METHODIST COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY

Accredited NAAC A+ and NBA

Affiliated to Osmania University
Abids ,Hyderabad

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGNEERINIG

Energy Science Engineering( ES 213 ME) ( as per OU Syllabus)( Three Chapters)

BE/MECH/IV SEM/ ENERGY SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Prepared
By
Dr. M.Udaya Kumar
Associate Professor
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
MCET, Abids,Hyderabad

UNIT-III

1 Define Solar collector? Explain them?

Ans: Solar collector

Figure 1. Solar Collector

A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the Sun.
These collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be very sturdy as they are exposed
to a variety of different weather conditions.
a) Flat Plate Collectors
These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of transparent glazing as a cover on
top of a dark-coloured absorber plate. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually covered
with insulation to minimize heat losses to other parts of the collector. Solar radiation passes
through the transparent glazing material and hits the absorber plate. This plate heats up,
transferring the heat to either water or air that is held between the glazing and absorber plate.

b) Evacuated Tube Collectors

Evacuated tube solar collector.

This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated tubes to heat water for use.
These tubes utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to capture the suns energy while minimizing
the loss of heat to the surroundings. They have an inner metal tube which acts as the absorber
plate, which is connected to a heat pipe to carry the heat collected from the Sun to the water.

This heat pipe is essentially a pipe where the fluid contents are under a very particular pressure

At this pressure, the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling liquid in it while the "cold" end has
condensing vapour. This allows for thermal energy to move more efficiently from one end of
the pipe to the other. Once the heat from the Sun moves from the hot end of the heat pipe to the
condensing end, the thermal energy is transported into the water being heated for use.
c) Line focus solar collector

Figure : Line focus solar collector

These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic troughs, use highly reflective materials to
collect and concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation. These collectors are composed of
parabolically shaped reflective sections connected into a long trough.

A pipe that carries water is placed in the center of this trough so that sunlight collected by the
reflective material is focused onto the pipe, heating the contents. These are very high powered
collectors and are thus generally used to generate steam for solar thermal power plants and are
not used in residential applications.

d) Point Focus Collectors

Figure : A point focus solar collector

These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of some reflective material that focus the
Sun's energy onto a single point. The heat from these collectors is generally used for driving
Stirling engines. Although very effective at collecting sunlight, they must actively track the Sun
across the sky to be of any value. These dishes can work alone or be combined into an array to
gather even more energy from the Sun.

2 EXPLAIN ABOUT SOLAR CONCENTRATORS?

Solar concentrator is a device that allows the collection of sunlight from a large area and
focusing it on a smaller receiver or exit. A conceptual representation of a solar concentrator used
in harnessing the power from the sun to generate electricity is shown in below Figure.

The material used to fabricate the concentrator varies depending on the usage.
. They are:
• Parabolic Concentrator
• Hyperboloid Concentrator
• Fresnel Lens Concentrator
• Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)
• Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator (DTIRC)
• Flat High Concentration Devices
• Quantum Dot Concentrator (QDC)

a) Parabolic Concentrator
The two dimensional design of a parabolic concentrator is equals to a parabola. It is widely used
as a reflecting solar concentrator. A distinct property that it has is that it can focus all the
parallel rays from the sun to a single focus point, F as shown in below Figure

PARABOLIC ONCENTRATER

parabola curve to construct the concentrator. Most of the parabolic concentrator employs only a
truncated portion of the parabola.

b) Hyperboloid Concentrator
The general design of a hyperboloid concentrator is shown in Figure 3. It consists of two
hyperbolic sections, AB and A’B’. The hyperboloid concentrator can be produces by rotating the
two dimensional design along its symmetrical axis.

The diameters of the entrance and exit aperture are labeled as d1 and d2 respectively.

If the inside wall of the hyperbolic profile is considered as a mirror, the sun rays entering the
concentrator from AA’ will be reflected and focused to the exit aperture BB’.

The advantage of this concentrator is that it is very compact, since only truncated version of the
concentrator needs to be used.

c) Fresnel Concentrator

Fresnel lens function is similar to the conventional lens, by refracting the rays and focusing them
at one focal point.
 It generally has two sections; a flat upper surface and a back surface that employs canted
facets. The facet is an approximation of the curvature of a lens (see Figure 4). A good linear
Fresnel lens could employ around 100 facets per millimeter Fresnel lenses are used in the 30kW
utility grid-connected plant . The advantage of a Fresnel lens over a conventional lens is that it is
thinner and requires a lesser amount of material to fabricate

d) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

A compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) is defined as a non-imaging-type concentrating

collector where incident solar radiations, after reflection from the reflector, are not
concentrated at a point or line, but simply together on the absorber apparent which does not
produce an image of the light source.

3 What is meant by Photo Voltaic cell ?

The PV cell consists of one or two layers of a semi conducting material, usually silicon.

When light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers causing electricity
to flow. The greater the intensity of the light, the greater the flow of electricity.

Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called photovoltaic

effect.

When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons of light ray are
absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free electrons in the
crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect is utilised to
produce electricity from light energy.

Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing the photovoltaic cell.

The silicon atom has four valence electrons.

Consider the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell.

The upper surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light can
easily enter into the material.
The metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive and
negative output terminals respectively.

4 Define Wind Energy or Wind power? Advantages and Disadvantages?

Wind power or wind energy describes the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity.

This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or
pumping water), or can be converted into electricity by a generator..

Advantages of Wind Power

1. Wind power has a remarkably small impact upon the carbon footprint.
2. Wind turbines reduce a nation’s demand for imported fuel sources.
3. There are zero carbon emissions associated with the operation of wind turbines.
4. Wind energy is completely free
5. Wind turbines use only a fraction of the land which do not cause any loss for farmers or
any other beings.
6. It doesn’t pollute air like power plant relying on combustion of fossil fuel.

