kill sperms. allergies.
Vasectomy • Sperm ducts are • Most reliable • Requires • 99.5 - 99.9
(Surgical) cut and tied to method surgery. reliable
prevent sperms • No hormonal side • Operation
from leaving the effects can rarely be
ducts. reversed.
Tubal • Fallopian tubes • Most reliable • Requires • 99.5 - 99.9
ligation are cut and tied method surgery. reliable
(Surgical) to prevent ovum • No hormonal side • Operation
from leaving the effects can rarely be
tubes. reversed.
Fallopian tube
is cut and tied
IUCD
Ovary
Sperm duct
Strings is cut and
tied
(a) IUCD (b) Vasectomy (c) Tubal ligation
Some methods of birth control
The positive effects of birth control on the community
To overcome the problem of overpopulation.

To have fewer children so that the family can achieve the best standard of living. For
example, providing each member of the family with comfortable shelter, adequate
clothing, nourishing food and the highest level of education possible.
Prevents unplanned pregnancies.
Fewer unwanted babies will be abandoned or thrown into rubbish dumps, rivers and
bushes.
44 Science
The negative effects of birth control on
the community
Birth control is considered as a form of silent abortion.

Encourages immorality and illicit sex.
Some methods of birth control result in circulatory disorders, pain
You may find out
other methods of
and permanent infertility.
birth control at this
website.
The importance of research on human
reproduction
In 1972, the World Health Organization launched the NDP/ NFPA/

WHO/World Bank Special Program of Research, Development and
Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP).
HRP is a global program of technical co-operation. It promotes,

The World Health
Organization (WHO)
conducts and evaluates research on human reproduction, with
estimates that particular reference to the needs of developing countries.
approximately eight to
ten percent of couples The researches focus on
experience some form of menopause (time when a woman’s reproductive capacity stops)
infertility. This means that
50-80 million people in the improvement of knowledge in treatment of infertility
world suffer from infertility.
improvement of birth control
treatment and prevention of cancer (such as the cancers of the
ovary, uterus and prostate gland)
treatment and prevention of birth defects
Teenage pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy has a serious impact on the future of a young

woman. Any teen pregnancy will be a challenge as immature
teenagers typically lack of skills needed to handle a pregnancy
and motherhood. Teenage mothers are more likely to suffer health,
social, and emotional problems. A teen pregnancy may also impact
the baby.
Medical complications – Most teenagers do not seek medical

attention during pregnancy. This may lead to some medical
complication such as anemia, high blood pressure and premature
birth of the baby. The baby maybe may suffer from low birth-weight,
blindness, deafness and respiratory problems.
Delayed education – Pregnant teenagers may stop schooling due

to the extra responsibilities and exhaustion from being pregnant and
taking care of the baby. They may land up in a poorly paid job.
Chapter 2 45
Human Reproduction
Emotional crisis – They will usually suffer from stress, depression and lack of acceptance
and support from families.
o e it fin n e – Teenagers do not have full-time job to raise a baby. They may
struggle to support the basic expenses of the baby. This may lead to abandonment of babies.
Therefore, teenage pregnancy can be avoided by practicing abstinence. The best way to
prevent pregnancy is not to have sex. Abstinence means abstaining from intercourse. Know
the consequences of having sex such as unplanned pregnancies and sexual transmitted
diseases. Remember, it is your choice how to use your body. Do not let someone pressure
you into having sex.
Q1. In 1987, the first so–called test tube baby’ was born. ive a brief
description of this form of fertilization.
Q2. Name a birth control method for each of the following categories:
(a) Method that prevents sperms from reaching the egg
(b) Method that prevents ovulation
2.7 (c) Method that prevents implantation of the embryo
Q3. State the negative effects of teenage pregnancy.
Sterility Birth control
Research in human reproduction
Human
Reproduction
Male reproductive Female reproductive

system system
Puberty
Fertilization
Menstrual Pre-natal
and
cycle care
pregnancy
Changes in Changes in
boys girls
46 Science
hormones abstinence non-motile ovulation

testes birth control ovaries estrogen
umbilical cord menstruation testosterone sterility
puberty larger Fallopian tube progesterone
1. The produce sperms (male gametes).
2. The produce ova (female gametes, singular: ovum).
3. An ovum is than a sperm but it is

compared to a sperm.
4. During , boys and girls go through a few physical, social and

emotional changes.
5. are substances produced by our body that control the activities

of certain cells or organs.
6. The sex hormone in males is .
7. The sex hormones in females are and .
8. is the periodical discharge of blood from the uterus through

the vagina.
9. is the release of an ovum from an ovary. This usually occurs on

the 14th day after the first day of menstruation.
10. Fertilization usually occurs in the , forming a zygote.
11. The carries nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to the
embryo. It also carries the waste products from the embryo to the placenta.
12. or infertility is the inability of a couple to have children despite

serious attempts.
13. is the prevention of unwanted pregnancies. This can be done

by:
• the use of condoms, diaphragms and intrauterine contraceptive devices
• contraceptive pills and spermicides
• tubal ligation and vasectomy
14. is the best method to avoid pregnancy.
Chapter 2 47
Human Reproduction
1. (a) What is a gamete ?
(b) (i) Name the male and female gametes of humans.

(ii) Where are they produced?
(c) Compare the male and female gametes of humans with respect to size, shape and
motility.
2. Figure 1 shows the variation in the thickness of the uterine lining of a woman over a
period of 61 days. A-G represent the phases of occurrence while P-V represent the
points of occurrence
A B C D E F G
uterine lining
Thickness of
P Q R S T U V
Time(days)
1 5 10 33 61
Figure 1́
(a) At which phases did menstruation occur?
(b) At which points did ovulation occur?
(c) When did fertilization occur?
(d) Describe the fate of the egg in

(i) E
(ii) G
48 Science
h a t is t h e use of
W g?
the tea ba
3
Chapter
Mixtures
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain separation of mixtures by applying methods of

explain separation of mixtures by applying
dry evaporation, crystallization, simple distillation, paper
dry evaporation, crystallization, simple
chromatography and solvent extraction using empirical evidence.
chromatography and solvent extraction
• separate substances by dry evaporation, crystallization, simple
distillation, paper chromatography and solvent extraction.
• apply methods of separating substances to solve the problems
in daily life by integrating science, mathematics, technology and
engineering.
• design and conduct experiment to explain the results of solute,
solvent, and temperature that affect to solubility of matters. n
addition, explain the impacts of pressure on solubility of matter.
• indicate the uantity of solvent in solution concentration unit
volume per volume, mass per mass and mass per volume.
• recognize the importance and apply the knowledge of the
concentration of substances by giving an example, using solutions
in daily life properly and safely.
3.1 Separating Mixtures
A mixture is made up of two or more than two
components that are mixed physically either by
stirring, shaking or dissolving. Each component in a
mixture retains its own chemical properties. However,
the physical properties of the mixture may be different
from the physical properties of the components such
as the boiling point, melting point, color and physical
state. Salad is a mixture of raw vegetables.
Examples of mixtures are sugar solution, salt water, smoke and marbles in water. However,
mixing of vinegar and baking soda does not produce a mixture. They react and produce
carbon dioxide and water. Mixing an acid and a base also does not produce a mixture also.
The components in a mixture can be separated by physical means because they are not
united by a chemical bond. In order to separate the components of a mixture, we need to
know the differences in the properties of the components. Then, we can choose a suitable
separation method to separate them.
There are some separation methods such as:

(a) evaporation (b) crystallization
(c) simple distillation (d) paper chromatography
(e) solvent extraction (f) steam distillation
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid

state changing to its gaseous state due to an increase
in temperature. Evaporation is a way to separate a
soluble solid from a liquid. For example, salt is soluble
in water to form salt water. During evaporation, the
water evaporates away leaving the solid salt behind.
Once the seawater is evaporated from
this area, salt can be collected.
Evaporating
Salt water
dish
becomes Salt
Salt water
concentrated
We can get clean water from muddy water Plastic sheet

Marble
using a simple water still. A simple water still
can collect the water evaporated from muddy Drop of clean water
water with the heat from the Sun. Cup
Muddy water
50 Science
Crystallization
Crystallization is a method to obtain a pure solid from an impure solid. An impure solid is
dissolved in a liquid (solvent) to produce a solution. The solution is then heated up.
When most of the solvent is evaporated, the hot solution is left to cool down. The dissolved
solid will appear as pure crystals.
The impurities remain in the solvent. Then, the cold solvent is poured off to obtain the crystals.
Evaporating
dish
++
++
+++
+
++
Solvent Crystal
Impure Crystal
solid
Process of crystallization
Filtration followed by crystallization is often used to obtain pure salts such as copper(
copper(I I )
sulfate. Sugar is obtained by this way too.
Simple distillation
Simple distillation is used to purify liquids with very different boiling points. In this process,
the mixture of liquids is heated up and the liquid with the lower boiling point evaporates and
escapes as a vapor. Remember that different liquids have different boiling points. At this
moment, the temperature of the vapor is constant.
Thermometer
Water out
Liebig condenser
Distillation flask
Water in
Bunsen burner
Distillate
Distillation
The vapor is then cooled and condensed into its pure liquid which is called distillate. In the
lab, usually a Liebig condenser is used to condense the vapor.
If more than one liquid in a mixture of liquids is needed to be separated, fractional distillation
is used. Fractional distillation uses a fractionating column to separate the different liquids
with different boiling points. Crude oil is separated by this way.
Chapter 3 51
Mixtures
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is usually used to separate the different colored components in

dyes or inks. It is often used in forensic science and food industry.
Chromatography paper
Cover
Colored
Beaker Colored components
components of black ink
Baseline of blue ink
Solvent
A drop of ink is placed onto the chromatography paper. Then, the paper is dipped into a
suitable solvent. The solvent travels up the paper.
The ink dissolves in the solvent and moves up with it. Different colored components travel at
different rate and get separated.
Therefore, the colored components will appear at different locations on the paper.
The movement of a component of an ink or dye during chromatography, relative to the

movement of the solvent, is measured by calculating its retention factor (Rf).
The Rf value of a component can be calculated using this formula:
Distance travelled by a component

Rf value =
Distance travelled by the solvent
Solvent front
10
9
Distance travelled
8
by solvent
7
6
5
4
Distance travelled by
3
component
2
0 cm 1
Baseline
5 cm
The Rf value of the above component of the dye =
10 cm
= 0.5
Calculating the Rf value allows scientists to identify unknown substances because it can be
compared with the Rf values of known substances under the same conditions. The Rf values
are always between 0 and 1.
52 Science
Solvent extraction
Solvent extraction is also known as liquid-liquid extraction. It involves the separation of two
or more components due to their unequal solubilities in two immiscible (not mixed) liquid
phases.
A solvent dissolving only that particular component that needs to be separated from the
mixture is used. Therefore, choosing the right solvent is important in order to dissolve that
particular component and it must not be miscible (able to mix freely) with the other solvent.
For example, in order to extract iodine from the mixture of salt and iodine in water,
tetrachloromethane is added. Water is immiscible with tetrachloromethane.
Salt in water (clear solution)

Iodin in tetrachloromethane
(purple solution)
Brown mixture of
salt and iodine in water
Both solutions do not mix.
Salt does not dissolve in tetrachloromethane but iodine does. Therefore, a purple solution of
iodine in tetrachloromethane is formed.
These two solutions do not mix. By using a separating funnel, these two solutions can be
separated. The solvents are then evaporated off to obtain the salt and iodine separately.
Steam distillation
Steam distillation is used mainly to separate out components that are sensitive to high
temperatures and immiscible with water such as essential oils. These components decompose
at high temperatures. Steam distillation works similar to simple distillation. Simple distillation
requires direct heat to evaporate the contents. However, in steam distillation, steam is used
instead of direct heat.
Steam
Safety tube
Water outlet
Water
Mixture
Water
inlet
Distillate
The volatile component together with water is distilled out as the distillate. Upon settling, the
extracted component will float on the water and later is separated by filtering out the water
from below.
Chapter 3 53
Mixtures
Q1. State six physical methods which can separate the components in a
mixture.
Q2. What separation method would you use to separate

(a) salt from salt solution,
(b) water from seawater,
3.1 (c) copper(II) sulfate crystals from copper(II) sulfate solution,
(d) blue dye from food dye,
(e) soy bean oil from a mixture, and
(f) caffeine from coffee drink.
3.2 Solutions
Solutions exist all around us. Oceans, rivers and even the mineral water that we drink are
solutions.
A solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture that is formed when a substance is dissolved

in another substance.
It does not settle upon standing and the substance particles are so small that they cannot be
filtered out. The substance that dissolves in another substance to form the solution is known
as the solute whereas the substance that dissolves the solute is known as the solvent.
Usually, the solvent is the substance that is present in the greatest amount.
Dissolves in a solvent
Solute Solution
For example, sugar water is a solution. It is prepared by dissolving sugar (solute) in water
(solvent).
Sugar
(solute)
Stir
Water Sugar water
(solvent) (solution)
Making a sugar solution
Both the solute and solvent can exist in any of the three
states of matter, namely solid, liquid and gas. The common
solutions we encounter have solvents in liquid state and the
solutes either in solid, liquid or gaseous state. Some of the
examples are salt water, vinegar and carbonated drinks.
Carbonated drinks have some
carbon dioxide dissolved in them.
54 Science
The air we breathe in is a good example of solution in which a gaseous
solvent (nitrogen) dissolves gaseous solutes such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Steel is a mixture of iron (solvent) and carbon
(solute). Brass is a mixture of copper (solvent) and zinc (solute). Steel
Do you know that air is and brass are examples of solutions in which both the solvents and
a solution? It is a mixture solutes are solids.
whereby both the solvent
and solutes are gases.
Dilute, concentrated and saturated
solutions
Different proportions of solute to solvent give us solutions of different

concentrations.
(a) For example, a dilute salt solution can be prepared by stirring

We can dissolve more salt a spatula of salt in 100 cm3 of water. The solution tastes salty due
in a saturated salt solution to the dissolved salt in it.
by heating the mixture.
(b) If four spatulas of salt are used instead of one, a concentrated
solution would be produced. It would taste saltier than the dilute
solution. This shows that the concentrated solution has more
dissolved salt in it.
(c) To prepare a saturated salt solution

solution, more and more salt is
dissolved in the water until no salt can be dissolved any more.
The excess salt would settle at the bottom of the container. The
solution would taste very salty because it contains the maximum
amount of salt it can dissolve at that particular temperature.
The table below compares the dilute, concentrated and saturated solutions.
Dilute solution Concentrated solution Saturated solution
Excess
solute
• Has very little solute in it. • Has a lot of solute in it. • Has the maximum amount
of solute in it.
• Can dissolve a lot more • Can dissolve a little bit • Cannot dissolve any more
solute. more solute. solute.
• They are prepared by dissolving a solute in a solvent.
• They are homogeneous mixtures.
Comparing the dilute, concentrated and saturated solutions
Chapter 3 55
Mixtures
Solubility
A solvent can only dissolve a certain amount of solute. Solubility

gives us a measure of how much a solute can dissolve in a solvent.
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute in grams that will

dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
For example, the solubility of sodium chloride in water at a temperature of

20°C is 38 g per 100 g of water. This means that a maximum of
38 g of sodium chloride can dissolve in 100 g of water at 20°C. The
solution produced is a saturated solution.
The solubility of a solute depends on the

(a) nature of the solvent
(b) nature of the solute
(c) temperature
(d) pressure
Nature of the solvent

(a) Other than water, there are many more solvents such as
alcohol, ether and acetone.
(b) The solubility of a solute varies in different solvents. A solute
may be soluble in a particular solvent but insoluble in another
solvent. For examples,
(i) salt dissolves readily in water but not in solvents like
alcohol or ether,
(ii) iodine is almost insoluble in water but dissolves very well
in alcohol.
g of iodine g of iodine
+ +
water alcohol
Iodine is more soluble in alcohol than in water.
Solvent extraction extracts a solute from the first solvent into a

The factors affecting
second solvent. For example in herbal extraction, leaves or roots solubility and rate of
are placed in a specific solvent. The substances that are soluble dissolution can be
found in this website.
in the solvent are dissolved. Later, the solution is evaporated to
obtain the substances.
56 Science
Nature of the solute
Different solutes have different solubilities in a given solvent. The table below shows the
solubility of a few solutes in water at 20°C.
Solute Solubility (grams per 100 g of water) at 20°C
Copper(II) sulfate 20
Potassium nitrate 30
Sodium chloride 38
Solubility of some solutes in water
Based on the above table, at 20°C, potassium nitrate is more soluble in water than copper
(II) sulfate. Among the three solutes, sodium chloride is most soluble in water.
Temperature of the solution or solvent

