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CHAPTER 1 : PHYSICAL WORLD

(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST ,GMRHSS ,Kasaragod)
SCOPE OF PHYSICS
Macroscopic domain
 The macroscopic domain includes
phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial
and astronomical scales.
 Classical Physics deals mainly with
macroscopic phenomena and includes
subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics,
Optics and Thermodynamics.
 Mechanics -founded on Newton’s laws of
motion
 Electrodynamics - deals with electric and
magnetic phenomena associated with
charged and magnetic bodies.
 Optics – deals with the phenomena
involving light
 Thermodynamics. - it deals with systems in
macroscopic equilibrium and is concerned
with changes in internal energy,
temperature, entropy, etc., of the system
through external work and transfer of heat.
Microscopic domain
 The microscopic domain includes atomic,
molecular and nuclear phenomena.
 Quantum Theory is currently accepted as
the proper framework for explaining
microscopic phenomena.
****

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CHAPTER 2  In SI, there are seven base units and two

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT supplementary units.
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C,HSST Physics, GMRHSS , Kasaragod) SI SYSTEM OF UNITS
SI Units
Physical quantity Sl No Base quantity Name Symbol
• Any quantity that can be measured 1 Length metre m
• A physical quantity can be classified in to two:- 2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
i) Fundamental quantity (Base quantity)
4 Electric Current ampere A
ii) Derived quantity
5 Temperature kelvin K
• Quantities that cannot be expressed in terms of 6 Amount of mole mol
other quantities are known as fundamental substance
quantities. 7 Luminous candela cd
Eg:- mass, length, time etc. intensity
• Quantities which are derived from fundamental Sl No Supplementary SI Units
quantities are known as derived quantities. quantity Name symbol
Eg:- force, velocity, area, volume ,etc 1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian sr
Unit
 Basic, internationally accepted reference
Plane angle
standard used for measurement is called unit.
 The units for the fundamental or base
quantities are called fundamental or base
units.
 The units of all other physical quantities can be ds
expressed as combinations of the base units. The plane angle , d 
r
 Units obtained for the derived quantities are Solid angle
called derived units.

Systems of Units
 A complete set of the base units and derived
units, is known as the system of units.
 In CGS system the base units for length, mass
dA
and time were centimetre, gram and second The solid angle , d 
respectively. r2
 In FPS system the base units for length, mass Prefixes used with SI units
and time were foot, pound and
secondrespectively. Prefix Symbol Meaning
 In MKS system the base units for length, mass Tera - T 1012
and time were metre, kilogram and second
Giga- G 109
respectively.
Mega- M 106
Kilo- K 103
Deci- d 10-1
Centi - c 10-2
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
Milli- m 10-3
 SI system is the internationally accepted system
Micro µ 10-6
of unit at present.
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
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SPECIAL UNITS FOR SHORT AND LARGE LENGTHS • For example, the dimensional equations of
volume [V], speed [v], force [F ] and mass
Sl Unit Name Symbol Meaning density [] may be expressed as
No [V ]  [ M 0 L3T 0 ]
-15
1 fermi f 10 m
2 angstrom A0 10-10 m
[v ]  [ M 0 LT 1 ]
3 Astronomical AU 1.496 x1011 m
unit (Average distance of
the sun from earth ) [ F ]  [ MLT 2 ]
4 light year ly 9.46 x1015 m (
distance that light [  ]  [ ML3T 0 ]
travels with velocity of
3 x 108 m/s in one APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
year )
5 parsec parsec 3.08 x 1016 m ( • Dimensional analysis can be used to:
distance at which
average radius of a) To check the dimensional consistency of
earth’s orbit subtends equations
an angle of 1 arc
second)
b) To deduce relation among physical quantities.
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES To check the dimensional consistency of equations
• All the physical quantities represented by • The principle of homogeneity is used to check
derived units can be expressed in terms of some the dimensional correctness of equations.
combination of sevenfundamental or base Principle of homogeneity
quantities. • The magnitudes of physical quantities may be
• The dimensions of a physical quantity are the added together or subtracted from one another
powers (or exponents) to which the base only if they have the same dimensions.
quantities are raised to represent that • The equation P  AB  CD , is dimensionally
quantity. correct only if [ P]  [ AB ]  [CD] .
• Length has the dimension [L], mass [M], time PROBLEM
[T], electric current [A], thermodynamic • Check the dimensional consistency of the
temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], and equation v  u  at .
amount of substance [mol]. Solution
• In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be • We have , [v] = [M0LT-1]
written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] and [u] = [M0LT-1]
[T]. [at] = [M0LT-2] [ T] =[M0LT-1]
Dimensional formulae • Thus [v] =[u] =[at] , the equation is
• The expression which shows how and which of dimensionally correct.
the base quantities represent the dimensions of Limitations of dimensional analysis
a physical quantity is called the dimensional • The dimensional consistency does not
formula of the given physical quantity. guarantee correct equations.
• For example, the dimensional formula of the • The arguments of special functions, such as the
volume is [M0L3T0]. trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
Dimensional equation functions are dimensionless.
• An equation obtained by equating a physical • A pure number, ratio of similar physical
quantity with its dimensional formula is called quantities, such as angle as the ratio
the dimensional equation of the physical (length/length), refractive index as the ratio
quantity. (speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in
medium) etc., has no dimensions.

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• Dimensionless constants cannot be obtained by

this method.
• If an equation fails consistency test, it is
proved wrong, but if it passes, it is not proved
right.
• It does not distinguish between the physical
quantities having same dimensions.
To deduce relation among physical quantities

• For this we should know dependence of the

physical quantity on other quantities and
consider it as a product type of the
dependence.
Derivation of the equation for time period of a
pendulum using dimensions
• Let the period of oscillation of the simple
pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the
bob (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
• The dependence of time period T on the
quantities l, g and m as a product may be
written as :
t  kl x g y m z
• Where k is a constant
• Taking dimensions on both sides
[ L0 M 0T 1 ]  [ L] x [ LT 2 ] y [ M ]z  [ Lx  y T 2 y M z ]
• On equating the dimensions on both sides, we
get
x+y =0 , thus x= - y
z=0 , -2y =1, thus y = -1/2
therefore x= ½.
1 1

• So that t  kl g 2 2

l
• Or t  k
g
l
• But k=2π , thus t  2
g

*****

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CHAPTER THREE i) a car moving on a straight road.

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE ii) Freely falling body
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C,HSST Physics, GMRHSS , Kasaragod) Two dimensional motion

MOTION  Motion in a plane is called two dimensional

 Motion is change in position of an object with motions.
time.  Two coordinates are required to represent this
 Branch of physics which deals with the motion motion.
of objects – Mechanics  Example :
 Mechanics is classified into i) A car moving on a plane ground
i)Statics ii) Kinematics iii) Dynamics ii) A boat moving on a still lake
 Statics deals with object at rest under the
action of forces. Three dimensional motion
 In Kinematics, we study ways to describe
motion without going into the causes of  Motion in a space is called three dimensional
motion. motion.
 Dynamics deals with objects in motion by
 Three coordinates are required to represent
considering the causes of motion.
POINT OBJECT this motion.
 If the size of the object is much smaller than the  Example :
distance it moves, it is considered as point i) Movement of gas molecules
object. ii) A flying bird
 Examples
a) a railway carriage moving without jerks PATH LENGTH
between two stations.
b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling • The length of the path covered by an object is
smoothly on a circular track. called path length.
FRAME OF REFERENCE • It is the total distance travelled by the object.
• A place from which motion is observed and • Path length is a scalar quantity — a quantity
measured is called frame of reference. that has a magnitude only and no direction.
• Example: Cartesian coordinate system with a
clock – the reference point at the origin.
TYPES OF MOTION
• For example, the path length of the car moving
 Based on the number of coordinates required
from O to P and then from P to Q is 360+120 =
to describe motion, motion can be classified as:
a) One dimensional motion (Rectilinear 480 m.
motion )
b) Two dimensional motion DISPLACEMENT
c) Three dimensional motion.
• It is the change of position in a definite
One dimensional motion
 Motion along a straight line is called one direction.
dimensional motion or rectilinear motion. • Displacement is a vector quantity –have both
 Only one coordinate is required to describe this magnitude and direction.
motion. • It can be positive, negative or zero.
 In one-dimensional motion, there are only two • In one dimensional motion direction, the two
directions (backward and forward, upward and directions can be represented using positive (+)
downward) in which an object can move
and negative (-) signs.
 Example :
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• If x1 and x2 are the positions of an object in time •Average speed over a finite interval of time is
t1 and t2, the displacement in time interval greater or equal to the magnitude of the
average velocity
t  t 2  t1 , is given by
• If the motion of an object is along a straight line
x  x2  x1 and in the same direction, the magnitude of
• If x2 > x1 , displacement is positive average velocity is equal to average speed.
• if x2 < x1 , displacement is negative. • SI unit of average speed is same as that of
velocity.
• The magnitude of displacement may or may
PROBLEM
not be equal to the path length traversed by
• A car is moving along a straight line, It moves
an object.
from O to P in 18 s and returns from P to Q in
• If the motion of an object is along a straight line
6.0 s. What are the average velocity and
and in the same direction, the magnitude of
average speed of the car in going (a) from O to
displacement is equal to the total path length.
P ? and (b) from O to P and back to Q ?
Uniform motion