Disadvantages of Wind Power

1. Wind energy has a drawback that it is not a constant energy source.

 2. Wind turbines generate noise and visual pollution.
3. Not a profitable use of land
4. Birds have been killed by flying into spinning turbine blades.
5. The cost of travel and maintenance on the turbines increases and is time-consuming.
6. Collision of wind turbines and coming boat at dark time

5 Explain about Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a
tower, and they must be pointed into the wind.

Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while
large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine into the
wind. Most large wind turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a
faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Horizontal m axis turbine

Advantages

• The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
• In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and
the power output by 34%.
• High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation.

Disadvantages

• Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.

• Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when
a blade passes through the tower’s wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs
use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).

6 Explain about Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. The main advantage of this arrangement is that the wind turbine does not need to be
pointed into the wind. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable
or has turbulent winds.

With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be placed near the ground,

so the tower does not need to support it, also makes maintenance easier.

The main drawback of a VAWT is it generally creates drag when rotating into the wind.

Advantages
 • They can produce electricity in any wind direction.
• Strong supporting tower in not needed because generator, gearbox and other components
are placed on the ground.
• Low production cost as compared to horizontal axis wind turbines.
• As there is no need of pointing turbine in wind direction to be efficient so yaw drive and
pitch mechanism is not needed.
• Easy installation as compared to other wind turbine.
• Easy to transport from one place to other.
• Low maintenance costs.
• They can be installed in urban areas.
• Low risk for human and birds because blades moves at relatively low speeds.
• They are particularly suitable for areas with extreme weather conditions, like in the
mountains where they can supply electricity to mountain huts.

Disadvantages

• As only one blade of the wind turbine works at a time, efficiency is very low compared to
HAWTS.
• They need an initial push to start; this initial push that to make the blades start spinning
on their own must be started by a small motor.
• When compared to horizontal axis wind turbines they are very less efficient because of
the additional drag created when their blades rotate.
• They have relative high vibration because the air flow near the ground creates turbulent
flow.
• Because of vibration, bearing wear increases which results in the increase of maintenance
costs.
• They can create noise pollution.
• VAWTs may need guy wires to hold it up (guy wires are impractical and heavy in farm
areas).
Vertical Wind Turbines
Blade materials
Materials commonly used in wind turbine blades are described below.
Glass and carbon fibers. Hybrid reinforcements. Nano-engineered polymers and composites

7 Difference between Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Wind turbines are the most effective way to convert wind energy into electrical or
mechanical energy.
When the rotating axis of the blades is parallel to the wind stream, the turbine is called
HAWT, and when the rotating axis is perpendicular to the wind stream, it is called
VAWT.
8 Explain About Geothermal power plants ? Advantages and Disadvantages?
Geothermal power plants:

Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and
heat (thermal).
Geothermal power plants require high-temperature (300°F to 700°F) hydrothermal resources
that come from either dry steam wells or from hot water wells. ...

The hot water or steam powers a turbine that generates electricity. Geothermal power
plants use steam to produce electricity.

The steam comes from reservoirs of hot water found a few miles or more below the earth's
surface.
The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity.

Advantages

1. Environmentally Friendly

2. Renewable

3. Huge Potential

4. Sustainable / Stable

5. Heating and Cooling

6. Reliable

7. No Fuel Required

8. Rapid Evolution

Disadvantages

1. Location Restricted

2. Environmental Side Effects

3. Earthquakes

4. High Costs

5. Sustainability

There are three main types of geothermal energy plants that are used to utilize geothermal energy
and generate power.

• Dry Steam System

• Flash Steam System
• Binary Cycle System
Geothermal Energy Plant Based on Dry Steam System
It is a most common system. This system is used where geothermal resources deliver steam
with little or no water.

In this system, pressure and temperatures of the steam reaching to the earth’s surface are limited
to 8 bar and 200oC. The block diagram of a dry steam power plant is shown in Figure.

Dry steam is extracted from the geothermal field. It contains some water and solid particles.
These are removed in a centrifugal separator. Pure and dry steam is then fed to a steam turbine.

The steam turbine drives an electrical generator coupled to it and generates electricity.

The exhausted steam from the turbine is condensed in a condenser. The condensate is then re-
injected into the ground.

Geothermal Energy Plant based on Flash Steam System

Flash steam plants differ from dry steam because they extract hot water, rather than
steam, directly to the surface. The hot water is extracted from the geothermal field from a
depth of about 1 km at about 40 bar. Then hot water reaches to the wellhead at low pressure.

It is a throttling process due to which hot water is converted into a two-phase mixture having the
steam of low quality and is fed to a flash chamber cum brine separator. In the flash chamber, hot
water flashes into steam.

It results in dry steam, pure and dry steam is fed to a steam turbine and brine is collected from
the bottom. The steam turbine drives an electrical generator coupled to it and generates
electricity.
The hot brine is re-injected into the ground along with the steam condensate from the condenser.

Binary Cycle System

This system is used where geothermal resources deliver hot fluid in the temperature range of
90oC to 170oC. This temperature is not sufficient for the production of steam. In order to utilize
this geothermal heat, an organic compound of low boiling temperature like isobutene is used
under pressure in a primary heat exchanger.

In this system, the water or steam from geothermal resource never comes in direct contact
with the turbines.
Instead, water from below the earth is pumped through a heat exchanger where it heats a second
liquid (isobutene).

The geothermal fluid is re-injected to the ground after extracting heat.