Generally, the solubility of solids in liquid solvent increases with temperature, but the
solubility of gases in liquid solvents decreases with temperature. For example, twice as
much sugar dissolves in hot water than in water at room temperature.
Pressure
For solid and liquid solutes, changes in pressure have no effect on the solubility. For
gaseous solutes, an increase in pressure increases the solubility and a decrease in
pressure decreases the solubility. Carbonated drinks are formed when carbon dioxide
is pressurized above the drinks in cans. When the pressure is released, the gas quickly
comes out of the drink.
Concentration of solutions
The concentration of a solution shows the quantity of a solute contained in a given amount
of a solvent. There are many ways to express the concentration of a solution. It is common
to do so in terms of percentages. There are three types of percentage concentrations used.
(a) Mass/mass percentage (m/m %)

The mass/mass percentage is calculated as the percentage of the mass of the solute
related to the total mass of the solution.
Mass of solute
Mass/mass percentage = × 100%
Total mass of solution
This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with solid solutes.
Chapter 3 57
Mixtures
Example 1
What is the mass/mass percentage of glucose in a solution made by dissolving 3.6 g
of glucose in 140.2 g of water?
Solution:
Mass of glucose = 3.6 g
Total mass of solution = 3.6 + 140.2
= 143.8 g
Mass of solute
Mass/mass percentage = × 100%
Total mass of solution
3.6
= × 100%
143.8
= 2.50%
(b) Volume/volume
olume/volume percentage (v/v %)
The volume/volume percentage is calculated as the percentage of the volume of the
solute related to the total volume of the solution.
Volume of solute
Volume/volume percentage = × 100%
Total volume of solution
This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with liquid solutes especially
wines.
Example 2
How would you prepare 400 mll of a 50% (v/v) of rubbing ethanol?
Solution:
Total volume of solution = 400 ml
Volume of rubbing ethanol = Volume/volume percentage ×
100%
400
= 50 ×
100
= 200 ml
Dissolve 200 ml of rubbing ethanol in enough water to make a total of 400 ml of
solution.
(c) Mass/volume percentage (m/v %)

The mass/volume percentage is calculated as the percentage of the mass of the solute
related to the total volume of the solution.
Mass of solute
Mass/volume percentage = × 100%
This type of concentration is commonly used in solutions with solid solutes.
58 Science
Example 3
20 ml of a solution of sucrose contains 850 mg of sucrose. What is the weight/volume

percentage concentration of this solution in g/ml %?
Solution:
Mass of sucrose = 850 mg
= 0.85 g
Total volume of solution = 20 ml
Mass of solute
Mass/volume percentage = × 100%
0.85
= × 100%
20
= 4.25% (m/v)
Concentrations of solutions are important. For example, acids and alkalis have different
concentrations. Using the wrong concentration of acid or alkali in an experiment can cause a
rapid chemical reaction or even an explosion. The concentration of wine on its label gives us
an idea how strong the wine is. We may be arrested for drunk-driving if 100 mml of our blood
contains more than 50 mg of alcohol. By knowing the concentrations of solutions, we can
avoid wastage too.
Q1. Which are the solvent and solute when milk powder is added into a
glass of water to make a drink?
Q2. (a) State two differences between a dilute solution and a concentrated
solution.
(b) How do you make a dilute solution to become a concentrated
3.2 solution?
Q3. A solute has a solubility of 18 g per 100 ml of water at 25°C.

(a) What is the maximum mass of the solute that can dissolve in 50 ml
of water at 25°C? Is the solution prepared a dilute, concentrated or
saturated solution?
(b) How do you increase the solubility of the solute?
Q4. What is the concentration of sucrose in mass/mass percentage in a

solution made by dissolving 8.6 g of sucrose in 73.4 g of water?
Q5. How would you make 500ml of 40% (v/v) vinegar in water solution?
Chapter 3 59
Mixtures
Different Solutes have
Crystals form Liquid with
Solvent in liquid components different Similar to simple
from the lower boiling
state turns into travel at solubilities distillation but
concentrated point
gaseous state different rates in in different using steam.
mixture evaporates first.
the solvent. solvents.
Simple Paper Solvent Steam

Evaporation Crystallization distillation chromatography extraction distillation
Separation methods
Mixtures
Solutions
Concentration
Types Solubility
units
factors
Volume/volume
percentage
Dilute Concentrated Saturated Nature of Temperature Mass/volume

solution solution solution solvent
percentage
Nature of Mass/mass
Pressure percentage
solute
60 Science
concentrated solution solubility solvent extraction

simple distillation mixture dilute steam distillation
percentages crystallization solvent paper chromatography
saturated evaporation Rf
1. A is made up of two or more components that are physically

mixed.
2. is the process of a substance in its liquid state changing into

its gaseous state below its boiling point.
3. Pure salts can usually be obtained from a mixture by .
4. is used to separate a liquid component from a liquid solution

due to their different boiling points.
5. The components in a dye are usually analyzed with .
6. The value is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by a

component and the distance moved by the solvent along the chromatography paper.
7. is a method for separating a component based on its relative

solubility in two immiscible liquids.
-
8. is generally used to separate - temperature-sensitive
components from a mixture due to their different boiling points.
9. is a homogeneous mixture that is formed when a solute

dissolves in a solvent.
10. A solution has very little solute in it.
11. A solution has more solute than a dilute solution.
12. A solution has the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in

the solvent.
13. is the maximum amount of solute in grams that can dissolve in

100 g of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
14. The solubility of a solute is affected by temperature, nature of the

and solute, and pressure.
15. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in such as

volume/volume percentage, mass/mass percentage and mass/volume percentage.
Chapter 3 61
Mixtures
A clean-up water project
Water is important because it is essential to living things on Earth. Humans can only live three
days without water, though it is possible to live weeks without food. However, sometimes our
water sources become polluted and require a clean-up. It is very important for us to have
clean water.
You and your team are required to design and construct a water filter that will remove
contaminants from dirty water using commonly available materials.
Guidelines:
1. Think about the contaminants you are trying to remove from the water. What materials
will work better? Is there a material that can remove all the contaminants together?
2. Why are you using certain materials in your filter? What contaminants will each of
them remove?
3. Why are you placing a particular material at the top, middle or bottom part of your
filter? Do you think the end result (how well the water is filtered) would change if the
order of the materials is switched?
4. How can we tell if the water has turned cleaner? What test should you use to find out
the successful rate of your filter?
What is your need?



62 Science
What is your plan?

How does it work?


Chapter 3 63
Mixtures
1. Figure 1 shows a method to separate alcohol from the alcohol and water mixture.
Thermometer
Round
bottom
flask Liebig
condenser
Conical
flask
Alcohol
Figure 1́
(a) What is this method known as?
(b) What is the process that takes place in the round bottom flask?
(c) What is the process that takes place in the Liebig condenser?
(d) Explain why the alcohol can be separated from the solution using this method.
(e) How does this method different from steam distillation?
2. (a) Define solubility of a substance.
(b) State the factors that affect the solubility of a substance.
(c) What will happen if a saturated solution of copper(II) sulfate at 50°C is cooled to
30°C?
3. The normal saline solution that is used to dissolve drugs for intravenous use is 0.92%
(m/v) salt in water. How many grams of salt are required to prepare 50.0 ml of normal
saline solution?
64 Science
u s e a fo rce to kick
We ?
b a ll . W h at is force
the
4
Chapter
Forces
• predict
predict the ob
the ob ect moving as a result of resultant force of several
ect moving as a result of
forces acting on an ob
forces acting on an ob ect in the same plane based on empirical
ect in the same
evidence.
• design
design and conduct an experiment in a suitable method to explain
and conduct an experiment in a
the factors affecting li
the factors affecting li uid
uid pressure.
pressure.
• analyze buoyant force, sinking and oating of ob ects in li uids
using empirical evidence.
• explain static friction and kinetic friction based on empirical
evidence.
• design and conduct an experiment in a proper method to explain
the factors that affect to the size of friction.
• design and conduct experiment with appropriate methods to
explain moment of force when an ob ect is balanced to turn and
calculate using M F × l.
• compare the source of magnetic eld, electrical eld, gravitational
eld and the directions of each force acting on ob ects based on
collected data.
• analyze the relationships between the size of magnetic force,
electric force and gravitational force acting on ob ects in each eld
and the distance from the sources of each eld to ob ects based
on collected information.
4.1 Resultant Force on the Same Plane
(Net Force)
Quite often, more than one force is acting on an object at a time. For example, two people
are pushing a car as shown below. Each person is applying a force on the car and the
forces combine to move the car forward. This combined force is called the resultant force
or net force. However, as force is a vector quantity, the direction of each force matters. The
magnitude and direction of the resultant force will depend on the magnitude and direction of
each force.
Two people pushing a car
Parallel forces
5N Resultant force
15 N
10 N
Resultant force = –10 + (–5) = –15 N

Direction of resultant force is to the left
The above figure shows two forces acting on an object in the same direction. As the forces
are acting in the same direction, the direction of the resultant force will be in that same
direction. Its magnitude will be just the arithmetic sum of each individual force’s magnitude.
Resultant
force
5N 10 N 5N
Resultant force = 10 + (– 5) = 5 N
Direction of resultant force is to the right.
The above figure shows two forces acting on an object in the opposite directions. As the
forces are acting in the opposite directions, we will have to determine the direction of the
resultant force. To do so, let us set all forces to the right as positive and all forces to the left
as negative.
66 Science
The forces are still parallel to each other. Hence, the resultant force
is still the arithmetic sum of the individual forces, but with the forces
being positive or negative taken into consideration.
If the sum is positive, then the direction of the resultant force is to the
right. If the sum is negative, then the direction of the resultant force
is to the left. Therefore, the resultant force acting on the object has a
magnitude of 5 N with a direction towards the right.
5N 4N
5N 6N
Four forces are acting on the object now. Again, let us take all forces
to the right as positive and all forces to the left as negative. The
resultant force acting on the object is
Resultant force = 6 + 4 + (–5) + (–5)

=0N
The resultant force is 0 N. This means that all the forces acting on
the object cancel each other out. There is no resultant force acting
on the object.
Example 1
A machine pulls on a rope with a force of 400 N. Attached to the
end of the rope is a 300-N load.
Machine
Rope
400 N
Load
300 N
What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting

on the load?
Solution:
Taking all forces upwards as positive
Resultant force = 400 + (–300)
= 100 N
The direction of the resultant force is acting upward with a
magnitude of 100 N.
Chapter 4 67
Forces
Non-parallel forces
To find the resultant force of two non-parallel forces, one way is to

draw scaled diagrams and use the parallelogram of forces method.
6N
o
30
8N
The above figure shows two forces, 6 N and 8 N, acting on a ball.

The angle between the two forces is 30o. What is the resultant force
acting on the ball?
Parallelogram of forces method

Scale: 2 N : 1 cm
6N force
ltant
Resu

O o
30 8N
Magnitude of resultant force is equal to length of the diagonal.

6.8 2 = 13.6 N
Direction of resultant force is as shown in the above figure.
Steps:
Choose a suitable scale for the forces.
Draw a 4 cm horizontal line to represent the 8 N force.
With the help of a protractor, draw a 3 cm line to represent the

6 N force. Make sure the tails of both forces meet at O at an
angle of 30o.
Complete the parallelogram using a pair of compasses.
Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram. The diagonal represents

the resultant force in both magnitude and direction.
68 Science
Example 2
A boat is being pulled by two forces with magnitudes
of 300 N and 400 N respectively. The angle between 300 N
the forces is 60o as shown.
60°
Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force using parallelogram of forces.
400 N
Solution:
Using a scale of 100 N : 1 cm, the magnitude and direction of the resultant force is as
shown.
300 N
60
o
Resultant force
400 N
Magnitude of the resultant force = 6.1 × 100 = 610 N

The direction of the resultant force is as shown in the above figure.
Static objects
7N 7N Resultant force: 0 N
Basically, a static object is an object that is at rest, stationary or not moving. The above figure
shows a soccer ball that is at rest. The two similar forces acting on the soccer ball in opposite
directions totally cancel each other out. There is no resultant force acting on the soccer ball.
Therefore, the soccer ball will remain at rest. In other words, when the resultant force acting
on a stationary object is zero, the object will remain stationary.
7N 5N esultant force to the left
Then, two different forces are applied on the soccer ball. This time, there is a resultant force
of 12 N, to the left, acting on the soccer ball. The ball will start to move to the left because of
the resultant force. In short, when there is a resultant force acting on a stationary object, the
object will start to move in the direction of the resultant force.
Chapter 4 69
Forces
Example 3
Three forces, 5 N, 6 N and 7 N are acting on a stationary box as shown.
5N
6N
7N
Determine whether there is any resultant force acting on the box and state what will happen
to the box.
Solution:
Assuming all forces to the left being negative, resultant force = (–7) + (–5) + 6 = –6 N
(to the left). The stationary box will start to move to the left.
Moving objects with constant velocity
Same constant
Constant velocity velocity
4N Resultant force:
2N 0N
6N
(a) (b) (c)
Figure (a) shows a trolley moving at a constant velocity. Three forces then act on the moving
trolley simultaneously as shown in Figure (b). As the three forces cancel each other out
totally, there is no resultant force acting on the trolley. Therefore, the trolley will continue to
move at the same constant velocity as shown in Figure (c).
This means that when the resultant force acting on an object moving with a constant velocity,
is zero, the object will continue to move with the same constant velocity.
Increasing
Constant velocity velocity Resultant force:
2 N to the right
4N
2N
6N
(a) (b) (c)
Figure (a) shows another trolley moving at a constant velocity. Two forces then act on the
moving trolley simultaneously as shown. There is a resultant force of 2 N to the right acting
on the trolley. As the resultant force is in the same direction as the velocity of the trolley, the
velocity of the trolley will start to increase as long as the resultant force remains acting on it.
In short, an object moving at a constant velocity will start to increase in velocity if there is a
resultant force acting on it in the same direction as the velocity.
70 Science
Decreasing
Constant velocity velocity Resultant force:
2 N to the left
4N
2N
2N
(a) (b) (c)
Figure (a) shows a trolley moving at a constant velocity. Two forces then act on the moving
trolley simultaneously as shown in (b). There is a resultant force of 2 N to the left acting on
the trolley. As the resultant force is in the opposite direction to the velocity of the trolley, the
velocity of the trolley will start to decrease as long as the resultant force remains acting on it.
In short, an object moving at a constant velocity will start to decrease in velocity if there is a
resultant force acting on it in the opposite direction to the velocity.
Example 4
A car is traveling on a level road with a constant velocity. Two forces, F1 and F2 then act on
the car as shown.
F1 F2
(a) If the car continues to move with the same constant velocity, what is the relationship
between the magnitude of F1 and F2? Explain.
(b) If the car moves with a decreasing velocity, what is the relationship between the
magnitude of F1 and F2? Explain.
(c) If the car moves with an increasing velocity, what is the relationship between the
magnitude of F1 and F2? Explain.
Solution:
(a) Magnitude of F1 = Magnitude of F2
For the car to continue to move with the same constant velocity, the resultant force
acting on the car must be equal to zero.
(b) Magnitude of F1 > Magnitude of F2

For the car to move with a decreasing velocity, there must be a resultant force acting
in the opposite direction to the velocity.
(c) Magnitude of F2 > Magnitude of F1

For the car to move with an increasing velocity, there must be a resultant force acting
in the same direction as the velocity.
Chapter 4 71
Forces
Q1. A trolley is acted upon by two forces as shown.
4N
6N
4.1 What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force?
Q2. A soccer ball is kicked simultaneously by two players with forces of