• If an object moving along the straight line Solution

covers equal distances in equal intervals of a) Average velocity
time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a x  360m
straight line. v   20m / s
t 18s
AVERAGE VELOCITY
• Ratio of total displacement to the total time . 360m
Average speed,   20m / s
18s
• b) Average velocity
x  240m
v   10m / s
t (18  6) s
x2  x1 x
v 
t 2  t1 t 360  120
• The SI unit for velocity is m/s or m s–1 Average speed   20m / s
• The unit km h–1 is used in many everyday
(18  6) s
applications
5 AVERAGE ACCELERATION
• 1km / h  m / s
18 • Ratio of change in velocity to time interval
• Average velocity is a vector quantity
v2  v1 v
• Average velocity can be positive or negative or a 
zero.. t2  t1 t
• Slope of the Displacement-Time graph gives the • Where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities
average velocity. or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 .
• SI unit is m/s2.
AVERAGE SPEED • Slope of the velocity-time graph gives average
acceleration.
• Ratio of total path length travelled to the total
time interval INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION (ACCELERATION)
•
• It is the acceleration at an instant..
• It is the average acceleration as the as the time
interval tends to zero

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s. Then the brakes are applied and the car stops

att = 20 s and x = 296 m.
• The instantaneous acceleration is the slope of
the tangent to the v–t curve at that instant.
• Acceleration can be positive, negative or zero.
• It is a vector quantity.

GRAPHS RELATED TO MOTION

POSITION-TIME GRAPH ( x –t Graph)

• It is the graph drawn taking time along x-axis
and position along y-axis
Position-time graph of an object moving with positive
• Slope of the x-t graph gives the average
velocity
velocity.
• Slope of the tangent at a point in the x-t graph
gives the velocity at that point.

Uses of Position –Time Graph

• To find the position at any instant
• To find the velocity at any instant
• To obtain the nature of motion Position-time graph of an object moving with negative
velocity
Position- time graph of stationary object

Position-time graph for motion with positive

acceleration
Position- time graph of an object in uniform motion

Position-time graph for motion with negative

acceleration

Position-time graph of a car

 The car starts from rest at time t = 0 s from the
origin O and picks up speed till t = 10 s and
thereafter moves with uniform speed till t = 18

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Position-time graph for motion with zero acceleration Time taken to fall in pit =37s.

VELOCITY – TIME GRAPH ( v-t GRAPH)

• A graph with velocity along Y –axis and time

along X-axis.
• The acceleration at an instant is the slope of
the tangent to the v–t curve at that instant.
• Area under the v-t graph gives the
PROBLEM displacement.
• Calculate the average velocity between 5s and Uses of v-t graph
7s from the graph.
• To find the displacement
• To find the velocity at any time
• To find the acceleration at any time
• To know the nature of motion

v-t graph of motion in positive direction with positive

acceleration

Solution

v-t graph of motion in positive direction with negative

PROBLEM-2 acceleration
• A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5
steps forward and 3 steps backward, followed
again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
and so on. Each step is 1 m long and requires 1
s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine
graphically and otherwise how long the
drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from
the start.
Solution
v-t graph of motion in negative direction with negative
acceleration

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v-t graph of motion of an object with negative a) What is the magnitude of initial velocity of the
acceleration that changes direction at time t1. ball?
b) Calculate the distance travelled by the ball
during 20 s, from the graph.
c) Calculate the acceleration of the ball from the
graph
Solution
a) 100 m/s
b)
1  1 
   10  100     10  100   1000m
2  2 
PROBLEM-1
• Draw v-t graph from the given x-t graph. c) Acceleration = slope of the graph

0  100
slope   10
10
 Therefore acceleration = -10m/s2

ACCELERATION –TIME GRAPH

Solution • A graph with acceleration along Y –axis and

time along X-axis.
 Area under acceleration – time graph gives
velocity.
PROBLEM
 The graph shows the velocity – time graph of a
moving body in a one dimensional motion.
Draw the corresponding acceleration – time
graph

Solution

PROBLEM-2
 Velocity-time graph of a ball thrown vertically
upwards with an initial velocity is shown in
figure.

PROBLEM
 which of these cannot possibly represent one-
dimensional motion of a particle.

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 Thus the displacement at any time interval 0

and t, is given by

 v  v0   t  v0t
1
 Thus x
2

 But v  v0  at

Solution  Thus

a) No – because a particle cannot have two 1

positions at the same instant of time. x  at  t  v0 t
b) No – because particle can never have two
2
values of velocities at the same instant of time. 1
x   at 2  v0 t
c) No- speed cannot be negative 2
d) No – total path length cannot decrease with  Therefore
time.
1 2
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY
x  v0 t  at
ACCELERATED MOTION
2
 If xo is the initial displacement
velocity –time graph of an object moving with uniform
acceleration and with initial velocity v0 1
x  x0  v0t  at 2
2
Velocity –Displacement Relation
 We have

 Thus

Velocity – Time Relation  Therefore

 We have
( v  v0 )
x t
v  v0
2
a
t  But
 Where v- final velocity, a – acceleration v  v0
v0 –initial velocity t
a
at  v  v0
 Thus
Or
 v  v0  at
(v  v0 ) (v  v0 ) v 2  v0
2
Displacement-Time Relation x  
2 a 2a
 We know , area under v-t graph = Displacement Therefore
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a = –10m /s2,
v 2  v0  2ax
2
 Using the equation
 If xo is the initial displacement 1
y  y0  v0t  at 2
2
v 2  v0  2ax  x0 
2

1
Thus the Equations of motion are 0  25  20t   10t 2
2
v  v0  at 5t  20  25  0
2


Solving this quadratic equation we get,
t=5s.
1 MOTION OF AN OBJECT UNDER FREE FALL
x  x0  v0t  at 2  A body falling under the influence of
2 acceleration due to gravity alone is called free

v 2  v0  2ax  x0 
2 fall (air resistance neglected)
 If the height through which the object falls is
PROBLEM small compared to the earth’s radius, g can be
 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a taken to be constant, equal to 9.8 m s–2.
velocity of 20 m s–1 from the top of a  Free fall is an example of motion with uniform
multistorey building. The height of the point acceleration.
from where the ball is thrown is 25.0 m from  Since the acceleration due to gravity is always
the ground. downward, it is in the negative direction.
a) How high will the ball rise ?  Acceleration due to gravity = - g = - 9.8m/s2.
b) how long will it be before the ball hits the
ground? Take g = 10 m s–2 Equations of motion of a freely falling body
Solution  For a freely falling body with v0=0 and y0 =0, the
equations of motion are