The isobutene vapor, generated in the primary heat exchanger, is passed through a turbine where
it expands.
The mechanical power of the turbine is converted into electrical power by a generator

The exhaust of the turbine is passed through a regenerator (heat exchanger) where it is cooled
and then condensed in the condenser. The returned condensate is heated in the regenerator by the
exhaust vapor of the turbine.

9 Define Biomass Pyrolysis and Torefication

Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including: Direct combustion

(burning) to produce heat. Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid
fuels. . Biological conversion to produce liquid and gaseous fuels.
These include direct combustion, pyrolysis, and torrefaction.

Combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen.is known as Direct Combustion

Pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated

temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves a change of chemical composition.

In the torrefaction process, biomass is heated to a temperature of approx. 250-350°C in a

atmosphere with low oxygen concentrations.

As a consequence, all moisture is removed as well as a fraction of the volatile matter of the
dry biomass.The two methods for conversion of biomass to energy are thermochemical and
biochemical,

9 What is Wave power plant

Wave power is produced by the up and down motion of floating devices placed on the surface of
the ocean.

10 What is Tidal power plant

Tidal power plant

Tidal power or tidal energy is harnessed by converting energy from tides into useful forms of power,
mainly electricity using various methods.

11 PRINCIPLES OF OTEC PLANT OPERATIONOTEC:

OTEC or ocean thermal energy thermal conversion is a technology which converts solar radiation
absorbed by the oceans to electric energy..
PRINCIPLES OF OTEC PLANT OPERATION:
The working principle of an OTEC plant is that it uses the warm water to heat and vaporize a liquid (
working fluid). And this working fluid develops pressure which forces it to evaporate. and the expanding
vapour runs through a heat engine like turbine, generator, and it is condensed back into a liquid by cold
water brought up from depth and the cycle is repeated.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the ocean thermal gradient between cooler deep and
warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful work usually in the form of
electricity OTEC can operate with a very high capacity factor and so can operate in base load mode.
Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle OTEC uses working fluids that are
typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or R-134a. These fluids have low boiling points, and
are therefore suitable for powering the system's generator to generate electricity. The most commonly used
heat cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine cycle using a low-pressure turbine. Open-cycle engines use
vapor from the seawater itself as the working fluid.
OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product. This can be used for air
conditioning and refrigeration and the nutrient-rich deep ocean water can feed biological technologies.
Another by-product is fresh water distilled from the sea.
 UNIT-IV

Energy storage:
The capture of Energy produced at one time for use at a later time]to reduce imbalances between
energy demand and energy production.
I What are the Various Energy storage methods ? Classify and Explain them ?
1 Mechanical Energy storage
There are Three Types of Mechanical Energy Storage methods. Such as
• Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS)
• Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
• Flywheels

a) Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS)

i) Pumped hydro storage system is one of the dominant energy storage system,
which is really feasible technology capable of storing huge amount of energy
for relatively longer period of time.

ii) It is Used for load balancing of energy. Water is pumped up in elevation

during time of low demand. Water flows back down during times of high demand .

iii) Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS) 70-85% of electrical energy is recovered

Energy loss due to evaporation and Pump/generator inefficiency .

iv) Future of PHS : This energy storage can be used to level the grid for renewable energy .

Advantages:

1 This technology can provide reliable power within a very short notice period.

2. The efficiency of this storage technology is high around 70-85%.

3. PHS is highly reliable, flexible and can be used for regulation of power as well as frequency
stabilization.
4. It is capable of storing huge amount of energy and practically unlimited cycle of installation.
5. This system has long life ,very slow discharge rates from few hours to few days),low
operation and maintenance cost.
Limitations
 1. Dependance on topographical conditions and large land use.
2. This storage technologies requires a huge water resource which may not be available at all
places.
3. High capital cost, long development time, long payback periods and uncertain profitability are
also problems regarding this technology.
Applications:
Main application are the energy management via time shift like spinning reserve and supply
reserve

b) Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

• This technology is mainly based up on the compression of air and storage in the
underground cavern.

• It is actually a considered as the hybrid storage system as it requires the combustion in

gas turbine.

• When the air is compressed then the heat is produced and if this heat is not stored then
the compressed air in which with natural gas and fuel is mixed must be reheated and
ignited before the expansion in turbine which is connected to a generator.

• Some additional energy (via a recuperator) is put into preheating stored air to prevent
chilling and brittling of turbine blades to improve efficiency of combustion and thereby
increasing efficiency of the CAES plant .This process is called the Diabetic CAES .

Advantages :

1. CAES increases the efficiency and the start-up time of gas turbine plant.

2. This technology can store relatively huge amount of energy.

3. It has fast response times.

Limitations:

The main limitations of this storage systems is its dependency on favourable geological
structures.

It is the main challenge which is in focus of the recent research of development of the system.
 C) Flywheels

Flywheel : Flywheel is the mechanical form of energy storage system in which

mechanical inertia is the basis and kinetic energy is stored in the rotor which is actually a
huge rotating cylinder.

The main parts of the flywheel energy storage system are

i.) Rotating body ii.) Bearing iii.) Electrical machine ( generator/motor mounted
on the shaft.) iv.) Power converter. v. ) Containment chamber.

Advantages:
1. Longer life span and requires very less maintenance.
2. The system is very eco-friendly and does not cause any pollution.
3. Rapid response due to less complex arrangements.
4. It can produce high peak power without any overheating issues.
5. It has a very high efficiency depending upon the speed of flywheel which may vary up to 6000
rpm for low speed fly wheel and 10000-110000 rpm.

Limitations:
The major demerit of fly wheel storage system is it’s high discharge rate of energy.
its high acquisition cost as well as its low storage capacity.