120 N and 160 N respectively as shown.
160 N
120 N
Determine the resultant force acting on the soccer ball.
Q3. What is a static object ?
Q4. When an object is stationary, can there be forces acting on it? Explain.
Q5. For each of the following stationary objects, analyze and state what will
happen to the object.
(a)
4N 6N
4N
(b)
8N 12 N
10 N 5N
(c)
18 N 9N
(d)
6N 12 N
6N
72 Science
4.2 Liquid Pressure and Buoyancy
Liquid pressure
A liquid exerts pressure because of its weight. This causes pressure on its container and also
on the objects in it. The liquid pushes on every surface in contact with, no matter which way
the surface is facing.
The water exerts pressure on the boat and fish, and Deep sea vessels are made of strong
the wall and floor of the dam. metal to withstand the huge liquid
pressure coming from all directions.
R el ati on s hi p bet w een dept h an d pres s u re

i n a l i qu id
Materials/Apparatus: Beaker, water, manometer filled with colored water, rubber tube,
thistle funnel, meter rule, retort stand with clamp, rubber band
Procedure:
1. The apparatus is set as shown below.
2. The thistle funnel is lowered into the water at different depths, h.
3. The corresponding readings for l from the manometer are measured and recorded.
Rubber tube
Thistle
funnel
Retort
stand
Water
Thistle funnel h l Colored water
Thin rubber sheet Manometer
Chapter 4 73
Forces
Observation:
It is observed that when the value of h increases, the value of l increases too.
Discussion:
The values of l are indicators for the pressure of water at various depths of h. The larger the
value of l, the larger the value of water pressure.
Conclusion:
The pressure of liquid increases with depth.
The deeper an object is in a liquid, the greater the amount of liquid is

on top of it, thus the greater the pressure acting on it. This can also be
demonstrated by a tall container filled with water and fitted with side
tubes at different heights. Water spurts out the fastest and furthest
from the lowest tube, showing that the pressure is the highest at the
bottom.
Pressure increases
with depth
Calculating liquid pressure
Refer to the column of fluid on the right. It has a depth of h, a base area of A and a density
of ρ.
Volume, V = Ah
m
Density, ρ =
V
Weight of the liquid column, W = mg
= ρVg Density, ρ Depth, h
= ρAhg
W
Pressure at the base of the liquid column, P =
A Base area, A
ρAhg
=
A
P = ρhg
Therefore, the pressure in a liquid depends on the depth

of the liquid and the density of the liquid. A liquid finds its
own level. When one part of the liquid is at a higher level
than others, the extra pressure will make the liquid move to
have the same level. Hence, at equilibrium, at any point of
the same height/depth, the pressure is the same. A B C D
The SI unit for pressure is pascal (Pa). 1 Pa = 1 Nm–3 The pressures at points A, B, C,
and D are the same.
74 Science
Example 5
A submarine is in the sea at the depth of 1000 m from the surface of the sea. If the density
of the sea water is 1025 kgm–3 and g is 9.8 N kg–1, calculate the pressure exerted by the
sea water on it.
Solution:
P = ρhg
= 1025 × 1000 × 9.8
= 1 × 107 Pa
Most of our water tanks, water towers and reservoirs are built at high places. The difference
in pressure pushes the water to flow and reach our houses. If they are on the ground with no
difference in pressure, the water will not flow.
R ese rvo ir
W a t er
t o wer W a t er
P u mp ta n k
h o u se
T a p
P u mp
T o o t h er h o u se s
At hydropower stations, the water intake is at the bottom of the dam. As the result, the water
flows into the turbine at a very high pressure to turn the turbine.
Dam
Water
flows
in
Turbine
Take note of the dam. The thickness of the dam increases with the depth. This is because the
deeper it is, the greater the water pressure. A thicker wall is needed to withstand the greater
pressure.
Chapter 4 75
Forces
In hospitals, intravenous drips help to deliver fluids and medicines directly into the patients’
blood. They are usually hung on a pole higher than the intravenous needles on the patients’
arms. This creates a pressure higher than the blood pressure in the patient’s hand, forcing
the fluids and medicines to flow into the arm.
Buoyancy
Small portion of
Buoyant boulder submerged.
Big portion of force Small buoyant force
boulder submerged.
Big buoyant force
The above diagram shows that a boy moving a boulder from the seabed to a beach. As
the boulder emerges from the surface of the sea, the boy finds that it becomes heavier and
heavier. Why is the boulder lighter when immersed in water? The reason for this is because
of the existence of buoyant force or upthrust.
Buoyant force is an upward force which acts on an object that is being completely or partially
immersed in a fluid. A fluid is any state of matter that can flow such as a liquid or a gas. If we
name the weight of an object before it is immersed in a fluid as its actual weight and when it is
immersed in the fluid as its apparent weight, then the relationship between the actual weight,
the apparent weight and the buoyant force is
Buoyant force = Actual weight – Apparent weight
76 Science
Chan ge s i n w ei gh t
Materials /Apparatus: Spring balance, string, stones and beaker
Procedure:
1. Two stones of different sizes are labeled as A and B.
2. Stone A is hung to a spring balance, as shown in Figure (a).
3. The weight of stone A (W1) is recorded.
4. Stone A is then immersed in water, as shown in Figure (b).
5. The weight of stone A in the water (W2) is recorded.
6. Steps 2 to 5 are repeated with stone B.
J
Sp rin g b a l a n ce J
Sp rin g b a l a n ce
SP R I NG SP R I NG
B A L A NC E B A L A NC E
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
W2
5 5
W1
5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
St rin g St rin g
W a t er St o n e
W a t er St o n e
B ea e k r
B ea ke r
a b
Results:
Weight of the stone Weight of the stone

Stone
in air, W1 (N) in water, W2 (N)
A 1.5 1.2
B 3.0 2.4
Discussion:
1. The results show that the stones weigh less when they are immersed in water.
2. This shows that they experience an apparent loss of weight when immersed in water.
3. When immersed in water, the stones experience an upward force, causing it to weigh
less in water.
Conclusion:
The weight of an object becomes less when it is immersed in a liquid.
Chapter 4 77
Forces
Example 6
The weight of a stone is 0.75 N. When it is partially immersed in water, its weight becomes
0.55 N. What is the buoyant force acting on the stone?
Solution:
Buoyant force = Actual weight – Apparent weight
= 0.75 – 0.55
= 0.20 N
Archimedes’ principle
When an object is immersed in water, we know that the object experiences a buoyant force.
At the same time, from the rising of the water level or overflowing of the water, we also know
J
SPRING
BALANCE
W1 the water that occupies the space that the object has now taken up. Is
that the object displaces
0 0
Spring
1 1
2 2 J
3 3
there a link between the two? balance

4 4 SPRING
BALANCE
5 5
W2 Spring
6 6 0 0
7 7 1 1
8 8 2 2
balance
9 9 3 3
10 10 4 4
5 5
An ancient reek scientist, Archimedes, discovered this link and it was later named after him
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
as Archimedes’ principle.
10 10
Stone
Eureka can
Eureka can
Archimedes’ principle states that for a body Stone
Water
completely or partiallyBeaker
immersed in
Beaker Water
a fluid, the upward buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid
it displaced. 0
0
Wooden Wooden Weighing

4 1
4 1
Weighing 3 2
block scale block scale

3 2
A rc hi m edes ’ s pri n c i pl e
Materials /Apparatus: Stones, water, beaker, string, spring balance, weighing scale,
wooden block and Eureka can
J
SPRING
BALANCE
W1
0 0
Spring balance
1 1
2 2 J
3 3
4 4 SPRING
W2
BALANCE
5 5
Spring balance
6 6 0 0
7 7 1 1
8 8 2 2
9 9 3 3
10 10 4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Stone Eureka can

Eureka can Stone
Water Beaker Water Beaker
0
Wooden Weighing Wooden

0
Weighing
4 1
4 1
3 2
block block scale

3 2
scale
a b
78 Science
Procedure:
1. Two stones of different sizes are labeled as C and D.
2. Water is poured into the Eureka can until the water flows out from the sprout.
3. The weight of a beaker is measured and recorded. The beaker is placed under the
sprout of the Eureka can.
4. Stone C is hung to a spring balance, as shown in Figure (a). The weight of the stone
in air (W1) is recorded.
5. The stone is then immersed into the water in the Eureka can, as shown in Figure (b).
The weight of the stone in water (W2) is recorded.
6. The weight of the beaker together with the water contained in it is measured.
7. Find the difference between the weight of the stone in the air and in the water, that is
the apparent loss of weight of the stone.
8. Find the difference between the weight of the beaker with water and the empty beaker,
that is the weight of the water displaced.
9. Steps 2 to 8 are repeated using stone D.
Results:
Stone C D
Weight of the stone in air, W1 (N) 1.5 3.0
Weight of the stone in water, W2 (N) 1.2 2.4
The apparent loss of weight of the stone (N) 0.3 0.6
Weight of the empty beaker (N) 0.5 0.5
Weight of the beaker and water displaced (N) 0.8 1.1
Weight of the water displaced (N) 0.3 0.6
Discussion:
1. The results show that both stones C and D experienced a weight loss when they were
immersed in water.
2. The apparent loss of weight of the stone is equal to the upward force experienced by
the stone.
3. The weight of the water displaced is equal to the apparent loss of weight of the stone.
4. Hence, we can deduce that the upward force experienced by an object immersed in
the water is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object.
Conclusion:
The upward force experienced by an object immersed in a liquid and the weight of the
liquid displaced by it are the same.
Chapter 4 79
Forces
Floating and sinking
The figure below shows a heavy object that is slowly lowered into the water. As the portion of
the object being immersed in the water increases, the volume of water displaced increases.
Buoyant force Buoyant force Maximum

buoyant force
Weight
Weight
Weight
This means that the buoyant force acting on the object increases while the weight remains the
same. However, the buoyant force only increases to a maximum. This occurs when the object
is totally immersed in the water.
Buoyant force
An object floats because the weight of
the object is less than or equal to the Object
floating
maximum buoyant force. It will displace
just enough volume of water such that the Weight
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
object.
Buoyant force = Weight of the object
Maximum buoyant force
An object sinks because the weight of the Object

sinking
object is more than the maximum buoyant
force. Weight
Buoyant force < Weight of the object
80 Science
How ships float
A block of steel sinks to the bottom

when it is put into the water. It sinks Water
because it is denser than the water.
Steel block
A steel block sinks in water.
Model ship made from steel

Ships made of steel do not sink but
float on the sea. They are made hollow.
There is space inside the ships. This
huge volume displaces a large amount Water
of water and so creates a strong
upward force to make them float.
A floating steel ship
How submarines float and sink
A submarine can dive into the water and resurface. It is done by manipulating its overall
weight. It changes the volume of water in its ballast tanks.
Ballast tanks
A submarine dives A submarine rises as air

as its ballast tanks is pumped back into the
are filled with water. ballast tanks and water is
forced out.
When a submarine decides to dive into the water, the valves in the outer hull are opened to let
the air out, and later to let the sea water into the ballast tanks. It becomes heavier and sinks.
When it decides to resurface, compressed air is blown into the ballast tanks to force the sea
water out through the valves. It becomes lighter and rises.
Chapter 4 81
Forces
Q1. The diagram below shows two dams, A and B. Dam A contains less
water than dam B. Both X and Y are the points in both dams at the same
depth, h.
h h
4.2 X Y
Dam A Dam B
(a) Why are the walls thicker at the bottom?
(b) Compare the pressure exerted by the water on X and Y. Explain
your answer.
(c) Compare the pressure exerted on the points if the both dams contain
sea water instead of fresh water.
Q2. What is the pressure due to the sea water at a depth of 150 m below the
sea level if the density of sea water is 1020 kg m–3? g = 9.8 N kg–1]
Q3. What is buoyant force?
Q4. For an object immersed in water, relate the upward force acting on the
object to
(a) the weight of the water displaced,
(b) the change of weight of the object.
Q5. Explain why a ship which is made of heavy steel does not sink.
4.3 Friction
Factors affecting friction
Friction or frictional force acts when two surfaces rub against each other. Friction is a force
that acts to stop the movement of two surfaces in contact. It always acts in a direction which
opposes motion.
Motion Motion
Friction Friction
Friction acts in the opposite direction of motion.
82 Science
I n v es ti gat i n g the f ac tor s af f ec ti n g
the m agn i tu de of f ri c ti on
A Weight of the object
Hypothesis: The magnitude of friction is affected by the weight of the object.

Constant variables: Type of surface and type of spring balance
Manipulated variable: Number of wooden block
Responding variable: Magnitude of friction
Materials/Apparatus: Wooden blocks, spring balance
Procedure:
1. A wooden block is placed on the table. The block is hooked with a spring balance and
pulled steadily across the table. The reading of the spring balance is recorded.
2. Step 1 is repeated by placing another similar wooden block on the existing wooden
block and followed by placing another similar wooden block on the two existing wooden
blocks.
Observation:
Number of wooden block Reading of spring balance (N)
1 0.5
2 1.1
3 1.6
Discussion:
1. The experiment shows that the number of wooden blocks affects the reading of the
spring balance.
2. The reading of the spring balance shows the amount of force needed to overcome the
friction. Therefore, the reading also shows the magnitude of friction.
3. As the number of wooden block increases, the magnitude of friction increases too.
Conclusion:
The weight of the object affects the magnitude of friction. The hypothesis is accepted.
B Types of surfaces
Hypothesis: The magnitude of friction is affected by types of surfaces.

Constant variables: Weight of wooden block and type of spring balance
Manipulated variable: Types of surfaces
Responding variable: Magnitude of friction
Materials/Apparatus: Wooden block, spring balance, sandpaper and glass pane
Chapter 4 83
Forces
Procedure:
1. A wooden block is placed on the table. The block is hooked
with a spring balance and pulled steadily across the table. The
reading of the spring balance is recorded.
2. Step 1 is repeated by pulling the wooden block across the

surface of glass pane, followed by sandpaper.
Observation:
Type of surface Magnitude of frictional force
Table 0.5
lass pane 0.2
Sandpaper 1.8
Discussion:
1. The experiment shows that all surfaces exert friction on the
wooden block.
2. Smooth surfaces such as the glass pane exert less friction

whereas rough surfaces such as the sandpaper exert a greater
friction.
Conclusion:
The rougher the surface, the greater the friction. The hypothesis is
accepted.
The factors affecting friction are the types of surfaces in contact

and the weight of the object. A rough surface gives a greater friction
compared to a smooth one.
The larger the area of the

Rough surfaces contacting surfaces, the
greater the friction is.
For example, it is harder to drag a box across a carpet than across

a tiled floor. There is a huge friction that is against the movement on
the carpet, making it hard to be dragged.
Friction does not depend

on the surface area of
the contacting surfaces,
but on the weight of the
arpet object and also the types
iled surface of surfaces.
reater friction esser friction
a b
84 Science
Friction also depends on the weight of the object. A heavier object exerts a greater friction
compared to a lighter object. Therefore, it is harder to move the heavier object.
eavy box
ight box
reater friction esser friction
a b
Advantages and disadvantages of friction
Friction allows:
us to hold things in our hands
vehicles to move on roads without slipping
us to walk and run without slipping
things to rest on ground or tables
production of sound such as from musical instruments Can we hold things if there is no friction?
Friction will:
slow down moving things. Therefore, extra force is
needed to overcome this force.
wear out contacting surfaces such as shoe soles and
tires.
produce unwanted noises.
produce unwanted heat and damage parts in
machines.
What happens if we keep wearing worn
Sometimes, we need to increase friction to out shoes?
slow down moving objects more quickly
hold objects firmly
grip surfaces better
We can increase friction by increasing the roughness

of the surfaces. We can add rubber pads on the bases
of objects to prevent them from slipping. Rough treads
or grooves are applied on tires and shoes to provide
better grip on slippery surfaces. Brake pads are used on
wheels to slow down and stop moving vehicles.
Sometimes, we need to reduce friction to

move things more easily
Tires have rough treads.
reduced heat produced from contacting surfaces
Chapter 4 85
Forces
We can reduce friction by decreasing the roughness of the contact surfaces. We can apply oil
or grease or even a layer of air between the surfaces in contact. Round and smooth spherical
objects such as rollers or ball bearings can help reduce friction. Streamlined objects can
reduce friction too. A high speed train has a streamlined shape to reduce the friction with the
air.
Streamlined shapes reduce the fluid

friction.
Static friction and kinetic friction
There are two types of friction, static friction and kinetic friction. Static friction is the friction
that acts on two surfaces in contact that are not moving when a force to move them is applied.
Static friction has a maximum value and as long as the force applied does not exceed this
maximum value, the two surfaces will not move.
Kinetic friction is the friction that acts on two surfaces in contact that are moving. This type of
friction has a constant magnitude regardless of the relative speed at which the two surfaces
are moving.
Up Applied force
ile
5N
ag
Fr
5N
Friction
Look at the above figure. The box is at rest. A force of 5 N towards the right is then applied on
the box. The box does not move. There is a friction of 5 N towards the left acting on the box
which prevents it from moving.
Up Applied force
ile
10 N
ag
Fr
10 N
Friction
The force applied on the box is then increased to 10 N. The box still does not move. There is
now a friction of 10 N towards the left acting on the box which prevents it from moving.
86 Science
Up Applied force
ile
15 N
ag
Fr
15 N
Friction
The force applied is further increased to 15 N. The box is now on the verge of moving. The
friction is 15 N and still prevents the box from moving. However, when the force applied
is further increased to say 16 N, the box begins to move. Therefore, 15 N is said to be the
maximum amount of friction that the two surfaces can muster before movement occurs.
Up to a force of 15 N, any increase in force applied is countered by an equal magnitude

of friction and thus prevents movement between the box and the ground. As there is no
movement between the two surfaces, this type of friction is called static friction.
Once the two surfaces begin to move, the friction encountered is called kinetic friction. The
magnitude of kinetic friction is observed to be less than the maximum static friction. However,
it remains constant regardless of the increase in the force applied.
Friction / N
15
Static Kinetic
friction friction
Applied force / N
0 15
Not moving Moving
Static friction and kinetic friction
Example 7
A box is on the floor. A boy pushes it with a force of 3 N. The box does not move.
(a) What type of friction is acting on the box?
(b) What is the magnitude of this friction?
Solution:
(a) Since the box is not moving, static friction is acting on the box.
(b) 3 N
Chapter 4 87
Forces
Example 8
A car with a mass of 850 kg is moving with an acceleration of 2 m s–2. The force exerted by
the engine of the car is 2,400 N.
, riction
(a) What is the magnitude of the friction acting on the car?