Acceleration –Time graph of a freely falling body

a) Given v0 = +20 m/s , a = -g =10 m/s , v = 0

 Using the equation Velocity – Time graph of a freely falling body
v  v0  2a y  y0 
2 2

 We get
0  202  2  ( 10) y  y0 
 Solving we get
 y  y0   20m
b) We have y0 = 25 m, y = 0 m , vo = 20 m /s, Position –Time graph of a freely falling body
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Equation for Stopping Distance

 Let the distance travelled by the vehicle before
it stops be ,d.
 Substituting v=0 , x=d and acceleration = - a in
the equation
v 2  v0  2ax
2

0  v0  2ad
2

v0  2ad
2

Galileo’s law of odd numbers v

2

 The distances traversed, during equal intervals  Thus stopping distance , d  0

2a
of time, by a body falling from rest, stand to one
Thus stopping distance is proportional to square
another in the same ratio as the odd numbers
of initial velocity.
beginning with unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...]
REACTION TIME
Proof
• Reaction time is the time a person takes to
 Divide time interval of motion into equal
observe, think and act.
intervals
 The distance travelled is found out using
1
y   gt 2
2
t Displacement Y in Distance Ratio of
y terms travelled in distances
of y0 successive
1 intervals
  g 2
2

0 0 0 • Dropping a ruler the reaction time can be

τ 1 y0 y0 1 calculated using the formula
  g 2
2 2d
tr 
2τ 1 4 y0 3y0 3 g
 4  g 2
2 • Where d is the distance moved before reaction.
3τ 1 2 9y0 5y0 5 • train B moves south with a speed of 90 km h–1.
 9  g What is the
2
4τ 16y0 7y0 7 a) Velocity of B with respect to A ?,
1
 16  g 2 b) Velocity of ground with respect to B ?
2 c) velocity of a monkey running on the roof of the
train A against its motion (with a velocity of 18
 Thus ratio of distances is found to be 1:3:5:7:….. km h–1 with respect to the train A) as observed
STOPPING DISTANCE OF VEHICLES by a man standing on the ground ?
• When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle,
the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance. *****
• Stopping distance is an important factor
considered in setting speed limits, for example,
in school zones
• Stopping distance depends on the initial
velocity (v0) and the braking capacity, or
deceleration (–a) that is caused by the braking.

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CHAPTER 4 Displacement vectors

MOTION IN A PLANE  A vector joining the initial and final positions of
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST , GMRHSS , Kasaragod) an moving object is known as displacement
SCALARS vector.
 A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude  The magnitude of the displacement vector is
only. either less or equal to the path length of an
 It is specified by a single number, along with the object between two points
proper unit.
 Examples are : the distance , mass, temperature
time etc.
 Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied
and divided just as the ordinary numbers.
 Scalars can be added or subtracted with Equal vectors
quantities with same units only. However, you  Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
can multiply and divide scalars of different only if ,they have the same magnitude and
units. same direction.
VECTORS
 A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a
magnitude and a direction.
 A vector is specified by giving its magnitude by a
number and its direction.
Unequal vectors
 Examples are displacement, velocity,
 Two vectors A and B are said to be unequal if,
acceleration and force.
they have the different magnitude or direction.
Representation of Vectors
 Vectors are represented using a straight-line
with an arrow head.

Negative vector
 Negative of a vector has the same magnitude
 The length of the line is equal to or proportional but opposite direction.
to the magnitude of the vector and the arrow
head shows the direction.
TYPES OF VECTORS
Position Vectors
 To describe the position of an object moving in
Null vector ( Zero vector )
a plane an arbitrary point is taken as origin.
 A vector with zero magnitude and arbitrary
 A vector drawn from the origin to the point is direction
known as position vector.  Examples are :
 Displacement of a stationary object
 Velocity of a stationary object
Collinear vectors
 Vectors with same direction or opposite
direction
 Their magnitudes may or may not be equal

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Co-initial vectors
 Vectors having same initial point

Coplanar vectors
 Vectors lying on the same plane

UNIT VECTORS  After the object has been projected, the

acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
 A vector with unit magnitude
which is directed vertically downward:
 It is used to denote a direction 
 That is a   gˆj or in component form
 Any vector can be represented as the product
of its magnitude and a unit vector
   The components of initial velocity vo are :
A | A | Aˆ
v0 x  v0 cos 
 Where  is unit vector
 v0 y  v0 sin 
A
 Thus unit vector, Aˆ   If we take the initial position to be the origin of
| A| the reference frame (x0=0 , y0=0), the equations
Orthogonal unit vectors of motion for the projectile is given by

x  v0 x t  a x t 2  v0 cos  t
 Unit vectors along the x, y, z axes of a 1
rectangular coordinate system is called
2
orthogonal unit vectors.
y  v0 y t  a y t 2  v0 sin  t  gt 2
1 1
 They are denoted as iˆ , ĵ and k̂
2 2
PROJECTILE MOTION
 An object that is in flight after being thrown or  Also
projected is called a projectile. v x  v0 x  a x t  v0 cos 
 The horizontal component of velocity remains
unchanged. v y  v0 y  a y t  v0 sin   gt
 Due gravity vertical component of velocity
changes with time. Equation of path of a projectile
 It is assumed that air resistance has negligible
effect on motion of the projectile.  We have from the equation of motion
 The trajectory or path of a projectile is x
t
parabola.
Motion of an object projected with velocity v0 at an v0 cos  
angle   Substituting this in the equation

y  v0 sin  t 
1 2
gt
2
 We get
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y  v0 sin  T  gT 2  0
2 1
1  
y  v0 sin  
x x
 g   2
v0 cos   2  v0 cos    2v sin 
T 0
g
y  tan  x 
g
x2
2(v0 cos  ) 2  Thus time of flight T = 2tm
Maximum Height of a Projectile (H)

 This equation is of the form

y  ax  bx 2
 This is the equation of a parabola.

The parabolic path of a projectile

 We have the vertical displacement,

y  v0 sin  t  gt 2
1
2
 At maximum height y =H and t = tm , then

H  v0 sin  tm 

1 2
gtm
2
v0 sin 2  1  v0 sin 2  
2 2
   

g 2 g 
v0 sin 2 
2
H
 At the highest point , velocity is zero, but still 2g
there is acceleration due to gravity. Horizontal Range of a Projectile (R)
Time of maximum height (tm)  The horizontal distance travelled by the
 At maximum height vy = 0, projectile during the time of flight is called
 If tm is the time of maximum height, then horizontal range.
 R = Horizontal velocity x Time of flight
v y  v0 sin   gt m  0 2v sin 
R  v0 cos   0
g
v0 sin 
tm  v0 2 sin  cos   v0 sin 2 
2 2
g R 
g g
Time of Flight of the projectile ( T )
v sin 2 
2
 The total time during which the projectile is in R 0
flight is called time of flight . g
Equation of Time of Flight Maximum horizontal range
 During time of flight we have, the vertical  Range is maximum when 2 = 900 or =450.
displacement y=0, thus
 Thus
2
v
Rmax  0
g
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 Page 4 of 4

PROBLEM -1 c) Horizontal range is

 A hiker stands on the edge of a cliff 490 m v0 sin 2  282  sin 2  30
2

above the ground and throws a stone R   69m

g 9.8
horizontally with an initial speed of 15 m s-1.
Neglecting air resistance, find
*****
a) the time taken by the stone to reach the
ground.
b) the speed with which it hits the ground.
(Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).