Applications :
Flywheel energy storage systems can be used in load levelling in railway power systems,
primary frequency regulations, peak shaving and off peak storage and for improving power
quality in the renewable energy systems

2 Thermal Energy storage

• Increase system reliability: To reduce the peaks of energy generation

• Increase generation capacity: The excess generation available during low demand
periods can be used to charge a TES in order to increase the effective generation
capacity during high -demand periods. The result is a higher load factor for the plants,
helping to generate energy in a stable way.

• . Reduction of costs of generation: Seasonal demands can be matched with the help of
TES systems that operate synergistically.

• The amount of energy stored (E) in this case depends upon the mass (m) and latent heat
of fusion (λ) of the material.
 • The storage operates isothermally at the melting point of the material. If isothermal
operation at the phase change temperature is difficult, the system operates over a range of
temperatures T1 to T2 that includes the melting point.

There are three main methods of storing thermal energy in any material:

i) Reversible chemical energy

ii) Sensible thermal energy
iii) Latent thermal energy.

Reversible Chemical energy is absorbed or released when a chemical reaction occurs in a

material, thus changing the organization of the molecules.

Heating a liquid or a solid, without changing phase: This method is called sensible heat storage.

. Heating a material, which undergoes a phase change (usually melting): This is called latent
heat storage.

3 Chemical Energy Storage

Chemical energy is stored in the bonds that connect atoms with other atoms and molecules
with other molecules.

Because chemical energy is stored, it is a form of potential energy. When a chemical reaction
takes place, the stored chemical energy is released.

Methods of Chemical Energy

i) Fossil fuels are one of the most familiar examples of storing energy in chemical
bonds.

ii)Hydrogen and other energy-carrying chemicals can be produced from diverse,

domestic energy sources, such as renewable energy, nuclear power, and fossil
fuels.
a) Power to gas
Power to gas is the conversion of electricity to a gaseous fuel such as hydrogen or methane.
The element hydrogen can be a form of stored energy. Hydrogen can produce electricity via
a hydrogen fuel cell.

Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH4. Methane is more easily
stored and transported than hydrogen. Storage and combustion infrastructure
(pipelines, gasometers, power plants) are mature.

b) Power to liquid
Power to liquid is similar to power to gas except that the hydrogen is converted into liquids such
as methanol or Ammonia. These are easier to handle than gases, and requires fewer safety
precautions than hydrogen. They can be used for transportation including aircraft , but also for
industrial purposes or in the power sector.
c) Biofuels
Various biofuels such as biodiesel, vegetable, oil, alcohol fuels or biomass can replace fossil
fuels . Various chemical processes can convert the carbon and hydrogen in coal, natural gas,
plant and animal biomass and organic wastes into short hydrocarbons suitable as replacements
for existing hydrocarbon fuels.

4 Electrical Energy storage methods

a) Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two terminal electrical components used to store energy electro
statically.
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be
used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain
power supply while batteries change.
b) Superconducting magnetics
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in a magnetic
field created by the flow of direct current in a super conducting coil that has been cooled to a
temperature below its super conducting critical temperature..

A typical SMES system includes a superconducting coil power conditioning system and
refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current does not decay and the
magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely
 The stored energy can be released to the network by discharging the coil. The associated
inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2–3% energy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least
amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to other methods of storing energy.
SMES systems offer round-trip efficiency greater than 95%.
Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration and the cost of super conducting wire . SMES is
used for short duration storage such as improving power quality . It also has applications in grid
balancing.

2 Define and Explain Cogeneration, Advantages and

Disadvantages?

Cogeneration
Cogeneration is combined heat and power is the use of a heat engine or power station to
generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.

This heat could be used for heating your premises, heating a swimming pool, providing hot water
services and even steam for cooking and cleaning.
Conventional electricity generation only converts around 40% of the energy put into the power
plant (fuel consumption) into electricity.
The remaining 60% is wasted as heat. A cogeneration power plant captures this wasted heat and
utilizes it for something useful; maximizing energy usage.
While a standard generator will only create One form of energy (electricity); a cogeneration
plant will create Two forms of energy (electricity and heat).
Advantages
Increased fuel efficiency, Reducing energy wastage, Reduced energy costs, Reduced
greenhouse gas emissions, Reduced reliance on the grid.

Disadvantages

Not an intrinsic energy source, Not suitable for everyone, Can be costly, Not always
environmentally friendly

3 Define and Explain Tri generation , Advantages?

 Tri generation
Tri generation is the production of combined cooling, heat, and power from a single generator
or process. The tri generation system produces electricity and useful heat which is utilised for
hot water, space heating or steam production, as well as energy efficient cooling.

Benefits ( Advantages) of Tri generation

Tri generation systems build further on the efficiency of cogeneration systems combining the
production of electricity and heat with cooling.

Benefits include:

• Energy savings - Reduced power costs by utilising the existing waste heat produced
during electricity generation to heat water or use as central heating, as well as produce
cooling for air conditioning systems or refrigeration units.
• Reduced environmental impact – Tri generation is an energy efficient method of power
creation, offering around 30% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared with
mains grid power production.
• Tri generation can be used either as the main source of power, heat and cooling for your
property or business or as a backup measure in case of mains power outages.
• Tri generation offers a range of fuel choices –Tri generation systems can be set up to
operate using fuels such as natural gas, diesel, biogas, or LPG as well as dual fuel
combinations.
• Variable output - Trigeneration systems can provide for varied and constantly changing
power, heat, and cooling requirements.
• Increased fuel efficiency - from a single fuel 3 essential systems are supplied.
• Reduced energy costs - reduced energy costs due to the removal of reliance on costly
mains grid peak tariffs.

Cogeneration and Tri generation systems can make a significant contribution to

reducing energy costs and improving efficiency, particularly at sites that have high
demand for heating (or cooling), such as schools, hospitals. hotels and
leisure/aquatic centres.