(b) What is the type of friction acting on the car? Explain.
Solution:
(a) There is a resultant force acting on the car as it is accelerating.
Resultant force, F = ma
= 850 2
= 1,700 N
Resultant force = 2,400 + Ffriction
1,700 = 2,400 + Ffriction
Ffriction = –700 N
The magnitude of friction is 700 N.
(b) The car is moving. Therefore the type of friction acting on the car is kinetic friction.
Q1. What is friction?
Q2. What are the factors affecting friction?
Q3. What is the difference between static friction and kinetic friction?
Q4. The figure below shows a man pushing a 20 kg cupboard with a force
4.3 of 200 N.
200 N
(a) If the cupboard did not move, what type of friction is involved? What
is the magnitude and direction of the friction?
(b) If the cupboard starts moving with an acceleration of 1 m s–2, what
is the type of friction involved? What is the magnitude and direction
of the friction?
88 Science
4.4 Moment of Force
A force can be used to produce a turning effect to do work. For an
example, a nut can be tightened or loosened with a turning effect by
using a spanner.
A longer spanner turns the nuts with less force.
It is much easier to turn the nut using the spanner which has a longer
handle. This is because, with the same force applied, the spanner
with the longer handle can produce a larger turning effect or moment
of force.
Moment of force or moment is a measure of the ability of a force to

turn or rotate an object on which it acts. It is defined as
Perpendicular distance
Moment of force = Force × from turning point
M = F × l
The unit of moment of force is newton meter (N m). Moment of force

can be clockwise or anticlockwise, depending on which way they
turn.
Anticlockwise moment
10 cm 20 N
When a nut is difficult to Pivot
loosen, a longer spanner Moment about pivot = 20 N 0.10 m
will help. There will
=2Nm
be a greater moment
generated on the nut with
the same force applied
on the longer spanner.
A force of 20 N upward is applied on the handle of a spanner.

This force has an anticlockwise moment of 2 N m about the
turning point or pivot.
Chapter 4 89
Forces
Pivot
Nut
Moment about pivot = 40 N 0.25 m
25 cm = 10 N m
40 N
Clockwise moment
A force of 40 N downward is applied on the handle of a spanner.

This force has a clockwise moment of 10 N m about the turning
point or pivot.
50 N
The moment of force applied on the above spanner is zero. This

is because this force acts directly through the pivot and therefore
does not cause any rotation to occur. Hence, regardless of
the magnitude of the force applied, the moment of force will still
be zero.
S how i n g the rel ati on s hi p

bet w een m om en t an d the
produ c t of f or c e an d id s tan c e
Materials /Apparatus: Spring balance, meter rule, wooden
pyramid (as a fulcrum), weights
Procedure:
1. The fulcrum is at 5 cm mark of the meter rule while the 5 N
weight is hung at the 15 cm mark.
2. The spring balance is used to lift the end of the meter rule at the
95 cm mark. When the meter rule is horizontal, the readings of
the spring balance and the distance from the spring balance
to the fulcrum are recorded.
3. The product of the force and its distance from the fulcrum is
calculated.
4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated with the spring balance at the
85 cm, 75 cm and 65 cm mark of the meter rule.
5. The readings are recorded in a table.
90 Science
Results:
The clockwise moment due to the 5 N force = 5 N (0.15 – 0.05) m
= 0.5 N m
Distance of the Spring Product of force

spring balance from balance’s and distance,
the fulcrum, d (m) reading, F (N) F x d (N m)
0.9 0.6 0.54
0.8 0.7 0.56
0.7 0.8 0.56
0.6 0.9 0.54
The results show that the values of Force Distance are almost
constant. The values of this product are almost the same as the
clockwise moment of 0.5 N m.
Discussion:
1. The 5 N weight and the weight of the meter rule produce a
clockwise moment about the fulcrum.
2. The force from the spring balance produces an anticlockwise
moment to balance the clockwise moment.
3. The product of the force and the perpendicular distance is
always equal to the moment required to balance the meter
rule.
Moments in a lever
Effort
Load Fulcrum
A lever is a rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum

or pivot to multiply the mechanical force (effort) that can be
applied to another object (load). In a lever, the two forces
that act on it are the effort and the load. These two forces
produce opposing moments, which is a pair of clockwise and
anticlockwise moments. When the lever is balanced, the two
moments are equal. This is the principle of moments.
Chapter 4 91
Forces
80 N
20 cm
30 cm
Anticlockwise Clockwise
moment moment
Load Fulcrum
120 N
As shown in the diagram above, a load of 120 N is placed at one end while a force of
80 N is exerted at the other end. To determine whether the lever is balanced, we can
find the
Anticlockwise moment: 120 0.20 = 24 N m
Clockwise moment: 80 0.30 = 24 N m
As the anticlockwise moment is equal to the clockwise moment, the lever is balanced
about the fulcrum.
A lever with three loads, 11 N, 6 N and 4 N is shown below. How

do we determine whether the lever is balanced now?
4m 2m 6m
4N
Fulcrum
6N
11 N
We can do so by calculating the moment of each individual

force and adding them together according to their directions.
Moment of 11 N force = 11 4
= 44 N m
(anticlockwise)
Moment of 6 N force = 6 2
= 12 N m
(clockwise)
Moment of 4 N force = 4 (6 + 2)
= 32 N m
(clockwise)
Note that the 4 N force is 8 meters away from the fulcrum, not
6 m.
Total anticlockwise moment : 44 N m
Total clockwise moment : 12 + 32 A lever is balanced when
= 44 N m
Total clockwise moment
As the total anticlockwise moment is equal to the total clockwise = Total anticlockwise
moment, the lever is balanced about the fulcrum. moment
92 Science
Example 9
Two vertical forces, 4 N and 6 N, are acting on a lever as shown. A 50-meter ruler is used.
4N 6N
x
0 cm 50 cm
Fulcrum
If the lever is balanced, what is the distance, x ?
Solution:
For lever to be balanced
anticlockwise moment = clockwise moment
4 x = 6 (50 – x)
4x = 300 – 6x
10x = 300
x = 30 cm
Here are some applications of moment of force in our daily life.
Hammer pulling a nail Bottle opener Steering wheel
Swing See-saw Fidget spinner
Chapter 4 93
Forces
Q1. What is moment of force?
Q2. A person is trying to turn a nut with a spanner using a force of 40 N.

Pivot
4.4 Nut
25 cm
40 N
What is the moment of force about the pivot?
Q3. The system below is in equilibrium.

Force = 20 N
15 N
0.8 m
What is the distance of the force from the fulcrum?
4.5 Natural Fields

In science, a fie is an area in which each point is affected by a force. There are three types
of fields, namely gravitational field, magnetic field and electrical field.
Gravitational field
There is a pull towards the center of our Earth. This force is known as gravitational force.
The area around our Earth is surrounded by the gravitational field, where things in this area
experience a pull towards the center of the Earth.
Earth is surrounded by
the gravitational force.
94 Science
The it tion fie t en t is a measure of the force exerted on
an object in the field. It is 9.8 N kg–1. This means that for each kg of
mass, the object will experience 9.8 N of force pulling it. Mass and
weight are not the same.
Mass is how much matter an object contains and it is measured in

kilograms (kg). Weight is the force due to the gravitational force acting
on that object and it is measured in newtons (N). Weight depends on
the mass of the object and the strength of the gravitational field.
2 kg 2 kg
19.6 N 03.2 N
Earth Moon
n Earth, the gravitational eld
n Earth, the gravitational eld n oon, the gravitational
strength is
strength is . kg
kg .. he
he eld strength is . kg . he
weight of the box is
weight of the box is . . weight of the box is . .
2 kg
In order to break
away from the pull of 20.0
00.0 N
gravitational force, a
Space
rocket must attain the
minimum speed. This n the outer space, there
n the outer space, there is no
speed is known as the gravitational eld.
gravitational eld. he weight
he
escape velocity which is of the box is .
of the box is
about 11.2 km s–1.
The strength of the gravitational field is weaker as the object is further
from the Earth.
Magnetic field
neti fie is the area around a magnet that exhibits magnetic

effect on magnetic things. We cannot see magnetic fields, but we
can detect them using i on fi in . When we sprinkle iron filings on
paper over a magnet, the tiny pieces of iron line up in the field as
shown below.
Chapter 4 95
Forces
We can draw simple magnetic field lines to represent the
magnetic field. We must take note that:
the field lines have arrows on them.
the field lines come out of the North pole and go into N S
the South pole.
the field lines are more concentrated at the poles.
the closer the lines, the stronger its magnetic field
the field lines do not cross each other.
When two magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields will combine to form a
single field. A neutral point is an area in the combined field where the magnetic effect is zero
as the field from one magnet cancels the field from another magnet.
eutral point
N S N N
Magnetic field lines between unlike poles Magnetic field lines between like poles
The strength of magnetic field gets weaker as the distance from the magnet gets greater.
Electric field
e t i fie is the area around a charged object that exhibits the attraction or repulsion
effect on nearby objects. An object that gains electrons becomes a negatively-charged
object, while an object that loses electrons becomes a positively-charged object.
We can use lines to represent an electric field. For a positively-charged object, the lines are
drawn outwards while for a negatively-charged object, the lines are drawn inwards. When
the lines are closely spaced, the field is strong. The strength of the field gets weaker as the
distance from the charged object becomes greater.
+ – + – + +
A positively-charged object A negatively-charged A positively-charged object Two positively-charged

object and a negatively-charged objects
object
96 Science
When a charged object comes near to another object, they will either attract or repel each
other. If the charges are the same, they will repel. If the charges are opposite, they will attract.
If one is charged and the other is not, they will attract.
– – + + – + + N – N
epulsion epulsion ttraction ttraction ttraction
Q1. Explain these terms.

(a) ravitational field
(b) Magnetic field
(c) Electric field
4.5 Q2. What happens to the strength of these fields when the distances from
these sources are increased?
Static friction Kinetic friction

Liquid
pressure
types
Weight Floating
factors Buoyant Archimedes’
Friction principles
Types of force
surfaces Sinking
Parallel
forces
Resultant Moment
Forces
force of force
Non-parallel
forces
Natural
fie
ravitational Magnetic Electric

field field field
Chapter 4 97
Forces
static kinetic buoyant electric field

density move float gravitational field
resultant remain magnetic field moment of force
sink liquid pressure Archimedes
1. A force or net force is a single force that can represent the

combined effect of two or more forces in magnitude and direction.
2. When the resultant force acting on a stationary object is zero, the object will
stationary.
3. is the pressure exerted by the liquid on all its contacting surfaces

disregarding the direction.
4. The of the liquid and the depth affect the pressure exerted by a
liquid.
5. The force is the force acting on a submerged or partially

submerged object in a fluid.
6. principle said that for a body completely or partially immersed in

a fluid, the upward buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaced.
7. Friction that acts on two surfaces in contact that are not moving when a force is applied
is called the friction.
8. Friction that acts on two surfaces in contact that are moving is called
friction.
9. The is a measure of the ability of a force to turn or rotate an object

on which it acts.
10. The is the area around the Earth where there is a force pulling
towards the center of the Earth.
11. A is the area around a magnet where there is a force pulling

magnetic things to the magnet.
12. An is the area around a charged object where there is a force

pulling or pushing other objects.
98 Science
Moving a structure without breaking it
Force makes things move. We use force to do a lot of things in our daily life. Although we
cannot see force, the effects of force can be seen or felt. What are other effects of force?
You and your team are a group of engineers. You are required to find a way to move a
structure to a new location three meters away without breaking it. The structure is 60 cm tall
and is made of wooden building blocks. You can only use your hands and limited tools such
as a small roll of sticky tape, a ruler, pencils, pens, a piece of cardboard and a 60-cm string.
Guidelines:
1. First, build the structure on your desk. Then, discuss and make a plan on how to
move it.
2. Think about the way you move it, the tools and the speed of movement to prevent the
structure from tumbling down.
What is your need?

Define or describe the problem and set your goal.

Carry out a research and cite the sources that your group used.

Brainstorm various solutions and choose the best one.
Chapter 4 99
Forces
What is your plan?

How does it work?


100 Science
1. (a) What is meant by resultant force ?
(b) Figure 1 shows the forces acting on three objects.

(i)
12 N 15 N
(ii)
15 N
15 N
15 N
(iii) 10 N 15 N
10 N
10 N 15 N
Figure 1
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force for each object.
2. Two buffaloes are pulling a boat along a river as shown in Figure 2. Each buffalo is
pulling on the rope with a force of 500 N.
N
Rope
Boat
o
30
o
30
River
Figure 2
(a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the boat due
to the pulling by the two buffaloes.
(b) (i) If the boat is being pulled upstream at a constant velocity, what is the force
acting on the boat due to the river current?
(ii) What is the resultant force acting on the boat?
Chapter 4 101
Forces
3. An iron block with a volume of 800 cm3 is submerged fully
(a) in water [Density of water = 1,000 kg m–3]
(b) in oil Density of oil = 800 kg m–3]

For each case, calculate the buoyant force acting on the iron block.
4. Figure 3 shows the forces exerted by a screwdriver on the head of a screw.
6.0 N
0.005 m
Screwdriver
Screw
6.0 N
Figure 3
(a) Put a cross in the figure to show where the turning point of the screw is.
(b) Assuming that both the forces have equal distance away from the turning point,
what is the moment of force about the turning point?
102 Science
is this
How fast
ing?
lorry mov
5
Chapter
Motion
• explain and calculate the speed and velocity of ob

explain and calculate the speed and velocity ects using
empirical evidence.
empirical evidence.
• draw a diagram to show displacement and speed.