Solution
 We choose the origin of the x-,and y axis at the
edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the instant the
stone is thrown.
a) We have
1
y  y0  v0 y t  a y t 2
2
 Here y0 =0, v0y =0, ay = - g = 9.8 m/s2 and y = -
490 m, therefore
1
 490    9.8t 2
2
t  10s
b) The components of velocity are given by
v x  v0 x  a x t  v0 x  15m / s
v y  v0 y  a y t  0  9.8  10  98m / s
 Therefore the speed of the stone is
v  v x  v y  152  982  99m / s
2 2

PROBLEM -2
 A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of
28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above the horizontal.
Calculate
(a) the maximum height
(b) the time taken by the ball to return to the
same level
(c) the distance from the thrower to the point
where the ball returns to the same level.
Solution
a) The maximum height is
v0 sin 2  28  sin 30
2 2
H   10m
2g 2  9.8

b) Time of flight is
2v0 sin  2  28  sin 30
T   2.9s
g 9.8
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 Page 1 of 6

CHAPTER 5  External force depends on the time in which the

LAWS OF MOTION momentum change is brought about.
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, GMRHSS, Kasaragod)  The change in momentum brought about in a
MOMENTUM ( P ) shorter time needs greater applied force and
• Momentum is the product of its mass and vice versa.
velocity
 
P  mv Situation -4
 Momentum is a vector quantity  Suppose a stone is rotated with uniform speed
Some Situations relating momentum and applied force in a horizontal plane by means of a string, the
Situation -1 magnitude of momentum is fixed, but its
i) A much greater force is needed to push the direction changes
truck than the car to bring them to the  The force needed to change in momentum is
same speed in same time. provided by our hand through the string.
ii) A greater opposing force is needed to stop a  Our hand needs to exert a greater force if the
heavy body than a light body in the same stone is rotated at greater speed or in a circle of
time, if they are moving with the same smaller radius, or both
speed.
iii) If two stones, one light and the other heavy,
are dropped from the top of a building, a
person on the ground will find it easier to
catch the light stone than the heavy stone.
Reason Reason
 In these cases change in momentum is greater  External force is proportional to change in
for a heavy body. momentum.
 External force required is proportional to NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
change in momentum for the given time.
• The rate of change of momentum of a body is
Situation -2
i) A bullet fired by a gun can easily pierce human directly proportional to the applied force and
tissue before it stops, resulting in casualty. takes place in the direction in which the force
ii) The same bullet fired with moderate speed will acts.
• That is
not cause much damage
 p  
p
F or F  k
Reason t t
• Where Δp – change in momentum in the time
 Velocity is high for a bullet from a gun - the
interval Δt and k – constant of proportionality.
change in momentum is high
• Taking the limit Δt→0,
 External force required to stop the bullet is
 
dp
proportional to change in momentum for a F k
given time. dt
Situation -3 • For a body of fixed mass m,
i) A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ball 
dp dv 
coming in with great speed far more easily  m  ma
dt dt
than a novice, who can hurt his hands in the  
act • Thus F  kma
Reason • The S I unit of force ( newton ) is defined such
that k=1.
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 Page 2 of 6

• Therefore
 I  F  t  p

F  ma • Unit of impulse is newton-second (Ns).
• This law is applicable to both single particle and Impulsive force
a system of particles. • A large force acting for a short time to produce
Definition of newton a finite change in momentum.
• Examples are force when a ball hits on a wall,
• One newton is that force, which causes an
force exerted by a bat on a ball, force on a nail
acceleration of 1m/s2, to a mass of 1kg. by a hammer etc.
1N  1kgms2 PROBLEM
• A batsman hits back a ball straight in the
Newton’s second law in vector component form direction of the bowler without changing its
• The second law of motion is a vector law. It is initial speed of 12 m s–1. If the mass of the ball is
equivalent to three equations, one for each 0.15 kg, determine the impulse imparted to the
component of the vectors ball. (Assume linear motion of the ball)
Solution
Impulse  Change in momentum
 0.15  12  ( 0.15  12)  3.6 Ns

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

• The total momentum of an isolated system ( a
• Thus , if the force makes an angle with the system with no external force ) of interacting
velocity of a body , it changes only the particles is conserved.
component of velocity along the direction of • From Newton’s second law
force.
dp
• The component of velocity normal to the force F
remains unchanged. dt
When F=0, we get
PROBLEM dp
• A bullet of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed of F 0
dt
90 m s-1 enters a heavy wooden block and is
stopped after a distance of 60 cm. What is the dp  0
average resistive force exerted by the block on  p  constant
the bullet? • Therefore, when F=0, initial momentum = final
Solution momentum.
• Given m=0.04kg, v0 = 90 m/s , x= 0.6m, v=0
• The acceleration of the bullet is given by Applications of conservation of momentum
v 2  v0  2ax
2 Recoil of a gun
• Velocity of a bullet- muzzle velocity
 0  90 2  2  a  0.6 • Movement of gun backward, when a bullet is
90 2 fired- recoil of gun
a  6750m / s • According to conservation of momentum
2  0.6
momentum before firing = momentum after
• The resistive force is
firing
F  ma  0.04   6750  270N • Thus
Impulse 0  mu  MV
• The product of force and time. Where m- mass of bullet, u- velocity of bullet,
M- mass of gun, V- recoil velocity of gun
• Therefore
= Change in Momentum

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 Page 3 of 6

 mu max
V f
M s  s
• The negative sign shows that velocity of gun is N
opposite to that of bullet  Thus , value of static friction may be written as

f s  s N
• Recoil velocity is very small (since M > m)

Rocket propulsion Angle of friction (θ)

• When a rocket is fired, fuel is burnt in the
combustion chamber.
• The hot gas at very high pressure escapes
through the nozzle with a very high velocity
• The escaping gas has a very high momentum
• In order to conserve momentum the rocket
moves in the forward direction.

FRICTION
• Friction is the force which opposes the relative
motion between two surfaces in contact.
• It acts tangential to the surface of contact. • The angle at which the body begin to slide on an
• Arises due to inclined plane is called angle of limiting static
a) adhesive force between surfaces friction or angle of repose
b) irregularities of plane surface • The weight of the body can be resolved in to
• There are two types two components.
I) Static friction • Just before sliding
mg sin   f s
max
II) Kinetic friction
mg cos   N
Static friction
• Dividing the two equations
• Friction between two surfaces in contact as long
mg sin 
max
as the bodies is at rest. f
 s
mg cos  N
max
fs
tan   s
• Its value increases from zero to a maximum N
value called limiting friction (fsmax).
• Limiting friction is the static frictional force just • Thus coefficient of static friction is the tangent
before sliding. of the angle of limiting friction.

Laws of Static Friction

• The magnitude of limiting friction is PROBLEM-1
independent of area of the contact between the • Determine the maximum acceleration of the
bodies. train in which a box lying on its floor will remain
• The limiting friction is proportional to the stationary, given that the co-efficient of static
normal reaction N. friction between the box and the train’s floor is
0.15.
N
max
fs Solution
• Since the acceleration of the box is due to the
 s N
max
fs static friction,
μ
• s - coefficient of static friction.

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 Page 4 of 6

ma  f s   s N   s mg kinetic friction between the trolley and the

surface is 0.04? What is the tension in the
a  s g string? (Take g = 10 m s-2). Neglect the mass of
the string.
a max   s g  0.15  10m / s 2  1.5m / s 2

PROBLEM-2
• A mass of 4 kg rests on a horizontal plane. The
plane is gradually inclined until at an angle =
15° with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the surface?
Solution Solution
• We have • Net force on 2kg mass is
tan    s 30  T  2a , a –acceleration
• Net force on trolley is
 s  tan150  0.27 T  f k  20a
Kinetic friction • Now f k  k N
• Friction experienced by a body when it moves µk=0.04,
N= 20 x 10= 200 N
• Thus
T  0.04  200  20a
• Two types: T  8  20a
i) Sliding friction • Solving the equations , we get
ii) Rolling friction a=22/23 =0.96m/s2 and T = 27.1 N
• Rolling friction < sliding friction < static friction
FRICTION AS A NECESSARY EVIL
Laws of kinetic friction • Friction is considered as a necessary evil,
• Kinetic friction does not depend on the nature of because it has both advantages and
the two surfaces in contact. disadvantages.
• Kinetic friction is proportional to the normal Advantages of friction
reaction. • We are able to walk on the ground due to
fk  N friction
• We can hold an object in hand due to friction
f k  k N • Meteors burn in air due to friction.
μ Disadvantages of friction
• is the coefficient of kinetic friction
k
• When a vehicle moves lot of energy is lost to
• Coefficient of kinetic friction is less than that of
overcome friction
static friction
• Excess heat produced in machines causes wear
and tear to parts
Rolling friction
• Atmospheric friction is disadvantageous to
• Friction when a body rolls on a surface
rockets and satellites
• Very small compared to sliding friction-surface
area of contact is small
Ways to minimize friction
• Advantage of Rolling friction is made use in ball-
• Using lubricants like, grease, oil, wax etc.
bearings
• Using ball bearings or roll bearings
• Using anti-friction metals or alloys
PROBLEM
• Separating the surfaces by an air cushion
• What is the acceleration of the block and trolley
• Streamlining the body of vehicles
system shown in the figure, if the coefficient of
• Polishing the surfaces.
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 Page 5 of 6