Define Waste to Energy? Explain various Methods ?

 waste-to-energy or energy-from-waste is the process of generating energy in the form
of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste , or the processing of waste into a
fuel source.

Most waste to energy processes generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or
produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane ,methanol, ethanol etc.

Methods:

Incineration

Incineration is a method of treating waste which involves the combustion of the organic
substances found in waste materials.

Modern incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 percent, depending upon
composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.

Incinerators may emit fine particulate, heavy metals, trace dioxin and acid gas even though these
emissions are relatively low from modern incinerators. Other concerns include proper
management of residues: toxic fly ash which must be handled in hazardous waste disposal
installation as well as incinerator bottom ash (IBA), which must be reused properly.

Fuel from plastics

It aims to solve major environmental issues namely pollution caused due to plastic waste
accumulation and the need for an alternative fuel source. The process that is used to convert
plastic into fuel is pyrolysis.

It is the thermal decomposition of materials at very high temperatures in an inert atmosphere.

It involves change of chemical composition and is mainly used for treatment of organic
materials.

In large scale production, plastic waste is grinded and sent for melt feeding and then the process
of pyrolysis takes place,
 catalytic converters helps in the process and the molecular rearrangement of polymers takes
place, the vapours are condensed with oil or fuel and accumulated in settling tanks and filtrated,
fuel is obtained after homogenation and can be used for automobiles and machinery.
5 Explain Waste Heat Recover systems

• Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) systems are introduced for each range of waste heat to
allow the most optimum efficiency of waste heat recovery to be obtained.

• Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or

chemical reaction, and then “dumped” into the environment even though it could still be
reused for some useful and economic purpose.

• Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and Furnaces.

• Depending upon the type of process, waste heat can be rejected at virtually any
temperature from that of chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an
industrial furnace or kiln.

• Usually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more cost effective is the heat
recovery.

• In any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely necessary that there should be some
use for the recovered heat.

• Typical examples of use would be preheating of combustion air, space heating, or pre-
heating boiler feed water or process water.

• With high temperature heat recovery, a cascade system of waste heat recovery may be
practiced to ensure that the maximum amount of heat is recovered at the highest
potential.
 6 Explain Saving potential Energy sources of waste

Waste source and quality

Sl Source Quality
no
1 Heat in flue gases. The higher the temperature, the greater the potential
value for heat recovery
2 Heat in vapour streams As above but when condensed, latent heat also
recoverable
3 Convective and radiant heat Low grade – if collected may be used for space
lost from exterior of . heating or air
Equipment preheats
4 Heat losses in cooling water Low grade – useful gains if heat is exchanged with
incoming fresh water
5 Heat losses in providing a) High grade if it can be utilized to reduce demand
chilled water or in the for refrigeration.
disposal of chilled water b) Low grade if refrigeration unit used as a form of
heat pump.
6 Heat stored in products Quality depends upon temperature
leaving the process
7 Heat in gaseous and liquid Poor if heavily contaminated and thus requiring alloy
effluents leaving process heat exchanger

6 Classify Waste heat recovery systems

In considering the potential for heat recovery, it is useful to note all the possibilities, and grade
the waste heat in terms of potential value as shown in the following table

Classification

1 High Temperature Heat Recovery

The following table gives temperatures of waste gases from industrial process equipment in the
high temperature range. All of these results from direct fuel fired processes

TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT HIGH TEMPERATURE RANGE FROM

VARIOUS SOURCES
 Types of Device Temperature ( Degree centigrade)
Nickel refining furnace 1370 –1650
Aluminium refining furnace 650–760
Zinc refining furnace 760–1100
Steel heating furnaces 925–1050
Open hearth furnace 650–700
Cement kiln (Dry process) 620– 730
Hydrogen plants 650–1000

2 Medium Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table gives the temperatures of waste gases from process equipment in the
medium temperature range. Most of the waste heat in this temperature range comes from the
exhaust of directly fired process units

TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT MEDIUM TEMPERATURE RANGE FROM

VARIOUS SOURCES

Types of Device Temperature ( Degree centigrade)

Steam boiler exhausts 230–480
Gas turbine exhausts 370–540
Reciprocating engine 315–600
exhausts
Heat treating furnaces 425–650
Drying and baking ovens 230–600
Annealing furnace cooling 425–650
systems

Low Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table lists some heat sources in the low temperature range.

In this range it is usually not practical to extract work from the source, though steam production
may not be completely excluded if there is a need for low-pressure steam.

Low temperature waste heat may be useful in a supplementary way for preheating purposes.

TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT LOW TEMPERATURE RANGE FROM

VARIOUS SOURCES
 Types of Device Temperature ( Degree centigrade)
Process steam condensate 55-88
Cooling water from: 32-55
Furnace doors
Bearings 32-88
Air compressors 27-50
Welding machines 32-88
Pumps 27-88
Internal combustion engines 66-120
Air conditioning and 32-43
refrigeration condensers

8 What are the Benefits or Advantages of Waste Heat RecoverySystem

Advantages
• Increased Efficiency.
• Reduce Plant's Operating Costs. ...

• Adds to the overall efficiency of the industrial process.

• Reduces fuel consumption and so decreases both the cost of fuel and energy consumption

• Reduces carbon and harmful emissions

• Reduction in the equipment size - as fuel consumption reduces, so does the requirement
for handling the fuel, pumps, filters, fan etc.

Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery

Benefits of 'waste heat recovery' can be broadly classified in two categories:
Direct Benefits:
Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process.