5.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. Length is an example of a physical
quantity. It can be measured with an instrument such as a metre rule. Physical quantities have
a numerical magnitude and a unit. For example, the length of a pencil is 13 cm or the height
of a flagpole is 7 m.
Physical quantity
Vector quantity
Scalar quantity
• Magnitude
• Magnitude
• Direction
We can group physical quantities encountered in science as either scalar or vector quantities.
Scalar quantities have magnitude only while vector quantities have magnitude and
direction.
hat a hot day bet here’s a bakery

here’s a bakery selling
the temperature in the tasty pastries ust
tasty pastries m
room is
o
. away
away from the bus station.
from the
et’s go
et’s go later.
When we hear someone says the temperature of the room is 30°C, would we ask where
or in which direction? What about a bakery that sells tasty pastries just 500 m away from
the bus station?
For temperature, just knowing the magnitude is enough, but for the location or displacement
of the bakery from the bus station, we need to know the magnitude and the direction.
That is because temperature is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.
104 Science
The table below gives a list of some scalar and vector quantities.
Physical quantities
Scalar Vector
Area Acceleration
Density Displacement
Energy Force
Length Momentum
Mass Velocity
Speed Torque
Temperature Weight
Time Magnetic field
Volume Electric field
Example 1
Study the description of events listed below. Decide which events specify magnitude,
direction or both and tick (✓) the respective columns.
Description of Event Magnitude Direction
The bottle can hold 500 cm3 of water.
Town A is located 40 km north-west of Town B.
The airplane is flying north at 800 km h–1.
Ken heats some water from 26°C to 100°C.
Solution:
Description of Event Magnitude Direction
The bottle can hold 500 cm3 of water. ✓
Town A is located 40 km north-west of Town B. ✓ ✓
The airplane is flying north at 800 km h–1. ✓ ✓
Ken heats some water from 26°C to 100°C. ✓
Chapter 5 105
Motion
Example 2
Consider the quantities listed below. Categorize each quantity as either a scalar or
a vector.
Quantity Scalar / Vector
15 m s–1, North
300 cm3
40 kg
400 m, East
26°C
3 km
Solution:
Quantity Scalar / Vector
15 m s–1, North Vector
300 cm3 Scalar
40 kg Scalar
400 m, East Vector
26°C Scalar
3 km Scalar
A scaled vector diagram can be used to represent a vector quantity. We can use an arrow
with a tail and a head. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity
and the direction of the arrow is the direction of the quantity.
de
nitu
Mag
Head
tion
D irec
Tail
We can use right and left or the four cardinal directions (North, East, South and West) for the
direction.
106 Science
Example 3
Determine the magnitude and direction of this vector.
cale cm km
Solution:
The length of the arrow is 3 cm.
3 x 2 = 6 km
The arrow is pointing to the right.
Therefore, the magnitude of the vector is 6 km and its direction is to the right.
Example 4
Draw a scaled vector diagram to represent a quantity that has a magnitude of 50 m s–1
heading North using a scale of 1 cm : 10 m s–1.
Solution:
The length of the arrow = 50 ÷ 10
N
= 5 cm
Q1. What is the difference between scalar quantities and vector quantities?
Q2. Name four scalar quantities and vector quantities each.
Q3. Draw a scaled vector diagram to represent a quantity of 100 N heading

South using a scale of 1 cm : 20 N.
5.1
Chapter 5 107
Motion
5.2 Distance and
Displacement
Distance is defined as the length of the actual path traveled by an
object from one location to another. It is a scalar quantity.
Displacement is the length of the path traveled by an object in

a specific direction. The length of this path is measured from the
object’s initial position to its final position in a straight line. It is a
vector quantity.
Let us use the figure below to have a better understanding.
Scale 1 cm : 80 m
240 m
F E
80 m
G
H 160 m
80 m
N
C 160 m
D
160 m
160 m
A B
Displacement
Distance travelled
The above figure shows a car traveling from point A to point H. There
is a difference between distance and displacement. The distance
traveled by the car from point A to point H is the total length of the
path A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H.
Distance = 160 + 160 + 160 + 160 + 240 + 80 + 80

= 1,040 m For a movement where
an object moves and
returns to its original
On the other hand, the displacement of the car from point A to point H position, its magnitude of
is the length of the path AH with the direction of H from A in a straight displacement is zero, but
its magnitude of distance
line. will be greater than zero.
Displacement = 160 + 160 – 80

= 180 m to the North of A
108 Science
Example 5
From the starting point, a cyclist rode 400 m East, then 400 m North and 200 m West before
stopping for a rest. After the rest, he rode another 100 m North and 200 m West to reach
the ending point. What is
(a) the total distance rode by him?
(b) the displacement rode by him?
(c) draw a scaled vector diagram to represent this displacement using the scale of
1 cm : 200 m.
Solution:
N cale cm m
200 m
Ending point
100 m
200 m
400 m
Starting point
400 m
(a) Total distance cycled = 400 + 400 + 200 + 100 + 200

= 1,300 m
(b) Displacement = 400 + 100

= 500 m to the North of the starting point
(c)
Q1. What is displacement?
Q2. The figure below shows the size of a swimming pool.

50 m
1 lap
A B
5.2 25 m
Kevin swam 4 laps in the swimming pool, where 1 lap is equal to the
distance from A to B and back to A again.
(a) What is the total distance swam by Kevin?
(b) What is his displacement?
Chapter 5 109
Motion
5.3 Speed and Velocity
Speed is the distance traveled per unit time. Speed can also be
defined as the rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity. The
average speed of an object is
Total distance traveled

Average speed =
Total time taken
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. It is a

vector quantity. The average velocity of an object is
Displacement
Average velocity =
Total time taken
R , m S
m
, m , m
m
Q P
, m
m
The above figure shows the path traveled by a car from P to S through
Q and R.. If the car took 800 seconds to travel from P to S, the average
speed of the car would be
(5,000 + 4,000 + 2,000) m

Average speed =
800 s
11,000 m
=
800 s
= 13.75 m s–1
The average velocity of the car would be
5,000 m
Average velocity =
800 s
= 6.25 m s–1 to the North-West of P
110 Science
Example 6
A sheep walked along a curved path from X to Y. The distance traveled by the sheep is
360 m and took the sheep 200 s. Y lies 80 m South-West of X.
Calculate the average speed and average velocity of the sheep moving from X to Y.
Draw a scaled vector diagram to represent the average velocity using a scale of 1 cm :
0.1 m s–1.
Solution:
Total distance traveled = 360 m
Displacement = 80 m
Total time taken = 200 s
Total distance traveled

(a) Average speed =
Total time taken
360 m
=
200 s
= 1.8 m s–1
Displacement
(b) Average velocity =
Total time taken
80 m
=
200 s
= 0.4 m s–1 to the South-West of X
(c)
The table below summarizes the physical quantities of distance, displacement, speed and velocity.
Physical quantity Type of quantity Definition

The length of the actual path traveled by an object
Distance Scalar
from one location to another
The length of the path traveled by an object in a
Displacement Vector
specific direction in a straight line
Speed Scalar The rate of change of distance
Velocity Vector The rate of change of displacement
Chapter 5 111
Motion
Q1. What is velocity ?
Q2. The figure below shows the paths taken by Kevin and Jason from point
A to point B. Kevin took 800 seconds to travel from point A to point B,
while Jason took 2,380 seconds.
5.3 A Kevin B
N
1,071 m
Jason
3,213 m
(a) What is Kevin’s

(i) average speed?
(ii) average velocity?
(b) What is Jason’s

(i) average speed?
(ii) average velocity?
Physical Quantities
Scalar quantities Vector quantities

Have magnitudes only. Have magnitudes and directions.
Distance Speed Displacement Velocity
112 Science
distance velocity speed vector diagram

scalar displacement vector
1. quantities are physical quantities that have magnitudes only.
2. quantities are physical quantities that have magnitudes and

directions.
3. A is an arrow used to represent a vector quantity.
4. is the length of the actual path traveled by an object from one

location to another.
5. is the length of the path traveled by an object in a specific

direction in a straight line.
6. is the rate of change of distance.
7. is the rate of change of displacement.
Chapter 5 113
Motion
A balloon rocket
When you blow up a balloon and then release it, what happens to the balloon? Can you make
a balloon rocket that travels as far as possible along a line stretched between two chairs?
You are required to make such a balloon.
Guidelines:
1. Think about the materials that enable your balloon to move further. What kind of
materials will be used for the line that can guide the balloon to travel along – string,
rope, fishing line, wire or other materials?
2. Find out the scientific knowledge you need to know before you get started.
3. Design it and have fun!
What is your need?



114 Science
What is your plan?

How does it work?


Chapter 5 115
Motion
1. What is a
(a) scalar quantity?
(b) vector quantity?
Name one example of each.
2. Jeff leaves his house at 9.00 a.m. and walks 1.3 km to the bookstore to buy some books.
After buying the books, he walks 2.8 km to the bakery to collect the cake he ordered.
Finally, he walks another 1.3 km to reach Kenny’s house. Jeff reaches Kenny’s house at
12.00 p.m.
U
4.0 km
Jeff’s house Kenny’s house
1.3 km
3.0 km 1.3 km
2.8 km
Bookstore Bakery
By the time Jeff reaches Kenny’s house,

(a) what is the total distance Jeff walked?
(b) what is his average speed?
(c) calculate his displacement.
(d) calculate his average velocity.
(e) draw two scaled vector diagrams to represent his displacement and average
velocity using scale 1 cm : 1 km and 1 cm : 0.3 km h–1 respectively.
116 Science
h e m a n is pushing
T
w a ll . Is t here any
the ?
word done
6
Chapter
Work and Energy

• analyze the situation and calculate work and energy which occur
analyze the situation and calculate work
from force acting on the ob
from force acting on the ob ect based on collected data.
ect based
• analyze the working principle of the simple machines using

collected information.
• realize the use of knowledge of the simple machines by describing

the bene ts and applications in daily life.
• design and experiment using proper methods to explain the

factors that affect kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
• according to collected information, interpret data and explain

the change between gravitational potential energy and kinetic
energy in the ob ects when mechanical energy of the ob ect has a
constant value.
• analyze the situations and explain the change and transfer of

energy by using the law of conservation of energy.
6.1 Work and Power
When a force is used to move an object through a distance in the direction of the force, work
is said to be done. When we run up a hill, work is said to be done because we exert a force
to carry ourselves up the hill. When work is done, energy is transformed into another form.
In science, work is defined as the product of the force and the displacement of an object in
the direction of the force.
Work done, W = Force (N) × displacement (m)
The SI unit of work is joule (J). 1 joule of work is done when 1 N of force is exerted to move
an object a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.
Based on the definition of work, there is no work done when there is no force or no displacement.
Let us analyze the situations below.
(a) A man pushes a wall. There is no work done as the wall does not move.
F orce without
orce
motion
without
F orce perpendicular
orce perpendicular
to the motion
to the motion
onstant
onstant
velocity
(b) A boy carries a stack of books while walking at a constant velocity. No work is done on the
stack of books in the upward direction as the stack of book is only moving horizontally.
Example 1
A boy pushes a trolley with a horizontal force of 20 N. The trolley moves 5 m horizontally.
What is the work done?
Solution:
Work done, W = Force × displacement
= 20 × 5
= 100 J
Example 2
The diagram shows a boy climbing up the stairs. If he
weighs 400 N, how much work does the boy do to climb
the stairs?
Solution:
The boy exerts an upward force to overcome his own
2.5 m
weight or the pull of gravity.
5m
= 400 × 2.5
= 1000 J
118 Science
Example 3
A lady does 1500 J of work to lift a basket to the height of 1.5 m. How much force is used?
Solution:
1500 = Force × 1.5
1500
Force =
1.5
= 1000 N
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Work done (J)

Power, P =
Time taken (s)
Its SI unit is joules per second (Js–1) or watt (W). One watt of power is one joule of work done
in one second.
Example 4
A machine lifts a box of 100 N to a height of 10 m in 1 minute. What is the power delivered
by the machine?
Solution:
Work done
Power, P =
Time taken
100 × 10
=
1 × 60
= 16.67 W
Example 5
Calculate the time taken for a crane that uses 800 W to lift a load of 2500 N to a height of
5 m.
Solution:
Work done
Power, P =
Time taken
2500 × 5
800 =
Time taken
2500 × 5
Time taken =
800
= 15.625 s
Chapter 6 119
Work and Energy
Q1. Define work and power.
Q2. State two factors that can affect the work done on an object.
Q3. How much work is done when a 5 N force moves an object by 5 cm?
Q4. A student has a weight of 400 N. It takes him 50 seconds to climb up a

6.1 vertical height of 10 m. Calculate the power of the student.
6.2 Simple Machines

Simple machines are devices that do work. They help us to do work easier. They reduce the
force or the displacement needed to do the work, but they do not reduce the total work done.
Here are ways on how simple machines make our work easier:
They reduce the force needed to do the work, but a greater displacement is needed.
They reduce the displacement needed to do the work, but a greater force is needed.
They change the direction of the force.
There are no machines that can reduce both the force and the displacement at the same time.
There are a few types of simple machines such as levers, inclined planes, pulleys, wedges,
screws and wheels and axles.
Effort
Load
Fulcrum
A lever has a rod that rests and turns about at a fixed point. The fixed point is known as
the fulcrum. A force, known as the effort, is applied at a point on the rod. Usually, a lever is
used to lift a weight which is known as the load. To use the least effort, the fulcrum should
be placed as close as possible to the load. However, the effort has to move through a longer
distance.
The positions of the effort, fulcrum, and load are interchangeable. Based on their positions,
we can group the levers into three categories, namely first class lever, second class lever,
and third class lever.
Effort Effort
Fulcrum Load Fulcrum Load

First class lever Second class lever
Effort
Fulcrum Load
Third class lever
Examples of levers are scissors, claw hammers, wheelbarrows, bottle openers, brooms and
fishing rods.
120 Science
An inclined plane is a sloping surface. It is used to move a
load from a lower spot to a higher spot easier. A common
inclined plane is a ramp.
This machine reduces the force needed to move an object

to a higher location. However, the load will have to move
through a longer distance. Some other examples of inclined
planes are staircases, slides, and ladders.
Ramp
A pulley is a wheel with a groove. This groove is for a rope

to move around the pulley. Pulleys are used to lift up or lower
Wheel
down objects easier. Some examples of pulleys are cranes,
flagpoles and window binds.
Rope
When we pull the rope, the wheel will turn, changing the
direction of the force. It helps us to lift or lower objects with A pulley
less force but with a greater displacement.
A wedge is made up of one or two inclined planes. It has a

sharp or pointed edge at one end. It is usually used to cut or
split things into pieces. In a wide wedge, the force yielded
is less as the inclined angle is large. So, if the inclined angle
is small, the wedge yields a larger force and may do the job
faster than a wedge with a larger angle. Examples of wedges
are knives, axes and saws. A knife is a wedge.
A screw is a simple machine that is made of an inclined

plane wrapped around a cylinder. It can be driven into an
object or flat surface using a screwdriver. When the screw
is rotated, it moves downward into the object following the
screw thread (inclined planes). Some examples of screws
are jar lids, drills, light bulbs and bottle caps.
A screw needs to be rotated many times to drive it down a

small distance. However, only a small effort is applied on the Every turn of the screw helps move it
screw to produce a large downward force. into the wood.
A wheel and axle is a simple machine that consists of

a wheel which is connected to a rod called an axle. They
Axle
are connected in such a way that they rotate together. This
machine allows movement of larger objects over a distance Wheel
with less force. Examples of such machines are screwdrivers, Rotation
door knobs and water taps.
The door knob is a wheel and axle.
Chapter 6 121
Work and Energy
Q1. What is a simple machine?
Q2. List the types of simple machines.
Q3. Name the simple machines found in these tools.

(a) Scissors (d) Ladders
6.2 (b) Axes (e) Flag poles
(c) Jar lids (f) Screwdrivers
6.3 Energy
When the work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the
objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the
sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy.
Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position. The common types are
gravitational potential energy due to its vertical position or height and elastic potential
energy due to its stretching or compressing condition.
The stretched bow has elastic The coconuts on the trees have The moving truck has kinetic energy.
potential energy. gravitational potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy stored in a moving object. It depends on its mass and speed.
There are other forms of energy such as shown below.
Light energy Electrical energy Sound energy
Heat energy Nuclear energy Chemical energy
122 Science
Energy can change from one form into another, but it cannot be
destroyed or created. This is known as the law of conservation of
energy.
We change energy
Energy changes take place all around us. Green plants undergo
whenever we eat. photosynthesis to change light energy from the Sun into chemical
The food we eat contains energy in the form of food. Light energy from the Sun also heats up
energy that originally the atmosphere by changing to heat energy.
comes from the Sun.
Energy from the food When we use energy, we often convert it from one form to another.
is changed into energy
that keeps us warm and
allows our muscles to
move.
Activity Observation Energy changes
Rubbing two The palms feel hot Kinetic energy Heat + Sound
palms together and the sound of energy energy
rubbing is heard.
Clapping The sound of Kinetic energy Sound energy

clapping is heard.
Lightning a bulb The bulb lights up Chemical Electrical Light + Heat

and becomes hot. energy energy energy energy
Dry cell
Bulb
Releasing The spring recoils. Elastic potential energy Kinetic energy

a stretched spring
Turning on a hair The hair dryer Electrical Heat + Sound

dryer gives out hot air energy energy energy
and a sound.
Chapter 6 123
Work and Energy
O bs erv i n g en ergy c han ges
A Converting gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy
Materials /Apparatus: Marble, curtain rail and wood blocks
Procedure:
Marble
X
Curtain rail
Wooden Y
blocks
Z
1. A curtain rail is set up as shown to make an inclined slope.