CIRCULAR MOTION  s RN  s Rmg

• Acceleration of a body moving in a circle of v2  
m m
radius R with uniform speed v is v2/R directed
towards the centre. v   s Rg
2

• According to the second law, the force  Thus for a given value of μs and R, the maximum
providing this acceleration is speed of circular motion of the car is given by

fC 
mv 2
R
vmax   s Rg
• This force directed forwards the centre is called
the centripetal force. Motion of a car on a banked road
• For a stone rotated in a circle by a string, the
centripetal force is provided by the tension in Banking of roads
the string. • The phenomenon of raising outer edge of the
• The centripetal force for motion of a planet curved road above the inner edge is called
around the sun is the gravitational force on the banking of roads.
planet due to the sun. • We can reduce the contribution of friction to
• For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal the circular motion of the car if the road is
road, the centripetal force is the force of banked
friction. Forces on a car in a banked road
Motion of a car on a level road

Maximum possible speed of a car on a banked road –

with friction
 Three forces act on the car
i) The weight of the car, mg
ii) Normal reaction, N
iii) Frictional force, f

Maximum speed of the car on a level road

 As there is no acceleration in the vertical
direction

N  mg  0
N  mg
 The centripetal force required for the circular  Since there is no acceleration along the vertical
motion is provided by the frictional force direction, the net force along this direction
between road and the car tyres. must be zero.
 Thus  Thus
mv 2 N cos   mg  f sin 
f  s N 
R
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 Page 6 of 6

 The centripetal force is provided by the PROBLEM

horizontal components of N and f.  A circular racetrack of radius 300 m is banked at
an angle of 15°. If the coefficient of friction
mv 2
N sin   f cos   between the wheels of a race-car and the road
R is 0.2, what is the (a) optimum speed of the
 But for maximum speed , vmax, f   s N racecar to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and
(b) maximum permissible speed to avoid
 Thus
slipping ?
N cos   mg   s N sin  Solution
N cos    s sin    mg  Given , =150 ,µs =0.2, R=300m, g =9.8m/s2
mg a) Optimum speed is
N v0  Rg tan  300  9.8  tan150  28.1m / s
cos    s sin  
 Also
2 b) Maximum speed is
N sin    s cos   
mvmax
Rg tan    s 
R v max   38.1m / s
 Substituting for N in this equation we get, 1   s tan 

mg sin    s cos   mvmax

2

cos    s sin   R
*******

Rg sin    s cos  
2
v max 
cos    s sin  
 Therefore
Rg sin    s cos  
vmax 
cos   s sin  
 Dividing numerator and denominator by cos,
we get

Rg tan    s 
vmax 
1  s tan  
 Thus maximum possible speed of a car on a
banked road is greater than that on a flat road.
Speed of the car – without friction
 If there is no friction, µs=0,therefore the speed
of the car is

v0  Rg tan
 This is called the optimum speed.
 At this speed, frictional force is not needed to
provide the necessary centripetal force.
 Driving at this speed on a banked road will
cause little wear and tear of the tyres.

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 Page 1 of 3

Chapter 6 Situations in which work done is negative

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER  A ball is thrown in the upward direction – work
(Prepared By Ayyappan C,HSST, GMRHSS, Kasaragod) done by the gravitational force is negative.
WORK  The work done by the frictional force, when we
 The work done by the force is defined to be the push the book to a distance is negative
product of component of the force in the  The work done by the gravitational force, when
direction of the displacement and the we are lifting a bucket of water from the well is
magnitude of this displacement. negative
 The work and energy have the same dimensions Force –Displacement graph (F-d Graph)
[ML-2T-2]  A graph drawn with displacement along X –axis
 The SI unit is joule (J). and force along Y- axis.
Work done by a constant force  Area under F-d graph gives the work done.
F-d graph of work done by a constant force

 The work done by the constant force F , is

W  Fd cos
 
 Or W  F d F-d graph of work done by a uniformly varying force
 Work done can be zero, positive or negative
Special cases
 If ϴ=0, then maximum work is done given by
W  Fd .
 If ϴ=900, then work done =0
 If ϴ is between 00 and 900, the work done is ENERGY
positive.  Energy is the capacity for doing work.
 If ϴ is between900 and 1800, the work done is  It can be measured by the work that the body
negative. can do.
Situations in which Work done = 0  Joule is the SI unit of energy.
 the displacement is zero (d=0): Alternative units of Work /Energy
• A weightlifter holding a 150 kg mass erg 10-7J
steadily on his shoulder for 30 s does no electron volt (eV) 1.6 x 10-19 J
work on the load during this time. calorie (cal) 4.186 J
 the force is zero (F=0): kilowatt hour (kWh) 3.6 x 106 J
• A block moving on a smooth horizontal
table is not acted upon by a horizontal MEHANICAL ENERGY
force (since there is no friction), but  The energy of an object due to its motion or
may undergo a large displacement position.
 the force and displacement are mutually  Total mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic
perpendicular (ϴ = 900) and potential energy
• For the block moving on a smooth KINETIC ENERGY
horizontal table, the gravitational force • The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of
mg does no work since it acts at right the work an object can do by the virtue of its
angles to the displacement. motion

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 Page 2 of 3

• Kinetic energy an object of mass m moving with • The work done by a conservative force in a
velocity v, is closed path is zero.
1  1 2 • The change in potential energy of a
K mv .v   mv
2 2 conservative force is equal to the negative of
• Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. the work done by the force.
• In terms of momentum , p V   F ( x)x
2
p Non conservative forces
K
2m  The forces in which the work done depends on
 The dimensions are [ML2T-2] the factors like velocity or path taken.
 The SI unit is joule (J).  Example: frictional force, viscous force etc.
POTENTIAL ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL
• Potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue ENERGY
of the position or configuration of a body.  The total mechanical energy of a system is
• Eg: energy in a stretched string conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
• The potential energy is released in the form of conservative.
kinetic energy.  If forces are conservative
• It is a scalar quantity. K V  constant
• The dimensions of potential energy are [ML2T-2]. Proof
• The SI unit is joule (J).  If a body undergoes displacement Δx , under
Gravitational Potential Energy (V) the action of conservative forces, F(x), from
• Gravitational potential energy of an object at a work – energy theorem,
height h, is the negative of work done by the
K  F(x)x
gravitational force in raising the object to that
 The change in potential energy is given by
height.
V  F(x)x
V (h)  mgh  Adding the two equations
 The gravitational force can be written as K  V  F(x) x  F(x) x  0
dV (h) (K  V)  0
F   mg
dh K  V  constant
 Thus the gravitational force F equals the
Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a Freely Falling
negative of the derivative of V(h) with respect
Body
to h.
• Consider a ball of mass m being dropped from a
 The negative sign indicates that the
gravitational force is downward. cliff of height h.
Conservative Force
• A force is conservative if
1) it can be derived from a scalar quantity
V(x).
2) the work done by the force depends
only on initial and final positions.
 Examples are, gravitational force, electric force ,
spring force etc Total Energy at the point A
 Kinetic energy at A is zero (K=0), since v=0
 Potential energy at A is , V = mgH
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 Page 3 of 3