This is reflected by reduction in the utility consumption & costs, and process cost.
Indirect Benefits:
a) Reduction in pollution: A number of toxic combustible wastes such as carbon monoxide
gas, sour gas, carbon black off gases, oil sludge,

Acrylonitrile and other plastic chemicals etc, releasing to atmosphere if/when burnt in the
 incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers heat and reduces the environmental pollution
levels.
b) Reduction in equipment sizes: Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel consumption, which
leads to reduction in the flue gas produced. This results in reduction in equipment sizes of
all flue gas handling equipments such as fans, stacks, ducts, burners, etc.
c) Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes givesadditional
benefits in the form of reduction in auxiliary energy consumption like electricityfor fans, pumps
etc..

Air preheaters are mainly used for exhaust-to-air heat recovery and for low to medium
temperature applications. ... Such applications can include gas turbine exhausts and heat
recovery from furnaces, ovens, and steam boilers .

Air preheating can be based on two different designs, the plate type and the heat pipe type.

9 Explain Development of Waste Heat Recovery System

Understanding the process

Understanding the process is essential for development of Waste Heat Recovery system.

This can be accomplished by reviewing the process flow sheets, layout diagrams, piping
isometrics, electrical and instrumentation cable ducting etc.

Detail review of these documents will help in identifying:

a) Sources and uses of waste heat
b) Upset conditions occurring in the plant due to heat recovery
c) Availability of space
d) Any other constraint, such as dew point occurring in an equipments etc.

After identifying source of waste heat and the possible use of it, the next step is to select
suitable heat recovery system and equipments to recover and utilise the same.

Economic Evaluation of Waste Heat Recovery System

It is necessary to evaluate the selected waste heat recovery system on the basis of financial
analysis such as investment, depreciation, payback period, rate of return etc.
In addition the advice of experienced consultants and suppliers must be obtained for rational
decision.
 10 What are the Commercial Waste Heat Recovery Devices?Explain them

Ans : Recuperators
In a recuperator, heat exchange takes place between the flue gases and the air through metallic
or ceramic walls. Duct or tubes carry the air for combustion to be pre-heated, the other side
contains the waste heat stream.
A recuperator for recovering waste heat from flue gases is shown in Figure The simplest
configuration

Metallic Radiation Recuperator: The simplest configuration for a recuperator is the metallic
radiation recuperator, which consists of two concentric lengths of metal tubing as shown in
Figure
 Figure : Convective Radiative Recuperator : For maximum effectiveness of heat transfer,
combinations of radiation and convective designs are used, with the high-temperature radiation
recuperator being first followed by convection type.

These are more expensive than simple metallic radiation recuperators, but are less bulky

Regenerator
The Regeneration which is preferable for large capacities has been very widely used in glass and
steel melting furnaces.

Important relations exist between the size of the regenerator, time between reversals, thickness
of brick, conductivity of brick and heat storage ratio of the brick.

In a regenerator, the time between the reversals is an important aspect. Long periods would
mean higher thermal storage and hence higher cost. Also long periods of reversal result in lower
average temperature of preheat and consequently reduce fuel economy
Economiser
In case of boiler system, economizer can be provided to utilize the flue gas heat for preheating
the boiler feed water. On the other hand, in an air pre-heater, the waste heat is used to heat
combustion air. In both the cases, there is a corresponding reduction in
the fuel requirements of the boiler.

Heat Wheels
A heat wheel is finding increasing applications in low to medium temperature waste heat
recovery systems. The below fig illustrating the application of a heat wheel.
Heat pipe:

A heat pipe can transfer up to 100 times more thermal energy than copper, the best known
conductor. In other words, heat pipe is a thermal energy absorbing and transferring system and
have no moving parts and hence require minimum maintenance

The heat pipes are used in following industrial applications:

a) Process to Space Heating: The heat pipe heat exchanger transfers the thermal energy from
process exhaust for building heating. The preheated air can be blended if required.
The requirement of additional heating equipment to deliver heated make up air is drastically
reduced or eliminated.

b)Process to Process: The heat pipe heat exchangers recover waste thermal energy from the
process exhaust and transfer this energy to the incoming process air.
The incoming air thus become warm and can be used for the same process/other processes and
reduces process energy consumption.

c) HVAC Applications:
Cooling: Heat pipe heat exchangers pre cools the building make up air in summer and thus
reduces the total tons of refrigeration, apart from the operational saving of the cooling
system.

Thermal energy is supply recovered from the cool exhaust and transferred to the hot supply make
up air.
 11 What are the Waste heat recovery heat Applications
• Preheating of boiler combustion air
• Recovery of Waste heat from furnaces
• Reheating of fresh air for hot air driers
• Recovery of waste heat from catalytic deodorizing equipment
• Reuse of Furnace waste heat as heat source for other oven
• Cooling of closed rooms with outside air
• Preheating of boiler feed water with waste heat recovery from flue gases in the heat pipe
• Drying, curing and baking ovens
• Waste steam reclamation