2. A marble is placed at the highest point, X.
X A slight push is given to the marble so that
it rolls down the inclined slope.
3. Observations are recorded.
Observation:
When the marble is given a push, it starts to roll down the inclined slope slowly at the
top section of the rail. Then, it increases its speed and moves progressively faster until it
reaches Z.
Discussion:
1. When the marble is released, it begins to roll down the slope. As it moves down,
it does so with increased speed. Its kinetic energy increases but its gravitational
potential energy decreases because its height decreases. Thus, as the marble rolls
down the inclined slope, its gravitational potential energy changes to kinetic energy.
2. The marble has the maximum gravitational potential energy at position X.
3. The marble has the maximum kinetic energy at position Z.
Conclusion:
Gravitational potential energy can be changed to kinetic energy.
B Converting elastic potential energy to kinetic energy
Materials/Apparatus: toy car
Procedure:
1. A toy car is wound up.
124 Science
2. The coil is stopped from being wound when it is tightened.
3. The toy car is placed on the floor and then released. Observations are recorded.
Observation:
The toy car moves. After some time, it slows down and finally stops.
Discussion:
1. When the toy car is wound up, energy is stored in the coil of the spring as elastic
potential energy.
2. When the toy car is released, the coiled spring inside unwinds and the elastic potential
energy stored in the coiled spring is used to move the car.
3. The elastic potential energy in the coiled spring is changed to the kinetic energy of the
car.
Conclusion:
Elastic potential energy can be changed to kinetic energy.
Changes between potential energy and kinetic energy
Both potential energy and kinetic energy are related. Let us use a simple pendulum to study
the principle of conservation of energy.
A C
A swinging pendulum
The above figure shows a simple pendulum. The bob is pulled and released from position A.
Then, it swings to positions B and C.
(a) At position A
The pendulum bob has the greatest amount of gravitational potential energy as it is at the
highest point. It does not have kinetic energy as it is not moving.
(b) From position A to B

When the pendulum bob starts to swing down, its potential energy starts to change to
kinetic energy.
(c) At position B
All the potential energy changes to kinetic energy as the velocity of the pendulum bob is
the maximum. The pendulum bob has zero potential energy as it is at the lowest point.
Chapter 6 125
Work and Energy
(d) From position B to C
The kinetic energy gradually changes back to potential energy as the pendulum bob
swings higher.
(e) Position C
Its potential energy is the greatest as it is at the highest point. Its kinetic energy is zero
as the pendulum bob stops for a while here.
Although the potential energy and kinetic energy change from one form into another, the
total energy is always the same at any position of the pendulum bob. The potential energy
mentioned here refers to the gravitational potential energy.
Energy
The total energy is the same
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Position of the
A B C pendulum bob
Graph of the conversion energy between potential energy and kinetic energy
Let us look another situation.
A B C D
A – Ace lifts the book upward. The chemical energy in his muscles does the work to increase
the gravitational potential energy of the book.
B – The book gains gravitational potential energy when it is lifted from the floor to the shelf.
C – The book drops from the shelf. The gravitational potential energy changes to kinetic
energy of the falling book.
D – The book hits the floor. The kinetic energy changes to sound energy as the result of the
collision between the floor and the book.
A book placed on a higher shelf has more gravitational potential energy and more kinetic
energy as it falls than it would have on a lower shelf.
126 Science
Q1. What is energy?
Q2. What is mechanical energy?
Q3. State the law of conservation of energy.
Q4. A little girl is on a swing in a playground. She experiences the energy

6.3 change as she swings on it.
(a) What is the energy change she experienced?
(b) At what point, is her gravitational potential energy the greatest?
(c) At what point, is her kinetic energy the greatest?
Wheel and
Lever Inclined plane Pulley Wedge Screw axle
Simple machines
Work done Force × displacement

Power Work
Time
Law of conservation
Energy
of energy
Mechanical energy
Potential energy Kinetic energy
Gravitational Elastic potential

potential energy energy
Chapter 6 127
Work and Energy
watt pulley work power

Joule screw lever simple machine
wedge created inclined plane wheel and axle
mechanical energy energy
1. is the product of the force and the displacement of an object

in the direction of the force.
2. The SI unit of work is .
3. is the rate at which work in done.
4. The SI unit of power is .
5. A is a device that helps us to do work easier.
6. A has three parts, namely effort, fulcrum and load.
7. An is a slanted surface used to raise an object.
8. A is a chain, belt or rope wrapped around a wheel and it can

change either the direction or the amount of effort force.
9. A made up of one or two inclined plane that moves.
10. The threads of a are like an incline plane wrapped around a

cylinder to form a spiral.
11. A consists of a round disk, known as a wheel, with a rod

through the center of it, known as the axle.
12. is the ability to do work.
13. is the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy.
14. The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be

or destroyed.
128 Science
Roller Coaster
Do you like to ride roller coasters? A roller coaster is an amusement game developed for
amusement parks and modern theme parks. A roller coaster consists of a track that rises
in designed patterns, sometimes with one or more vertical loops that briefly turn the riders
upside down.
You and your team are hired to design and build a roller coaster. Your materials are a 2-meter
long foam tube (1/2” pipe insulation) cut in half lengthwise and a marble (as a car). You
should include as many elements such as loops, drops, hills and others in your design as
possible. Your car must remain on the track throughout the run. It should not run off the end
of the track but stop on the track.
Guidelines
1. Think about the knowledge and skills needed to design your roller coasters.
2. What forces affect the roller coaster and its riders - gravity, friction or others?
3. Is the first hill always the highest point of the roller coaster
coaster? Why?
4. Do the cars move the fastest at the bottoms of the hills and the slowest at the tops of
the hills?
What is your need?

Define or describe the problem and set your goal.

Carry out a research and cite the sources that your group used.

Chapter 6 129
Work and Energy
What is your plan?

How does it work?


130 Science
1. A worker can carry 3 bags of cement vertically through a distance of 15 m in 3 minutes.
Each bag has a mass of 10 kg. Calculate
[g = 10 N kg–1]
(a) the work done by the worker.
(b) his power.
2. The figure below shows that Sak and his sister playing a swing in their backyard.
(a) What energy change occurs when Sak pulls the swing back?
(b) What happens to the energy mentioned in (a) when Sak releases the swing?
(c) At what point will the potential energy be the greatest?
(d) When does the swing have the greatest kinetic energy?
(e) (i) State the law of conservation of energy.

(ii) How does this law apply in the above situation?
Chapter 6 131
Work and Energy
w m a n y layers are
Ho
ur Earth?
there in o
7
Chapter
Earth
• make a model to explain the Earth’s internal structure by

make a model to explain the Earth’s internal
chemical
chemical composition based on collected information.
composition based on collected
• describe the process of weathering, erosion and

sedimentation from the model, including examples of
the results of such processes that change the Earth’s
surface.
• compare the formation process, properties and usage,

and explain the effects of utilization of fossil fuels based
on collected data.
• show awareness of the impacts of using fossil fuels by

offering guidelines for fossil fuels usage.
• compare the advantages and disadvantages of each

type of renewable energy by gathering information and
present the guidelines for the use of renewable energy
suited to local.
7.1 Layers of the Earth
Our Earth consists of three layers – the crust, mantle and core. The
crust is made up of rocks and minerals. Much of the crust is covered
by water, sand, soil and ice. Below the loose layer of soil, sand and
crumbled rocks found on Earth, is the bedrock, which is a solid rock.
The crust makes up less than 1% of the Earth’s mass. There are 8
elements that make up 99% of the Earth’s crust. They are oxygen,
magnesium, aluminium, silicon, calcium, sodium, potassium and
iron. The continents are about 35 km thick and the ocean floors are
about 8 km thick.
Crust
Mantle
Outer core
Inner core
How are the layers of the

Earth similar to an egg?
Layers of the Earth
Crust = Egg shell The mantel is the layer below the crust. It is the solid casing of the
Mantle = Egg white Earth and is about 2,900 km thick. It makes up about 70% of the
Core = Egg yolk
Earth’s mass. It is made of silicon, magnesium oxygen, aluminium
and iron. Its temperature is between 500oC and 2,000oC.
The core is the center of the Earth. It makes up about 30% of the
Earth’s mass. The outer core is mainly made of molten iron and nickel,
and it is about 2,200 km thick. Its temperature is between 4,000oC
and 6,000oC. The inner core is about 1,270 km thick and is made of
solid iron and nickel. This is mainly due to the extreme pressure. Its
temperature can be as high as 7,000oC.
Q1. How many layers are there in our Earth? Name

them.
Q2. Which layer is the hottest?
Q3. Which layer is the thickest?

7.1
Chapter 7 133
Earth
7.2 Slow Processes that Change the
Surface of the Earth
Some changes on the Earth’s surface are caused by slow processes, such as weathering,
erosion and deposition. These processes have occurred over billions of year ago.
Weathering
Weathering is the process where a rock is broken down into smaller pieces on the Earth’s
surface. There are three types of weathering, namely physical, biological and chemical
weathering. Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering, breaks down rocks
without changing their chemical composition. This process occurs mainly due to temperature
changes when there is a big difference between the day and night temperatures.
Different temperatures Outer layer cracks
During the day, the outer layer of a rock is hot while its center is cold. So, the outer layer of
the rock expands slightly. At night, when the temperature drops, the outer layer cools faster
than its center and contracts slightly. After some time, the outer layer of the rock cracks and
breaks off.
Ice
Water in a crack Water freezes and expands
In very cold areas, weathering involves water. When water in the cracks of the rocks freezes,
it expands. This expansion widens the cracks. After some time, the rocks are broken down
into pieces. This process is known as ice wedging.
134 Science
Living things contribute to biological weathering. Roots grow into cracks of rocks where
water and nutrients might be. As the roots grow, they wedge the rocks apart. Sometimes,
burrowing animals and even humans break down rocks into smaller pieces.
Chemical weathering involves chemical reactions. Rain is naturally slightly acidic as carbon
dioxide dissolves in it. Some rocks such as limestone have minerals in them that react with
the acidic rainwater. The chemical reactions make the rock weathered.
Burrowing animals in soil Chemical weathering on the limestone
When fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline are burnt, more acidic gases are released into
the air. This makes the rainwater more acidic. This rain is known as acid rain. Acid rain
speeds up chemical weathering.
Erosion
During weathering, large rocks are broken down into smaller and movable pieces. Then, they
are transported through erosion. Erosion is the process of transportation of rocks and soil
materials or sediments by natural agents, such as running water, waves, glaciers, and wind.
Rain washes the sediments into streams. Wind may blow them away. Glaciers can carry them
away too. Landslides and mudslides happen when the soil and rocks on a slope are unstable
and tumble or slide down the slope.
Landslides change the surface of the Earth.
Chapter 7 135
Earth
Deposition
Deposition occurs when movement of sediments slows or stops and the sediments are
later dropped. This happens when the agents of erosion are losing their energy and slowing
down. sually heavy and larger sediments are deposited first before less denser sediments.
Deposition creates many types of landform on the Earth such as the sand dunes in deserts
and deltas at river mouths.
Deltas are formed when sediments are deposited at river mouths.
Q1. What is weathering?
Q2. How are weathering and erosion different?
Q3. Describe weathering, erosion and deposition in changing the surface of

the Earth.
7.2
7.3 Sources of Energy

We use energy to do work. There are many sources of energy on our Earth. We can classify
them into non-renewable energy sources and renewable enery sources.
Non-renewable energy sources
Non-renewable energy sources are energy sources that will not replenish quickly and may
run out soon. Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon
compounds formed from the decay of organic matter over 300 millions years ago. Coal,
petroleum and oil shale are the types of fossil fuels currently in use. These materials are made
into fuels for different kinds of equipment and are used in manufacturing.
136 Science
Coal
The coal we use today began to form millions of years ago in swampy areas where
plentiful huge plants grew. When they died and fell in the swamps, they were covered
by mud, soil and other plants. Layers after layers of sediments piled up. Over millions
of years, the intense heat and pressure of the Earth converted the plant matter into a
mixture of carbon and hydrocarbon compounds, known as coal.
There are four types of coal which are classified

according to their age. Bituminous coal and
anthracite coal are the oldest types of coal and
they contain the highest carbon content. This
makes them useful for fueling power plants.
Sub-bituminous coal and lignite coal are the

youngest types of coal and they contain less
carbon. They are not as useful as fuels because
of their lower carbon content.
When coal is burned, huge amount of heat
Coal comes in different forms, from hard black energy is released.
rocks to soft brown dirt. Some forms burn hotter
and cleaner than others. Coal is used to produce electricity. Many coal beds are near
the ground’s surface. We get coal by mining for it. Most coal is used by power plants
where it is burned to make steam. The steam turns turbines to produce electricity.
Coal is also used in steel manufacturing. It is refined to produce a substance called

coke which burns at very high temperatures to smelt the iron into steel.
Petroleum
Petroleum is formed over millions of years from the

decay of algae and tiny ocean animals known as
plankton. The tiny animals and plants were buried in
the sediments on the ocean floor. These sediments
and organic matter are buried deeper into the Earth,
under pressure and heat to become oil bearing shale
and finally crude oil.
Petroleum refers to the bituminous deposits that include

crude oil, natural gas and tar. It is a thick, black, gooey
liquid found way down in the ground, usually between
layers of rocks. These products are aided in their Gasoline and diesel are used
formation by anaerobic bacteria and form methane. as fuels in cars.
Petroleum is a major source of energy for transportation.

It is refined by fractional distillation into gasoline,
diesel, and kerosene. Oil products are also used as
raw materials in the manufacture of plastics.
Plastics are made from petroleum.
Chapter 7 137
Earth
Oil shale
Oil shale generally refers to any sedimentary rocks that

contain solid bituminous materials (called kerogen) that are
released as petroleum-like liquid when the rocks are heated in
the chemical process of pyrolysis.
Oil shale was formed over millions of years by deposition of silt

and organic debris on lake beds and sea bottoms. Over long
periods of time, heat and pressure transformed the materials You may use
into oil shale in a process similar to the process that forms this animation to
petroleum; however, the heat and pressure were not as great. understand better the
formation of coal and
Oil shale contains enough oil that will burn without any petroleum.
additional processing. It is known as “the rock that burns”. It
can be mined and processed to generate petroleum similar to
those pumped from conventional oil wells.
However, extracting oil from oil shale is more complex than

conventional oil refineries and is currently more expensive.
The oil in oil shale is solid and cannot be pumped out directly
of the ground. The oil shale must first be mined and then
heated to high temperature in the proses called retorting and
the resultant liquid is then separated and collected.
Disadvantages of using fossil fuels
Non-renewable energy resources – The supply of fossil

fuels is limited. Fossil fuels do not replenish themselves
and the formation of fossil fuels takes millions of years and
specific conditions. At our current consumption rate, we
will simply run out of fossil fuels in 50 to 100 years later.
Global warming – Combustion of fossil fuels gives out a

large amount of carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas.
It is responsible for global warming, the rising of the overall
temperature of the Earth. This phenomenon is associated
with frequent heavy rainfalls, floods and droughts.
Pollution – Combustion of fossil fuels also releases carbon

monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide and some heavy
metals into the air. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas.
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur create acid rain when they
are mixed with water. Acid rain is harmful to plants, animals
and stone and metal artworks. Nitrogen oxides contribute
to the formation of smog too.
138 Science
There are a few ways to reduce the negative impact of using fossil
fuels.
Lowering fossil fuel consumption – We can do so by conserving
energy. We can turn off electrical appliances not in use. We can
carry out carpooling. We can practice the 3Rs to reduce waste
materials and the need for raw materials to make new things.
n e in e e fi ien – We need to make sure the fuel
combustion is very efficient, producing the most energy with
minimum waste. Nowadays, many house appliances come in with
a range of energy-efficiency models. We can replace the regular
light bulbs with compact florescent light (CFL) bulbs.
Replacing with renewable energy sources – Renewable energy
sources such as the Sun and wind offer many advantages from
reliability to lower costs to small environmental impact.
Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources are energy sources that can be

replaced after being used. Examples of renewable energy sources
are the Sun, wind, running water, waves, biomass, heat from inside
the Earth and hydrogen.
In the ‘Thailand 4.0’

policy, renewable energy The Sun
is a key priority for
innovation. We intend to The Sun gives out heat and light energy for billions of years.
reduce dependency on We use it to keep ourselves warm and to dry our food. Now, we
imported energy sources
have devices to collect solar energy for water heating. Some
and increase the share
of renewable energy devices convert it directly into electricity. This energy can be
consumption from the used to heat water, and power homes, buildings and even
current 12% to 30% in cars. The advantages of using solar energy are:
2036.
• Free of pollution
• Low maintenance cost
Solar panels are used to convert solar energy into heat

energy and also electrical energy.
However, the disadvantages of using solar energy are:

• High initial cost for materials and installation
• Weather dependent
• Expensive energy storage
Chapter 7 139
Earth
Wind
Wind is the moving air. Wind can be used to turn the blades of large windmills to
produce electricity or to pump water from the ground. The advantages of using wind
energy are:
• Low maintenance cost
The disadvantages of using wind energy are:

• Not consistent
• High installation cost
• Threat to aerial animals
Running water
Running water in streams and waterfalls has energy. This water energy can be used
as a source of energy in different ways. Hydroelectric energy is the energy released
when water rushing from a dam into a turbine. The fast-moving water turns the turbine
to generate electricity. Here are some advantages of using hydroelectric energy:
• Reliable and efficient
• Flexible as we can control the flow of water
• Recreation and tourism attraction
The disadvantages of using hydroelectric energy are:

• Environmental impact – changes in river levels, flow patterns and water temperature
• Displacement of people as the large area is be flooded
• Expensive to build
• Limited places to built
Waves
Winds blowing over the oceans produce the vertical movement of the surface water
known as waves. We can capture the wave energy by using special floating devices
on the water. However, the technologies to harness the wave energy are still at an early
stage of development. Here are some advantages of using wave energy:
• Relative consistent and predictable
• Low operation cost
The disadvantages of using wave energy:

• High cost of investment
• Difficult to transmit wave energy
• May disturb vessels on the oceans
140 Science
Biomass
Biomass is the organic materials that come from plants and animals. Wood, unwanted
agricultural waste such as dried plants and husks, animal manure, vegetable oils and
food waste are examples of biomass. When biomass is burned directly or converted
to liquid biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels, biomass energy is released.
Here are some advantages of using biomass energy:
• Widely available
• Cheaper than fossil fuels
• Reduces landfills
Here are some disadvantages of using biomass energy:

• Not entirely clean
• Risk of deforestation
• Large space is needed to produce and store biomass
Heat from inside the Earth

Power station
Geothermal energy is the heat energy beneath
the surface of the Earth. This energy can be drawn
from the hot water below the Earth’s surface or
by pumping cold water onto the hot rocks and
returning the heated water to the surface. This can
drive steam turbines to produce electricity. Here Steam up Cold water
are some advantages of using geothermal energy: down
Hot region
• Constant supply A geothermal power station
Here are some disadvantages of using geothermal energy:

• Can lead to release of greenhouse gases
• High investment cost
• Instability of ground as these sites are usually prone to earthquakes
• Location specific
Hydrogen
Electricity
Hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements
on Earth. However, hydrogen gas is not found
Hydrogen Oxygen
naturally and has to be manufactured. We can gas gas
convert the hydrogen energy into electricity
using a fuel cell. A fuel cell combines hydrogen
with oxygen to produce electricity and water. Membrane
Here are some advantages of using hydrogen electrolyte
energy:
• More powerful and high efficiency, even used
to power rockets and spaceships Water
Here are some disadvantages of using hydrogen energy: A fuel cell

• Expensive
• Difficult to transport and store hydrogen gas
• Dangerous as hydrogen gas is flammable
Chapter 7 141
Earth
Q1. What are non-renewable energy sources and renewable energy
sources? What are their differences?
Q2. Why are coal, petroleum and oil shale known as fossil fuels?
Q3. Why is it not likely to find deposits of coal and petroleum at the same
location?
7.3
Q4. List three disadvantages of using fossil fuels.
Q5. List the renewable energy sources.
Inner core Outer core
Biological
weathering
Crust Mantle Core

Physical Chemical
weathering weathering
Layers of Earth
Weathering
Slow
processes
Earth that change Erosion
the Earth’s
surface Deposition
Energy sources
Renewable Non-renewable
energy sources energy sources
Running Heat from

The Sun Hydrogen Coal Petroleum Oil shale
water inside the Earth
Wind Biomass Waves
142 Science
reduce outer core non-renewable coal mantle

erosion weathering inner core physical crust
fossil fuels deposition renewable
1. The is the thinnest layer of the Earth and is made up of rocks

and minerals.
2. The is the thickest layer of the Earth and is made up of silicon,

oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and iron.
3. The is made up of solid iron and nickel.
4. The is made up of molten iron and nickel.
5. is the wearing down of rocks into smaller pieces on the Earth’s

surface.
6. There are types of weathering, namely , biological and chemical

weathering.
7. is the removal of rocks and soil particles by natural agents

such as wind and water.
-
-
8. is the dropping of sediments carried by erosion agents when

they slow down.
9. energy sources are sources of energy that will not replenish

themselves and may run out later.
10. energy sources are sources of energy that will replenish

themselves after being used.
11. are fuels that are formed from decay animals and plants that
lived millions of years ago.
12. , petroleum and oil shale are examples of fossil fuels.
13. We should the use of fossil fuels as the burning of fossil fuels
releases harmful gases and causes pollution.
Chapter 7 143
Earth
Earth model
Humans have always wanted to know what our Earth is made up of. After studying the lava,
ancient scientists realized that deep rocks were different from surface rocks. Today, many
complex drilling machines and devices are used for studying the inner layers of the Earth.
You and your team are science teachers. You want your students to understand the layers of
the Earth with ease. You realized that most students can understand well through hands-on
method rather than lecture method. You are required to design and create a model of the
Earth to scale, in order to explain its layers to your students in class.
Guidelines:
1. Search for information regarding the structure, shape, layers and surface of the
Earth.
2. What materials will you use to make the model - clay, playdough, mashed paper,
Styrofoam or dough?
3. What is the scale for your model? What number operation will you use to come up
with the scale?
4. Is your model suitable for a small or a large group of students?
What is your need?



144 Science
What is your plan?

How does it work?


Chapter 7 145
Earth
1. The Earth is made of layers.
(a) How many layers are there? Name them in the correct sequence starting from the
outmost one.
(b) Which is the thinnest layer?
(c) Which is the thickest layer?
(d) Why is the inner core in solid state when it has the highest temperature?
(e) What are the two main metals that make up the outer and inner core?
2. Sources of energy can be categorized into two groups.

(a) Name the two groups.
(b) Hydrogen energy is one of the new sources of energy.

(i) What is hydrogen?
(ii) What device is used to obtain electrical energy from hydrogen gas?
(iii) What is the other product produced by this device?
(c) Burning of fossil fuels produces heat energy.

(i) What are fossil fuels?
(ii) Give three examples of fossil fuels.
(iii) What are the disadvantages of burning fossil fuels?
146 Science
a rd e n in g starts with
G
good soil.
il?
What is so
8
Chapter
Soil
• describe the characteristics of soil horizon and the process of soil

describe the characteristics of soil horizon
formation from the model including identify the factors that make
formation from the model including identify
the characteristics and properties of soils different.
the characteristics and properties of soils
• measure some properties of soils by using appropriate tools and

present the guidelines for the use of bene ts of soil based on the
data of soil properties.
8.1 Soil
Components of soil
Soil is a mixture of inorganic materials, organic materials, air, water and soil organisms. The
inorganic materials found in the soil is the weathered rocks which are made up of minerals
combined in different ways.
The organic materials are the decaying living matter. This could be plants or animals that
have died and decayed until they become part of the soil.
The amount of water in the soil is closely linked with the climate and other characteristics of
the region. The amount of water in the soil affects the amount of air. Very wet soil like those in
a wetland probably has very little air. The composition of the soil affects the types plants that
can grow on the soil and therefore the animals that can live there.
Soil
Types of soil
There are three basic types of soils, namely clay soil, loamy soil and sandy soil. Loamy soil is
the ideal. The other two soil types present challenges for irrigation.
How do you find out which type of soil you have?

Pick up a marble-sized chunk of moist soil and roll it between your thumb, forefinger and
middle finger, as if trying to shape it into a little ball.
If your rolling is successful and you end up with a ball with the size of a marble, then your
soil is clay soil.
If your attempt at forming a ball is completely unsuccessful and the soil falls apart, then
your soil is sandy soil.
If your attempt at forming a ball is not so successful and the ball falls apart once you apply
a gentle pressure on it, then your soil is loamy soil.
Most soils are made up of a combination of the three. The type of soil varies from place to
place on our planet and can even vary from one place to another in your own backyard.
148 Science
Soil properties
A Soil color
In general, the darker a soil is, the more nutrient it has. The darker
colored soil usually contains more decomposed organic matter
known as humus.
Gray soils often indicate poor drainage while red soils can indicate
very poor soils. These are the general rules about soil colors. Under
certain conditions, a very poor soil can appear as dark black, while a
rich healthy soil can appear as red.
B Soil texture
Soil texture refers to the proportion of the sand, silt, and clay in the
soil. The size ranges of sand, silt and clay are as follows:
Type of soil Size range

Sand 0.05 mm to 2 mm
Silt 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm
Clay Less than 0.002 mm
Sand, silt, and clay represent the inorganic soil particles less than
2 mm in diameter. Inorganic soil particles of 2 mm in size or larger are
called rock fragments or gravel and pebbles.
Soil texture is important in determining the amount of water retained

by the soil and air movement. Fine-textured soil retains more water
and has lesser air movement than the coarse-textured soil, but it may
be not ideal for plant growth.
The texture of the soil, how it looks and feels, depends upon the
amount of sand, silt and clay. Soil texture can affect the amount of
pore space within a soil. Sand-sized soil particles fit together in a way
that create large pores. Clay-sized soil particles fit together in a way
that create small pores.
arger maller
pore pore
Sandy soil Clay soil
Chapter 8 149
Soil
C Soil structure
Have you ever played with a dirt clod? A dirt clod is a small clump of soil that has formed
a rock-like clump. These dirt clods are called peds by geologists. Soil ped is the basic unit
of soil structure.
These peds are organized into a repeating pattern that is referred to as soil structure.
Between the peds are cracks called “pores” through which soil, air and water are conducted.
Soil structure is most commonly described in terms of the shape of the individual peds that
occur within a soil horizon. There are a few types of soil structure.
Granular – roughly spherical, like cookie crumbs. Usually

1 to10 mm in diameter. Most common in horizon A, where plant
roots, microorganisms and sticky products of organic matter
decomposed bind soil grains into granular aggregates.
Platy – flat peds that lie horizontally in the soil. Platy structure
can be found in horizon A, B and C. It commonly occurs in
horizon A as the result of compaction.
Blocky – roughly cube-shaped, with more or less flat surfaces.

Sizes commonly range from 5 to 50 mm across. Blocky
structures are typical of horizon B, especially those with a high
clay content. They form by repeated expansion and contraction
of clay minerals.
Prismatic – larger, vertically elongated blocks, often with five

sides. Sizes are commonly 10 to 100 mm across.
Columnar – the units are similar to prisms and are bounded

by flat or slightly rounded vertical faces. The tops of columns,
in contrast to those of prisms, are very distinct and normally
rounded.
Types of soil structure
150 Science
There are two types of ‘structureless’ soil.
Massive – compact, coherent soil, not separated into peds of

any kind. Massive structures in clay soils, usually have very
small pores, slow permeability and poor aeration.
Single grain – in some very sandy soils, every grain acts

independently, and there is no binding agent to hold the grains
together into peds. Permeability is rapid, but fertility and water
holding capacity are low.
Types of ‘structureless’ soil
D Soil consistency
Soil consistency refers to the ease with which an individual ped can be crushed by the
fingers. Soil consistency depends on soil moisture content.
Moist soil:
loose – non-coherent when dry or moist; does not hold together in a mass.
friable – when moist, crushed easily under gentle pressure between thumb and forefinger
and can be pressed together into a lump.
firm – when moist, crushed under moderate pressure between thumb and forefinger, but
resistance is distinctly noticeable.
Wet soil:
plastic – when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure but can be pressed into a
lump will form a wire when rolled between thumb and forefinger.
sticky – when wet, adheres to other material and tends to stretch and pull apart rather than
to pull free from other material.
Dry soil:
soft – when dry, breaks into powder or individual grains under very slight pressure.
hard – when dry, moderately resistant to pressure can be broken with difficulty between
thumb and forefinger.
Chapter 8 151
Soil
oi ofi e
oi ofi e is the vertical display of soil layers. Each layer in the soil
profile is known as the horizon. It has four layers of mineral materials.
The layers of soil are horizons O, A, B, C and R.
Horizon O is at the very top of the profile.

Horizon O is primarily composed of organic matter lying on
the surface of the ground. It is usually dark in color due to the
presence of organic matter. The decomposed organic matter, or
humus, enriches the soil with minerals, aids soil structure (acts to
bind particles) and enhances soil moisture retention.
Horizon A refers to the soil beneath horizon O.

It is commonly known as topsoil. It marks the beginning of the true
mineral soil. In this horizon, organic material mixes with inorganic
products of weathering. Horizon A typically is dark in color. Plant
roots, bacteria, fungi and small animals are abundant here, and
plants thrive in it. It is generally the most productive layer of soil.
Horizon B is the layer below horizon A.

It is known as subsoil.. Horizon B does contain some elements
from horizon A because of the process of leaching. Leaching
is the removal of minerals that have dissolved in the water. This
horizon is usually light colored, dense and low in organic matter.
Horizon C is below horizon B.

Horizon C represents the weathering parent material of the soil.
The upper layers are developed from this layer. Most plant roots
do not penetrate this layer. Very little organic material is found
here.
Horizon R is the bedrock.

Horizon R represents the layer hard, consolidated bedrock at the
base of the soil profile. nlike the above layers, horizon R largely
comprises masses of hard rock.
orizon
orizon
orizon
orizon
orizon
orizon
orizon
orizon Leaching resembles what
happens in a coffee pot as
the hot water drips through
the grounded coffee
orizon
orizon beans.
Soil profiles
Soil profiles look different in different areas of the world as they are
affected by their climate.
152 Science
Q1. What is soil made up of?
Q2. Name the four properties of soil.
Q3. What is ?
8.1
8.2 Soil Formation

Soil is a product of climate, organisms and topography acting on
parent material over a period of time. The five factors that affect the
formation of soils are:
Parent material (texture, structure, chemical and rock composition)
Climate (temperature and rain)
Topography
Biotic (plants and animals)
Time
Visit this website to
The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time. It can
know more in detail
about the factors of take 1,000 years or more. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks
soil formation. and minerals.
Weathering breaks down the rocks into smaller pieces. Slowly plants
start to grow and attract small animals. These add organic matter
such as leaves, twigs, and dead insects and worms. Then, the soil
begins to form.
Later, larger plants and animals will move in, adding more organic
matter. Over years, a complex mixture of inorganic and organic
materials is produced, making up the soil.
A Rocks on the surface B As rocks weather into

begin to fracture and smaller fragments, plants
break down. begin to grow in the
weathered rocks.
Chapter 8 153
Soil
C Worms, insects, bacteria D When plants and animals
and fungi living among the in the soil die, they break
plant roots add organic down, or decay, and form
matter to the soil. dark humus.
• It takes a minimum of
500 years to produce an
inch of topsoil.
• Earthworms enrich
topsoil with the waste
they create as they eat
the dead plants and
animals. They also dig
tunnels, loosening the
soil for water and roots.
Stages in the formation of soil
Q1. How is soil formed?
Q2. How do living things speed up the formation of

soil?
8.2
8.3 Soil Uses and Soil

Improvement
The soil is an important resource. Soil provides a medium for plants
to grow, supporting the roots and supplying water, oxygen and
nutrients needed for their healthy growth.
The minerals in the soil are the critical components in mining. We use
a lot of metal and petroleum products in our everyday life. The soil
serves as the main foundation in construction and road building.
Tin mining Petroleum extraction
154 Science
Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, reducing flash floods and
droughts. It acts as a filter too. Rainwater goes through many layers
of soil, filtering out oil, sediments and non-dissolved substances from
it before becoming groundwater.
Habitat for soil organisms Pottery
Soil serves as a habitat for many organisms. Some organisms such

as worms, bacteria, insects and small mammals live in the soil. On
top of the soil, a large variety of plants and larger animals live there.
We use soil in pottery, ceramic-making and sculpting.
Soil may lose its quality and productivity due to human activities and
natural factors. It happens when the soil is deprived of its nutrients,
Horticulturists are people making it less fertile and useless. When the soil is bare, it is open to
who work with plants and wind and water erosion.
soil. They give advices
on how to improve soil, Soil improvement is the process of making the following aspects of
analyze and develop soil favorable for plant growth. They are soil structure, soil drainage
solutions in farms and
forests.
and water holding capacity, as well as its nutrient holding capacity
and availability.
This is because the physical and chemical properties of soil change

over time, and the kinds of plants we grow and how we grow them
may also affect our soil improvement practices.
More organic matter in the soil improves soil structure, filtration,