 Thus total energy at A, is POWER

E  K  V  0  mgH  mgH  Power is defined as the time rate at which work
is done or energy is transferred.
Total Energy at the point B  Average power is given by
 Kinetic energy at B is
1 W
Pav 
K  mvh
2
t
2
 But we have  Where W – total work done , t – total time
vh  0 2  2 g ( H  h )
2
 The instantaneous power is given by
vh  2 g ( H  h )
2
dW
P
 Thus dt
1 
K  mvh  mg( H  h )
2 Power is a scalar quantity
2
 SI unit – watt (W)
 Potential energy at B is , V = mgh
 The total energy at B is  Dimensions are [ML2T-3]
E  K  V  mg(H - h)  mgh  mgH
 Another unit of power is horse – power (hp)
Total Energy at the point C
 The kinetic energy at C is
1hp  746W
 Horse –power is used to describe the output of
1
K  mv 2 automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
2 Relation connecting power, force and velocity
 But we have
 We have the work done
v 2  0 2  2 gH  
dW  F  dr
v 2  2 gH
 Thus  Where F – force , dr – displacement.
1 
K  mv2  mgH Thus the instantaneous power is given by

2 dW  dr
P F
 The potential energy at C is, V = 0 dt dt
 The total energy at C
 That is
E  K  V  mgH  0  mgH  
P  F v
 Therefore total energy at A = total energy at B
Unit of electrical energy
= Total energy at C = mgH = a constant
Graph of the variation of kinetic energy and potential  Electrical energy is often expressed in kilowatt
energy of a freely falling body hour ( kWh)
1kWh  3.6 106 J

*****

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XI PHYSICS - CHAPTER 7 • The magnitude of the angular momentum

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION vector is
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST , GMRHSS , Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION WITH LINEAR l  rp sin 
VELOCITY
• The average angular velocity of the particle over Relation Between Angular Momentum and Torque
the interval Δt is Δθ /Δt. • We have
• The instantaneous angular velocity
  
l rp
ω = dθ/dt.
• Differentiating with respect to time,

dl d  
 r  p 
dt dt
• But ,
 
d    dp dr 
• The general relation connecting angular velocity r  p   (r  )  (  p)
and linear velocity is given by dt dt dt
   
v r d  
r  p   (r  F )  (v  mv )
• The angular velocity is a vector quantity. dt
Angular acceleration • Here F= (dp/dt) and p= mv
• Angular acceleration α is the time rate of • Since (v x v ) = 0
change of angular velocity. d   
 d
 r  p   (r  F )  0
 dt
dt  Thus
•If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction of ω 
dl  
and hence, that of α is fixed. r F
Moment of force (Torque) dt
• The rotational analogue of force is moment of  Therefore

force or torque. dl 
• Torque is given by 
   dt
 r F  Thus, the time rate of change of the angular
 The moment of force (or torque) is a vector momentum of a particle is equal to the torque
quantity. acting on it.
• The symbol τ stands for the Greek letter tau. Torque and angular momentum for a system of
• The magnitude of τ is particles
  rF sin  • For a system of n particles, the total angular
• Moment of force has dimensions same as those momentum is
of work or energy [ML2T-2]
•

Moment of a force is a vector, while work is a
scalar.
L  l1  l2  ......  ln
• The SI unit of moment of force is Newton-  n  
metre (Nm). L   ri  pi
i 1
Angular momentum of a particle • Thus
• Angular momentum is the rotational analogue 
dL 
of linear momentum.   ext
• The angular momentum is given by dt
  
l rp Conservation of Angular Momentum
• If the external torque acting on a system is zero,
then
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 Page 2 of 3

dL • The kinetic energy is therefore,
0 1 1
dt
 K Mv 2  MR 2 2
L  constant 2 2
• Thus if total external torque on a system is • Therefore comparing the equation with
zero the angular momentum is conserved. 1 2
MOMENT OF INERTIA K I
• Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of
2
mass of a body. • We get I  MR 2

• The moment of inertia given by Moment of Inertia of a rigid Rod

n • Consider a rigid massless rod of length with a
I   mi ri
2
pair of small masses, rotating about an axis
i 1 through the centre of mass perpendicular to the
• It is independent of the magnitude of the rod.
angular velocity.
• It is regarded as a measure of rotational inertia
of the body
• Unit is kgm2.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on :
• the mass of the body,
• its shape and size
• distribution of mass about the axis of rotation,
• The position and orientation of the axis of • Each mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from the axis.
rotation. • The moment of inertia of the masses is
Rotational kinetic energy therefore given by
2 2
• The kinetic energy in terms of moment of Ml Ml
I     
inertia is 2 2 2 2
• We have kinetic energy of a particle • Thus
1 Ml
2
ki 
2
mi vi I
2 4
• The velocity is given by Radius of Gyration
vi  ri • In general moment of inertia can be written as
• Thus for a system of particles I  Mk 2
1 n • Here the length k is a geometric property of the
K 
2 i 1
mi ri  2
2
body and axis of rotation. It is called the radius
of gyration.
• Therefore • The radius of gyration
1
K  I 2 I
•
2
where ω - angular velocity, I – moment of
k
inertia
M
• or •The radius of gyration of a body about an axis
may be defined as the distance from the axis of
L2
K a mass point whose mass is equal to the mass
2I of the whole body and whose moment of
• where L – angular momentum inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the
Moment of Inertia of a thin Ring body about the axis.
• Consider a thin ring of radius R and mass M, Moment of inertia of different bodies
rotating in its own plane around its centre with No Body Axis I
angular velocity ω. 1 Thin circular ring Perpendicular to
• Each mass element of the ring is at a distance R radius R plane ,at centre
from the axis, and moves with a speed Rω.
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2 Thin circular ring Diameter Solution

radius R • The moment of inertia of the disc about an axis
3 Thin rod ,length L Perpendicular to ML2 perpendicular to it and through its centre is
rod ,at mid point
12
4 Circular disc Perpendicular disc MR 2 • Where M –mass, R – radius
radius R at centre
2 • By symmetry of the disc, the moment of inertia
5 Circular disc diameter about any diameter is same.
radius R
6 Hollow cylinder Axis of cylinder Ix  Iy
radius R • Using perpendicular axis theorem
7 Solid cylinder Axis of cylinder 2
MR I z  I x  I y  2I x
radius R
2
MR 2
8 Solid sphere Diameter 2 2I x 
radius R MR 2 2
5
MR 2
Practical uses of moment of inertia Ix 
• The machines, such as steam engine and the 4
automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational Theorem of parallel axes
motion have a disc with a large moment of • The moment of inertia of a body about any
inertia, called a flywheel. axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
• Because of its large moment of inertia, the inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing
flywheel resists the sudden increase or through its centre of mass and the product of
decrease of the speed of the vehicle. its mass and the square of the distance
• It allows a gradual change in the speed and between the two parallel axes.
prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring a I z '  I z  Ma 2
smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle. • Where a –distance between two parallel axes.
Theorem of Perpendicular Axes • This theorem is applicable to a body of any
• It states that the moment of inertia of a planar shape.
body (lamina) about an axis perpendicular to
its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes
concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in
the plane of the body.
• Thus
Iz  Ix  I y
• This theorem is applicable to bodies which are
planar.
POBLEM
• What is the moment of inertia of a ring about a
tangent to the circle of the ring?
Solution

PROBLEM
• What is the moment of inertia of a disc about
one of its diameters?

******

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Chapter 8 Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height

GRAVITATION
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST , GMRHSS, Kasaragod,)

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

 Every body in the universe attracts every other
body with a force which is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.  The gravitational force on the mass m at a
height h above the surface of the earth is

 The weight of the body at the height h is mgh

 Mathematically,
, where g h is the acceleration due to gravity at
height.
 Thus

 where G is the universal gravitational constant

 The value of the gravitational constant G is Therefore ,
experimentally determined by English scientist
Henry Cavendish in 1798.
G = 6.67x10-11 N m2/kg2
 If R>>h
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF THE EARTH
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface
 The gravitational force acting on a body on the
surface of earth is given by
 ie , ,

Where G- gravitational constant, M- mass of

earth, m- mass of the body, R- radius of the  since
earth.  Or
 The weight experience by the body is
F = mg, where g – acceleration due to gravity
 Thus ,  Using binomial expression and neglecting the
higher order terms we get

 Therefore
 Thus for small heights h above the value of g
decreases
 The mass of the earth can be calculated using
Variation of g with depth
the values of acceleration due to gravity, G and
radius of earth.