UNIT-5
1 Define Economics of Power Generation
The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production of electrical energy is known
as Economics of power generation.
2 What is the importance of power plant Economics of Power Generation:
The function of a power station is to deliver power at the lowest possible cost per kilo watt hour.
This total cost is made up of fixed charges consisting of interest on the capital, taxes, insurance,
depreciation and salary of managerial staff, the operating expenses such as cost of fuels, water, oil,
labor, repairs and maintenance etc.
The cost of power generation can be minimized by:
1. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest possible % of time in a
year.
2. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
3. Operation through fewer men.
4. Having uniform design
5. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.
3 What are the various costs are involved in power plant economics
Capital cost
The capital cost includes the cost of the plant, land acquisition, grid connection, and initial
financing costs.
various costs of Electrical Energy
The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts, namely ;
(i) Fixed cost (ii) Semi-fixed cost (iii) Running or operating cost.
(i) Fixed cost. It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and units generated.
The fixed cost is due to the annual cost of central organization, interest on capital cost of land and
salaries of high officials.
The annual expenditure on the central organisation and salaries of high officials is fixed since it has
to be met whether the plant has high or low maximum demand or it generates less or more units.
Further, the capital investment on the land is fixed and hence the amount of interest is also fixed.
(ii) Semi-fixed cost. It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is independent of
units generated.
The semi-fixed cost is directly proportional to the maximum demand on power station and is on
account of annual interest and depreciation on capital investment of building and equipment, taxes,
salaries of management and clerical staff.
(iii) Running cost. It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units generated.
The running cost is on account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil, maintenance, repairs and
salaries of operating staff. Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the running cost is
directly proportional to the number of units generated by the station.
4 Estimation of power production
Define Various loads and load factors related to Power plant economics .
Maximum demand:
Maximum demand is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during a given period of
time.
Average load:
Average load is the average load on the power station in a given period (day/month or year)
Base load:
Base load is the minimum load over a given period of time.
Connected load:
Connected load of a system is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming apparatus
connected to the system.
Peak load:
Peak load is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units in a stated period
of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum average load over a designated
interval of time.
Demand factor:
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of a consumer.
Diversity factor:
Diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the combined maximum
demand on power stations
Load factor:
Load factor is the ratio of average load during a specified period to the maximum load occurring
during the period. Load factor = Average Load / Maximum demand
Station load factor:
Station load factor is the ratio of net power generated to the net maximum demand on a power
station.
Plant factor:
Plant factor is the ratio of the average load on the plant for the period of time considered, to the
aggregate rating of the generating equipment installed in the plant.
Capacity factor:
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load on the machine for a period of time considered, to
the rating of the machine.
There are numerous ways to talk about plant cost. – Engineered, Procured, and Constructed (EPC
cost)
Equipment Cost • Generally the cost to fabricate, deliver, and construct the plant equipment –
Overnight Cost • Either the equipment cost or the EPC cost with the NPV of interest during
construction.. –
Total Installed Cost (TIC) • The total cost of the equipment and engineering including interest
during construction in present day dollars. This is the cost that a utility would record on its books
without the cost of land and other home office costs. – Total Plant Cost (TPC) – includes all costs
Types of loads
Residential Load This type of load includes domestic lights, power needed for domestic appliances
such as radios, television, water heaters, refrigerators, electric cookers and small
motors for pumping water. Commercial Load It includes lighting for shops, advertisements and
electrical appliances used in shops and restaurants . Industrial Load : It consists of load demand of
various industries. Municipal Load It consists of street lighting, power required for water supply
and drainage purposes. Irrigation Load This type of load includes electrical power needed for
pumps driven by electric motors to supply water to fields. Traction Load It includes terms, cars,
trolley, buses and railways. Load Curve A load curve (or load graph) is a graphic record showing
the power demands for every instant during a certain time interval. Such a record may cover 1 hour,
in which case it would be an hourly load graph; 24 hours, in which case it would be a daily load
graph; a month in which case it would be a monthly load graph; or a year (7860 hours), in which
case it would be a yearly load graph. The following points are worth noting :
(i) The area under the load curve represents the energy generated in the period considered. (ii) The
area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on the power
station. (iii) The peak load indicated by the load curve/graph represents the maximum demand of
the power station. Significance of Load Curves: Load curves give full information about the
incoming and help to decide the installed capacity of the power station and to decide the economical
sizes of various generating units.
• These curves also help to estimate the generating cost and to decide the operating schedule of the
power station, i.e. the sequence in which different units should be run.
Load Duration Curve: A load duration curve represents re-arrangements of all the load elements
of chronological load curve in order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived from the
chronological load curve. Figure shows a typical daily load curve for a power station.
It may be observed that the maximum load on power station is 35 kW from 8 AM to 2 PM. This is
plotted in Figure .Similarly, other loads of the load curve are plotted in descending order in the
same figure. This is called load duration curve
The following points are worth noting :
(a) The area under the load duration curve and the corresponding chronological load curve is equal
and represents total energy delivered by the generating station.
(b) Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating power economically. Proper selection
of base load power plants and peak load power plants becomes easier.
DEPRECIATION
Depreciation accounts for the deterioration of the equipment and decrease in its value due to
corrosion, weathering and wear and tear with use. It also covers the decrease in value of equipment
due to obsolescence.
The following methods are used to calculate the depreciation cost:
(1) Straight line method
(2) Percentage method
(3) Sinking fund method
(4) Unit method.

Straight Line Method. It is the simplest and commonly used method.

The life of the equipment or the enterprise is first assessed as also the residual or salvage value of
the same after the estimated life span. This salvage value is deducted from the initial capital cost
and the balance is divided by the life as assessed in years.
Thus, the annual value of decrease in cost of equipment is found and is set aside as depreciation
annually from the income.
Percentage Method. In this method the deterioration in value of equipment from year to year is
taken into account and the amount of depreciation calculated upon actual residual value for each
year. It thus, reduces for successive years.
Sinking Fund Method. This method is based on the conception that the annual uniform deduction
from income for depreciation will accumulate to the capital value of the plant at the end of life of
the plant or equipment.
Let,
A = Amount set aside at the end of each year for n years.
n = Life of plant in years.
S = Salvage value at the end of plant life.
i = Annual rate of compound interest on the invested capital. P = Initial investment to install the
plant.
A = (P – S)[i/{(1 + i)n – 1}]A
Unit Method. In this method some factor is taken as a standard one and, depreciation is measured
by that standard.
Example 1. Determine the thermal efficiency of a steam power plant and its coal bill per annum
using the following data.
Maximum demand 24000 kW
Load factor = 40% Boiler Efficiency = 90%
Turbine efficiency = 92%
Coal consumption = 0.87 kg/Unit
Price of coal = Rs. 280 per tonne
Solution.
= Thermal efficiency
= Boiler efficiency × Turbine efficiency
= 0.9 × 0.92 = 0.83
Load factor = Average Load/Maximum Demand
Average Load = 0.4 × 24000 = 9600 kW
E = Energy generated in a year = 9600 × 8760 = 841 × 105 kWh Cost of coal per year = (E × 0.87 ×
280)/1000
= (841 × 105 × 0.87 × 280)/1000
= Rs. 205 × 105. Ans.
Example 2. The maximum (peak) load on a thermal power plant of 60 mW capacity is 50 mW at an
annual load factor of 50%. The loads having maximum demands of 25 mW, 20 mW, 8 mW and, 5
mW are connected to the power station.
Determine: (a) Average load on power station (b) Energy generated per year (c) Demand factor
(d) Diversity factor.
Solution.
(a) Load factor = Average load/Maximum demand Average load = 0.5 × 50 = 25 mW
(b) E = Energy generated per year