drainage, and water and nutrient holding capacity. It makes the soil
fertile, resulting a favorable rooting environment for plants. Soil organic
matter also serves as a source of food and energy for a myriad of
beneficial microorganisms.
Natural or synthetic fertilizers contain plant essential elements aimed

at improving soil to promote plant growth. Improper use of fertilizers
A compost pile contains a
variety of microorganisms can cause harm to the environment and damage to plants.
that help to break down
materials within the Soil pH affects the solubility of nutrient elements required by plants.
compost. It allows us to In general, plant essential nutrients are most available around the
turn organic matters into slightly acidic to near neutral soil pH values of 6.0 to 6.8.
something useful. We can
save the landfill space and
However, there are some exceptions. Iron, which is required in
improve the soil condition
at the same time. relatively high amounts, is more available at lower soil pH values.
Also, both high and low soil pH values decrease the availability of
phosphorus. An undesirable soil pH value can limit plant growth as
it affects nutrient availability, plant physiological functions and soil
microbe activities.
Chapter 8 155
Soil
Modifying soil pH values
Test the soil first. If a soil test indicates the soil pH value is not
in the optimal range for growing plants, pH modification may
be necessary.
Typically, ground limestone is used to raise soil pH value
while sulfur or sulfur compounds are used to lower it.
How much to apply depends on the present soil pH value,
the desired pH change, and the amount of clay and organic
matter present in the soil.
Nutrient disorders can affect the look or health of plants by disrupting

internal plant mechanisms that cause the plant to not function
properly. It may be noticed as nutrient toxicity, when too much of
a nutrient is available, or nutrient deficiency when not enough of a
nutrient is available to the plant. Both can lead to problems on how
the plant functions and grows.
If the soil has the right balance of nutrients, air, water, minerals and
organic matter, the plant will have access to the nutrients it needs
to function and grow properly. If the soil is not managed properly,
plants are likely to compete for nutrients and resources, making them
function poorly due to nutrient disorder. This can weaken the plants,
making them susceptible to other problems.
Both soil texture and soil structure influence the drainage capacity
of a soil. Adequate soil drainage enables a plant to access to the air,
water and nutrients it needs to survive and flourish.
Poor soil drainage can inhibit a plant’s access to air, water and
nutrients, causing stress and sometimes death.
156 Science
Q1. Name three uses of soil.
Q2. Give three ways to improve soil.
8.3
Soil consistency Soil structure Soil texture Soil color
Soil properties Components oi ofi e Horizons
Soil
Soil improvement
Uses
methods
Medium for plant Adding organic

growth matter
Absorbs rainwater Adding fertilizers
Improving pH
As water filter
values
Balancing
As a habitat
nutrients
Having adequate
For pottery
soil drainage
Chapter 8 157
Soil
soil texture fertility horizon A soil profile absorbing

horizon O supports smaller habitat horizon B
soil consistency soil peds larger soil metals
weathering
1. is the mixture of organic matter, inorganic matter, air, water and soil
organisms.
2. determines the amount of water retained by the soil and the air
movement.
3. Sandy soil has pores. This makes the soil retain less water and has
better air movement.
4. Clay soil has pores. This makes the soil retain more water and has
poor air movement.
5. are the basic units of soil structure.
6. refers to the ease of a soil ped that can be crushed by fingers. It also
depends on the moisture content.
7. is the vertical section of the horizons of soil. sually, there are five
horizons – horizon O, horizon A, horizon B,horizon C and horizon R.
8. is the very top part that has decomposed organic matter.
9. is below horizon O, which is known as top soil. It is rich in organic

matter and dark in color.
10. is below horizon A and contains some elements from horizon A.
11. Soil is formed due to the of rocks and minerals.
12. Soil is an important resource. It the plants and supplies nutrients to

the plants.
13. Soil contains minerals such as and petroleum which can be used to
make things.
14. Soil prevents floods and droughts by rainwater and releasing it later.
15. Soil is the for many living things.
16. Soil will lose its and usefulness due to human and natural factors.
158 Science
Solving soil erosion problem
Soil is a mixture of inorganic matter, organic matter, gases, liquids and countless organisms.
Soil has four important functions. It is a medium for plant growth. It is a mean of water storage,
supply and purification. It is a modifier of Earth’s atmosphere and also a habitat for many
organisms. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms.
You and your team are ecological engineers. You are required to solve the soil erosion problem
affecting a home by a river.
Guidelines:
1. Observe how soil erosion happens by pouring water at the high edge of a tilted
aluminium tray filled with soil.
2. Think of the things you can use to prevent soil erosion which may include straws,
string, ice cream sticks, sticks and sticky tape.
3. How do you test your solutions? How high will you pour th
the water?
What is your need?



Chapter 8 159
Soil
What is your plan?

How does it work?


160 Science
1. (a) What is soil made up of?
(b) Name three types of soil.
(c) Which of the three types of soil is most suitable for the garden?
2. (a) What is a ?
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a soil profile.
(c) Which layer in a soil profile contains the most organic matter?
(d) Which layer contains mainly the unweathered bedrock?
Chapter 8 161
Soil
y d o f lo o ds occur?
Wh
9
Chapter
Water
• explain the factors and processes of surface water and

explain the factors and processes of surface
underground water from the model.
underground water from the model.
• make a model to explain water usage and introduce the

ways to use water sustainably in your local areas.
• make a model to explain the formation and the impact

of oods, soil erosions, landslides, sinkholes and land
subsidence.
9.1 Surface Water and
Groundwater
Surface water
Surface water is the water that collects on the surface of the Earth.
This includes seas, oceans, streams, lakes, canals and swamps. The
seas and oceans are salt water. They have a high content of salt.
Streams, lakes and canals are fresh water that contains very little or
not salt. Fresh water is extremely important to sustain the lives of all
living things on land.
Streams that are steep

and fast-flowing are 97% ocean
usually narrow and
shallow. Streams that are
slow-flowing are usually 2.2% ice
wider and deeper.
<0.1% freshwater
0.7% groundwater
Global water distribution
When it rains or snows, some of it falls into the seas and some falls
on the ground. Some of the water is absorbed by plants and some
evaporates into the air. Some seeps into the soil. The excess water
that is not absorbed by the surrounding area is known as runoff.
Runoff flows across the surface into nearby streams, canals, ponds
or swamps.
Groundwater
Groundwater is the water beneath the surface of the ground in the

zone of saturation. In this zone, the space between soil particles
is saturated with water. Above this zone is the zone of aeration. In
this zone, the space between soil particles is filled with both air and
water. The water table is the boundary between these two layers.
The level of the water table changes over time due to the changes
in water cycle and precipitation pattern, stream flow and geological
changes and even human activities.
Chapter 9 163
Water
The groundwater comes from rain and snow. The water seeps into
the soil and moves downward until it reaches the impermeable layer.
There it is stored as groundwater. The soil helps filter and clean the
water and therefore, groundwater is often considered clean.
Water
table
Groundwater
Groundwater and surface water are connected in most places.
Groundwater and surface water can trade places. Groundwater can

A spring is a location
move through the ground into lakes or streams. Surface water can where groundwater
soak into the ground and become groundwater. When it is dry, more naturally emerges from
groundwater is pumped out to meet the demand for water. When the Earth’s surface. It
there is abundant of rainfall, groundwater will replenish itself. Most can discharge fresh
groundwater either onto
of the groundwater is clean but it can get contaminated from leaky the surface, into riverbeds
underground tanks that store gasoline, leaky landfills or excess or into the sea.
fertilizers and pesticides used in plantations.
Uses of water and water management
Freshwater and groundwater are consumed by living things for

survival. We also use water for irrigation, washing and cleaning,
generating electricity and cooling equipment and machines.
We need to conserve water, both surface water and groundwater. It

does not only reduce our water bills, but also lessens the environmental
impact such as water pollution and the cost for treating water. We
should:
Wash vegetables in basins instead under a running tap.
Wash only full loads of clothes in washing machines.
Take a shower instead of soaking in tubs.
Fix dripping taps.
Collect rainwater to water plants and to wash car porches.
Use a bucket to wash the car instead of a hose.
Besides that, in the bigger scale, we can collect rainwater in reservoirs

and catchment areas. This will help protect against flooding too. We
can also collect and treat wastewater for industry use. Although,
there is plenty of seawater, we cannot use seawater as it contains
salt. By building desalination plants, the salt can be removed and this
helps solve many water insecurity issues in the world. However, this
process is very expensive.
164 Science
Q1. What is surface water?
Q2. Where does groundwater come from?
Q3. How are groundwater and surface water connected?
9.1
9.2 Hazards due to Surface Water and

Groundwater
Both surface water and groundwater pose some hazards such as surface water flooding,
soil erosion, landslides, sinkholes and land subsidence. These hazards can bring serious
damage to life and property.
Surface water flooding
Surface water flooding occurs when the runoff cannot

soak into the ground or drain into urban drainage
systems. It can appear as large puddles, flowing water
or stagnant water on paved surfaces. This is mainly
due to a heavy rainfall or a prolonged wet weather and
the saturation of soil with water. Usually surface water
flooding is worse in urban areas as most of the ground
such as roads and car parks is paved. These paved
surfaces allow little or no infiltration of water.
Urban areas are likely to experience
flooding during a heavy downpour.
The amount and intensity of the rainfall is not the only factor that increases the likelihood of
a flood. Vegetation cover, steepness of the area, soil type and effectiveness of the drainage
system are also the influencing factors.
Floods can have great negative impacts on the economy, environment and people. During
floods, many houses, factories, farms, communication cables, bridges and vehicles are
destroyed. People become homeless and normal life is disrupted. It takes some time for the
community to rebuild their lives and businesses. Some plants and animals may die too.
However, the sediments and organic minerals carried by the water and deposited on new
areas can bring fertility benefits. Future crops benefit from it. Floods also replenish surface
water and groundwater supplies, resulting in better crop yields in the near future.
Chapter 9 165
Water
Soil erosion
Moving water such as rainwater and streams is the major agent of soil
erosion. When a drop of rainfall hits on the bare soil, it can break up
the soil and displace the soil particles.
As the runoff flows on the bare soil, it removes the topsoil that usually
contains most of the nutrients and organic matter in the soil. Soil
loss is so gradual that it usually goes unnoticed. When more water
runs into tiny fast-flowing channels, it erodes more and deepens the
channels.
We can reduce soil erosion by increasing vegetation. The roots

stabilize and hold the soil firmly. The leaves reduce the effects of
splashing by raindrops. We should reduce soil surface disturbance
such as tilling. The lossen soil increases the risk of being washed
away by the runoff. We can also break the slope length by building
contour drains.
A splash of rain water on the ground Erosion removes the soft parts of the slope.
Landslides
A landslide is the movement of rock and soil down a slope. Landslides

are often triggered when a slope receives too much water especially
during a monsoon session. This weakens the bonding of the soil
and adds extra weights to the slope. Then, the unstable soil may
give way and collapse. Other contributing factors include erosion,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and human activities.
Landslides can cause property damage, injury and even death.

Infrastructures such as roads, railways and buildings may be
damaged. The affected area needs repair work to rebuild it.
Rain increases the risk of landslides.
166 Science
Sinkholes
A sinkhole is a hole in the ground formed when the soil below it

collapses. This happens when the rock beneath it is dissolved by
water. Many sinkholes were sitting on limestone and rock salt. These
rocks are soluble. Groundwater slowly erodes the rock away until it
become too weak to support the surface of the Earth. It collapses and
opens up a hole.
Sinkholes can be caused by humans too. Activities like extraction

of groundwater, mining, construction, broken water or drain pipes,
improperly compacted soil after excavation work or even heavy
traffic can result in sinkholes.
A sinkhole in a road
Land subsidence
Land subsidence is the gradual sinking of the ground due to mainly

the removal of groundwater, oil and natural minerals from the ground.
However, the massive extraction of groundwater is the main reason

for most land subsidence in the world. The rate of groundwater
extraction exceeds the rate at which it is replenished via the natural
processes. This reduces the level of the water table and subsequently
the ability to hold the weight of the soil above. The soil above will
slowly subside.
A house tilts due to land subsidence
Land subsidence can lead to many problems. They include changes

in elevation, damage to structures such as storm drains, sanitary
sewers, roads, railroads, canals and bridges, structural damage to
public and private buildings and damage to wells. Land subsidence
also increases the risk of flooding.
Chapter 9 167
Water
Q1. Name the fi e hazards caused by water.
Q2. How can we reduce the risk of surface water flooding?
Q3. How does soil erosion affect the quality of soil?
Q4. What is a landslide?

9.2 Q5. What is the main difference between the formation of a sinkhole and
land subsidence?
Water table
Surface water Groundwater
Water
Hazards
Surface water Land

Soil erosion Landslides Sinkholes
flooding subsidence
168 Science
i in t e n it t e i en o
filter flooding surface water runoff

rain groundwater replenish upper
sinkhole conserve saturation land subsidence
aeration running water landslide
1. is the water collected on the surface of the Earth.
2. is the water beneath the surface of the ground.
3. is the excess rainwater that is not absorbed by the ground.
4. Zone of is the area in the ground where its soil is saturated with
water.
5. Zone of is the area in the ground where its soil is filled with water and
air.
6. Water table is the surface of the zone of saturation.
7. Groundwater is generally clean as the soil helps to the water.
8. We should water.
9. Surface water occurs when the runoff cannot soak into the soil and
does not drain into a drainage system.
10. Surface water flooding helps surface water and groundwater

supplies.
11. is the major agent of soil erosion where usually topsoil is removed,
making the soil infertile.
12. A is the movement of soil and rocks down a slope.
13. Heavy can trigger a landslide by weakening the bonding of the soil
and adding weight to the slope.
14. A is a hole formed on the ground when the underground soluble

rocks dissolve and the soil above it collapse.
15. is the gradual sinking of the ground due to the removal of groundwater
or oil from the ground.
Chapter 9 169
Water
1. (a) What is surface water?
(b) What is groundwater?
(c) Where do surface water and groundwater come from?
(d) (i) What is a table water?

(ii) Does the level of the table water change? Why?
(e) Why does the groundwater not go all the way down into the ground?
2. Surface water flooding often occurs when there is a heavy downpour.
(a) Why does this happen?
(b) It is said that urban areas experience surface water flooding more frequent than
rural areas. Why?
(c) What are the negative impacts it brings?
(d) Does it bring benefits? State two.
170 Science
Notes
Chapter 9 171
Water
Notes
172 Science
BCB032048
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Title page.indd 1 11/28/18 9:55

1.1 Respiratory System 2

2.1 Male Reproductive System 29

3.1 Separating Mixtures 50

4.1 Resultant Force on the Same Plane (Net Force) 66

5.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities 104

Work and Energy 117

6.1 Work and Power 118

7.1 Layers of the Earth 133

8.1 Soil 148

9.1 Surface Water and Groundwater 163

Provides information on the

Provides direct access to useful Provides extra information

Helps students to recall the Provides subjective questions

Provides direct access to

Explains how scientific concepts Guides students to test a

Assists students in reviewing Collaboration

Focus Smart + AR Critical Thinking

Provides an activity that engages Creativity

• identify the organs and describe the functions of the organs

Structure of the human respiratory system

Bronchus Nasal cavity

The human respiratory system

The alveoli are adapted to make gas exchange in th lungs happen

Large surface area

Very thin walls

Surrounded by numerous blood capillaries

Alveolar Thin layer of moisture

Red blood cell

Detailed structure of an alveolus

Do not confuse breathing Mechanism of human breathing

Ribs and Ribs and ster num

The breathing mechanism

• Diaphragm muscles contract. • Diaphragm muscles relax.

• External intercostal muscles contract. • External intercostal muscles relax.

• Ribcage moves upwards and

• Volume of thoracic cavity increases. • Volume of thoracic cavity decreases.

Comparison of the mechanisms of inhalation and exhalation

Investigating the relationship between the

4. All observations are recorded.

Content Inhaled air Exhaled air Alveolar air

Oxygen 21% 16% 14%

Water vapor Variable Saturated Saturated

Temperature Variable 34°C 37°C

Composition of air in respiration

The transport of oxygen by blood

CO2 Alveolus of lung

Gas exchanges at the lungs and body cells

(a) Harmful substances

(b) Diseases of the respiratory system

Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi. This

Q5. How do we keep our respiratory system healthy?

Defecation is not excretion because feces contain undigested

Structure of human skin

Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra

Q3. (a) Where are our kidneys in our body?

Q4. How do we keep our excretory system healthy?

A circulatory system has four basic characteristics:

(b) Pumping device