= Average load × 8760

= 219 × 106 kWh.
(c) Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load

= 50/(25 + 20 + 8 + 5) = 0.86
(d) Diversity factor = M1/ M2

where Ml = Sum of individual maximum demands = 25 + 20 + 8 + 5 = 58 Mw

M2 =50
Diversity factor =1.16
5 The concept of Effluents from power plants and Impact of Environment:
Effluents of thermal power plants contain trace elements and heavy metals, needs remediation
before discharging to the environment. Heavy metals tend to bio accumulate in a biological
organism such as fish and thus enter the human food chain.
. Physico chemical analysis showed, Turbidity, TDS, Chlorides, Sodium, Potassium and Hardness
of samples of core zone were exceeding the maximum permissible limits of WHO drinking water
guidelines.
IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT:
Due to continuous & long lasting emission of SOx& NOx, which are the principal pollutants coal
based plants, surrounding structures, buildings, monuments of historic importance & metallic
structures too are affected very badly due to corrosive (Acid rain) reactions.
Impact on water
Due to this the ground water gets polluted and becomes unsuitable for domestic use. This is harmful
to the fisheries and other aquatic biota in the water body.
Impact on land
Due to this, natural soil properties changes. It becomes more alkaline due to the alkaline nature of
fly ash.
Biological & thermal impact
The effect on biological environment can be divided into two parts, viz. the effect on flora and the
effect on fauna.
Effect on flora is due to two main reasons, land acquisition and due to flue gas emissions. Land
acquisition leads to loss of habitat of many species.
The waste-water being at higher temperature (by 4-5 degree centigrade) when discharged can harm
the local aquatic biota.
6 Pollutants and pollution standards , Measures to control
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water
temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants
and industrial manufacturers.
When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the
change in temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition.
Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change
in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal shock." Burning Coal
in a power plant produces a number of pollutants.
Some of these pollutants are specific to the type of fuel or is part of the combustion process or
related to the design and configuration of the plant.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
CO2 was thought of as a product of combustion.
Effects of Green House gases and global warming issues have changed the way we look at
CO2.
CO2 has turned to be the major greenhouse gas. A fossil fuel power plant is the major contributor of
CO 2.
Measures to control
Improve the power plant efficiency so that the reduced coal consumption reduces CO2 per kwhr.
Switch over from Fossil based energy sources to renewable sources like wind, solar or hydro power.
Reduce Deforestation and increase Afforestation to absorb the excess CO2 produced.
Sulphur Dioxide SO2
This is a product of Combustion and depends on the amount of Sulfur in Coal. This is also referred
to as SOx.
Sulphur in Coal ranges for 0.1 % to 3.5% depending on type and rank. During combustion Sulfur
combines with Oxygen to form SO2.
Power plants are the largest emitters of SO2
In the presence of other gases SO2forms Sulphuric acid and can precipitate down as acid rain
leading to destruction of eco systems.
Measures to control
Use of low Sulfur coals is the best ways to reduce the SO2 emissions.
Desulphurization plants downstream of the boilers also reduce emissions.
Fluidized bed combustion of coal is another effective method to reduce SO2 emissions.
Ash
Ash is the residue after the combustion. A 500 MW coal fired power plant burning Coal with
around 20 % Ash, collects ash to the tune of Two Million Tons in Five years.
Cement plants may utilize a small portion of the ash.
Disposing bulk of it on a long term basis can raise major environmental issues.
Measures to control
Ash contains toxic elements that can percolate into the drinking water system.
The wind, breach of dykes or ash spills can carry away the ash particles to surrounding areas
causing harm to humans and vegetation.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx
Nitrogen in fuel and in the air reacts with Oxygen at high temperatures to form various oxides of
Nitrogen collectively called NOx.
Fossil fuel power plants are the second largest emitter of NOx. This is a hazardous pollutant
creating visual and respiratory problems.
Also NOx combines with water to form acid rain, smog, and ground ozone.
Measures to control
 Design changes in combustion technology have helped in reducing the NOx emissions. Methods
like Selective Catalytic Reactors are used in power plants to meet the emission regulations.
Pollution Standard Index( PSI) Pollutants Emissions( in tones/day)
CO2 424650
Particulate Matter 4374
SO2 3311
NOX 4966
Advantages
The advantages of OTEC include being able to provide electricity on a continuous (non-
intermittent) basis, while also providing cooling without electricity consumption. The
technological challenge is that the small temperature difference requires very large volumes
of water at minimum pressure losses.

Limitations
Capital investment is very high. Due to small temperature difference in between the surface
water and deep water, conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4%. Low efficiency of these
plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost makes them uneconomical for
small plants.09-Feb-2010