 This is the reason for the statement “Cavendish

weighed the earth”.

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 .If ‘ρ’ is the mean density of earth, then mass of Solution

earth is 2h
 Mass = Volume x Density, ie g h  g (1  ) gh= 9.5 m/s2.
R ,
2. At what height above the surface of earth the
value of g is reduced to 1/4th of the value of g
 Similarly mass of the small sphere of radius R-d
is on earth’s surface.
Solution
2h 1
g (1  ) g
 Thus R 4
3R
h
8
g
  g / 4
h 2
(1  )
R
h
Or (1  ) 2  4
R
h
 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface (1  )  2, h  R
R
of earth is
3. At what height the value of g will be half that on
the surface of earth?
Solution : h= 0.414R
 Thus the acceleration due to gravity on body at
a depth d is 4. Draw graph showing variation of g with distance
from the centre.

 Thus dividing the two equations and

substituting for MS/M. we get

******
 Simplifying

 Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface, the

acceleration due gravity decreases.
 At the centre of the earth acceleration due to
gravity is zero.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the value of acceleration due to gravity at
a height 100 km above the surface. (g=9.8m/s2,
R = 6.37x103 km)

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CHAPTER NINE Shearing stress or tangential stress

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS  This stress produces a change in shape

(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS ,

Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)

STRESS:

• The restoring force per unit area is known

as stress.

• If F is the force applied and A is the area of

STRAIN:
cross section of the body, magnitude of
the stress = F/A  It is the ratio of change in dimension to
the original dimension.
• The SI unit of stress is N m-2 or pascal (Pa)
 It has no unit and dimensions.
• Its dimensional formula is
Longitudinal (Linear) strain:

Types of stress • It is the ratio of change in the length (ΔL)

to the original length(L) of the body .
• Longitudinal stress or linear stress
• Normal stress or hydraulic stress • Longitudinal strain = ΔL/L
• Shearing stress or tangential stress Volume strain:
Longitudinal stress or linear stress  It is the ratio of change in volume (ΔV) to
• This stress produces a change in length. the original volume (V)
• The change in length may be elongation(  Volume strain = ΔV/ V
tensile stress ) or compression
(compressive stress) Shearing strain :

 It is the angle turned by a straight line

assumed on the body which was originally
perpendicular to the tangential force.

Normal stress or hydraulic stress or volume

stress

 This stress produces a change in volume

• Usually θ is very small, tan θ is nearly

equal to angle θ.

• Thus, shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ

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HOOKE’S LAW: • If they are far apart, the material is said to

be ductile.
 For small deformations the stress is
directly proportional to strain. Elastomers:

• Substances which can be stretched to

cause large strains are called elastomers.

• Eg: tissue of aorta, rubber etc

• Where k is the proportionality constant Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of Aorta
and is known as modulus of elasticity.

• Modulus of elasticity depends on, nature

of the material of the body and
temperature.
• It is independent of the dimensions of the
body.
• S.I unit of ‘k’ is Nm-2 or Pascal [Pa]

Stress – Strain Curve: ******

 A graph drawn with strain along x-axis and
strain along y-axis.

• The point B in the curve is known as yield

point (also known as elastic limit) and the
corresponding stress is known as yield
strength (Sy) of the material.

• The point D on the graph is the ultimate

tensile strength (Su) of the material.

• If the ultimate strength and fracture

points D and E are close, the material is
said to be brittle.
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CHAPTER 10 • Thus, the applied force has been increased by

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS a factor of A2/A1 , this factor is the mechanical
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST, GMRHSS, Kasaragod) advantage of the device.
Pascal’s Law
• By changing the force at A1, the platform can
 The pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at be moved up or down.
all points if they are at the same height.
Hydraulic brakes
Hydrostatic paradox
 The liquid level is independent of the shape of • When we apply a little force on the pedal with
the container. our foot the master piston moves inside the
 Hydrostatic paradox is a consequence of master cylinder, and the pressure caused is
Pascal’s law. transmitted through the brake oil to act on a
piston of larger area.

• A large force acts on the piston and is pushed

down expanding the brake shoes against
brake lining.

• Thus a small force on the pedal produces a

Hydraulic Machines
large retarding force on the wheel.
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
• The pressure set up by pressing pedal is
• Whenever external pressure is applied on any transmitted equally to all cylinders attached
part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is to the four wheels so that the braking effort is
transmitted undiminished and equally in all equal on all wheels.
directions.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
• Hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes are based • The total energy of an incompressible non
on the Pascal’s law. viscous fluid in a steady flow from one point
to another is a constant.
Hydraulic Lift • It is a statement of conservation of energy.
Applicability of Bernoulli's theorem
• In a hydraulic lift two pistons are separated by • The fluids must be non viscous.
the space filled with a liquid. • Fluids must be incompressible
• This law does not hold for non steady or
turbulent flow- since the velocity and
pressure constantly changes with time.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• Bernoulli’s equation is a general expression
that relates the pressure difference between
two points in a pipe to both velocity changes
• A piston of small cross section A1 is used to (kinetic energy change) and elevation (height)
exert a force F1 directly on the liquid. changes (potential energy change).
• Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli developed this
• The pressure on the first piston is relationship.
P =F1/A1

• According to Pascal’s law this pressure is • Where ρ- density of fluid, v- speed, P-

transmitted throughout the liquid. pressure.
• Then the upward force on the second piston is • The Bernoulli’s relation may be stated as
, follows:
• As we move along a streamline the sum of
the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit
• Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting
volume and the potential energy per unit
a large force (large weight of, say a car, or a
volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
truck, placed on the platform)
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Derivation Change in kinetic energy

• The kinetic energy at the first end is

1 1
K1  mv12   v12 V
2 2
• The kinetic energy at the last end is
1 1
K2  mv2 2   v2 2 V
2 2
• Thus the change in kinetic energy is

• The figure shows, a fluid moving in a pipe of

variable area of cross section and different
heights.
• v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D, then fluid Work-energy theorem
initially at B has moved a distance v1Δt to C
• Applying Work-Energy Theorem we get
• At the same interval Δt the fluid initially at D
moves to E, a distance equal to v2Δt.

Total work done on the fluid

• The work done on the fluid at left end (BC) is • Dividing each term by ΔV

• The work done by the fluid at the other end

(DE) is
• Rearranging the above terms

• Thus the work done on the fluid at DE is

W2   P2V
• This is Bernoulli’s equation
• The total work done on the fluid is
• In general
• Part of this work goes into changing the
kinetic energy of the fluid, and part goes into
changing the gravitational potential energy.

Change in potential energy Flow through a horizontal pipe

• If the pipe is horizontal h1=h2 ,then ΔU =0
• If the density of the fluid is ρ, the mass • Bernoulli’s Theorem becomes ,
passing through the pipe in time Δt is

Bernoulli’s equation for a stationary fluid

• Potential energy at height h1 is • When fluid is at rest the velocity is zero
• Thus the equation becomes
U1   gh1V
• Potential energy at height h2 is
• Or
U 2   gh2V
• Thus change in gravitational potential energy • This is Pascal’s law
is

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CHAPTER ELEVEN  Consider a cube of length ‘ l ’. Due to the

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER increase in temperature ‘ ΔT’, length of cube
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS increases by Δl in all directions. The
Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448) Coefficient of linear expansion is
THERMAL EXPANSION
• The increase in the dimensions of a body due
to the increase in its temperature is called
thermal expansion.
• The expansion in length is called linear
expansion.
• The expansion in area is called area
expansion.
• The expansion in volume is called volume
expansion.
• The fractional change in dimension [ratio of
change in dimension to original dimension] is
proportional to change in temperature.
• The corresponding proportionally constant is
called co-efficient of thermal expansion or
thermal expansivity.

ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF WATER

• Water exhibits an anomalous behavour; it
contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C.
• The volume of a given amount of water
decreases as it is cooled from room
temperature, until its temperature reaches
4 °C.
• Thus water has a maximum density at
4 °C.
 Show that the coefficient of volume
expansion for ideal gas is reciprocal of
temperature
Proof : Ideal Gas Equation is

 At constant pressure

 Dividing the equations we get

Environmental effect of Anomalous Behaviour of

water
 Bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds,
 Obtain the following relations freeze at the top first.
 As a lake cools toward 4 °C, water near the
surface becomes denser and sinks; the water
near the bottom rises.

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 once the colder water on top reaches • At high altitude, pressure is low.
temperature below 4 °C, it becomes less Boiling point decreasess with
dense and remains at the surface and freezes decrease in pressure.
 If water did not have this property, lakes and For cooking rice pressure cooker is preferred.
ponds would freeze from the bottom up, Why ?
which would destroy much of their animal • In pressure cooker, boiling point of
and plant life water is increased by increasing
CHANGE OF STATE pressure. Thus rice can be cooked at
• A transition from one state (solid, liquid or high temperature.
gas) to another state is called change of state. You might have observed the bubbles of
steam coming from bottom of vessel when
water is heated.These bubbles disappear as
it reaches top of liquid just before boiling and
they reach the surface at the time of boiling.
Explain the reason ?
• Just before boiling, the bottom of liquid will
• During change of state, the two different be warm and at the top, liquid will be cool. So
state coexist in thermal equilibrium. the bubbles of steam formed at bottom rises
Temperature – time graph of ice to cooler water and condense, hence they
disappear. At the time of boiling, temperature
of entire mass of water will be 100OC. Now
the bubbles reaches top and then escape.
LATENT HEAT
• The amount of heat per unit mass transferred
during change of state of substance is called
Melting point latent heat of substance for the process.
• The temperature at which solid and liquid • If mass m of a substance undergoes a change
coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other from one state to the other, then the quantity
is called melting point. of heat required is given by
• The melting point decreases with increase in
pressure
Boiling point
• Latent heat is characteristic of substance and
• The temperature at which liquid and vapor
it depends on pressure.
state of substance coexist in thermal
• Its unit is JKg-1.
equilibrium with each other is called boiling
• The latent heat for a solid - liquid state change
point.
is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf), and
• The boiling point increases with increase in
that for a liquid-gas state change is called the
pressure and it decreases with decrease in
latent heat of vaporisation (Lv).
pressure
Regelation

Burns from steam are usually more serious

• When a metal wire loaded at both ends is than boiling water. Why ?
kept over an ice block, it passes through the • Latent heat of vapourisation for
ice block to the other side without splitting it. water is 22.6 x 105J Kg-1 (. ie;
• The melting point of ice just below the wire 22.6 x 105J heat is required to
decreases due to increase in pressure. convert 1 kg of water into steam
• As ice melts wire passes and refreeze (due to at 1000C ). So at 1000C, steam
decrease in pressure). This process is called carries 22.6 x 105 J. (more heat
regelation. than water).
Cooking is difficult at high altitude. Why ? *****
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CHAPTER TWELVE Work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal

THERMODYNAMICS process
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS, • Suppose one mole of an ideal gas goes
Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448) isothermally (at temperature T ) from its
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS initial state (P1, V1) to the final
state (P2, V 2).
 The amount of heat given to a system is • Let the volume of a gas having pressure P
equal to the sum of the increase in the change by dV.
internal energy of the system and the • Then work done, dW = P dV.
external work done. • Thus the total work done

• ΔQ = Heat supplied to the system by the

surroundings But
• ΔW = Work done by the system on the
surroundings
• ΔU = Change in internal energy of the system
• At constant pressure

 Thus

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
 It is any process in which there is some
• For an ideal gas, internal energy depends only
change in pressure, volume or temperature of
on temperature.
a system.
• Thus, there is no change in the internal energy
of an ideal gas in an isothermal process.
• For V2 > V1, W > 0; and for V2 < V1, W < 0.
• That is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas
absorbs heat and does work while in an
isothermal compression, work is done on the
gas by the environment and heat is released.
Adiabatic process
• In an adiabatic process, the system is
Quasistatic process insulated from the surroundings and heat
absorbed or released is zero.
 It is a process in which a thermodynamic Equation of state for adiabatic process
system proceeds extremely slowly such that • For an adiabatic process of an ideal gas
at every instant of time, the temperature and
pressure are the same in all parts of the
• where γ is the ratio of specific heats at
system.
constant pressure and at constant volume.
Isothermal process
• A process in which the temperature of the
system is kept fixed throughout is called an
isothermal process. • Also
• In such a process, if heat is developed in the
system, it is given out to the surroundings or if
heat is lost, it is taken from the surroundings. or
• Eg: Melting , boiling, the expansion of a gas in
a metallic cylinder placed in a large reservoir
of fixed temperature etc.
Equation of state of isothermal process
Work done in an adiabatic process
• Let an ideal gas undergoes adiabatic charge
from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2).

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HEAT ENGINES
• Heat engines converts’ heat energy into
mechanical energy.
• Heat engine is a device by which a system is
made to undergo a cyclic process that results
• Here k is a constant in conversion of heat to work
• Heat engines consists of :
• Working substance (the system which
undergoes cyclic process) eg: mixture of fuel
vapour and air in diesel engine, steam in
steam engine.
• An external reservoir at a high temperature
(T1) - it is the source of heat.
• An external reservoir at low temperature (T2)
or sink

 That is

• If work is done by the gas in an adiabatic

process (W > 0) then T2 < T1.
• If work is done on the gas (W < 0), we get
Working
T2 > T1 i.e., the temperature of the gas rises.
• The working substances absorbs an energy Q1
Isochoric process
from source reservoir at a temperature T1.
• In an isochoric process, V is constant.
• It undergoes cyclic process and releases heat
• Thus work done on or by the gas is zero.
Q2 to cold reservoir.
• The heat absorbed by the gas goes entirely to
• The change in heat (Q1 - Q2) is converted in
change its internal energy and its
to work (mechanical energy)
temperature.
Efficiency of heat engine(η)
Isobaric process
• The efficiency (η) of a heat engine is defined
• In an isobaric process, P is fixed. Work done by
by
the gas is

• The heat absorbed goes partly to increase

internal energy and partly to do work. • where Q1 is the heat input i.e., the heat
• The change in temperature for a given absorbed by the system in one complete cycle
amount of heat is determined by the specific and W is the work done on the environment in
heat of the gas at constant pressure. a cycle.
Cyclic process • Thus
• In cyclic process, the system returns to its
initial state such that charge internal energy is
zero.
• That is ΔU = 0 for a cyclic process
• Thus the total heat absorbed equals the work
done by the system • In an external combustion engine, say a
• The P - V diagram for cyclic process will be steam engine the system is heated by an
closed loop and area of this loop gives work external furnace.
done or heat absorbed by system. • In an internal combustion engine, it is heated
internally by an exothermic chemical reaction.

*******

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN - KINETIC THEORY

(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS,
Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
• At a temperature T = 300 K, the root mean
KINETIC THEORY OF AN IDEAL GAS
square speed of a molecule in nitrogen gas
 Kinetic theory of gases is a theory, which
is :
is based on the concept of molecular
motion as is able to explain the behavior
of gases. Pressure of an Ideal Gas
Postulates of Kinetic Theory :
 The molecules of a gas are supposed to
be point masses, the size of a molecule
being negligible compared to the distance
between them.
 There is no force of attraction or
repulsion between molecules.
 The molecules are in a state of random
motion, moving with all possible velocities • Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side l.
in all possible directions. • A molecule with velocity (vx, vy, vz ) hits
 During their motion, they collide with one the planar wall parallel to yz plane of area
another and also with the walls of the A (= l2).
container. These collisions are elastic. • The velocity after collision is (-vx, vy, vz ) .
 Between successive collisions, the • The change in momentum of the molecule
molecules move in straight lines with is : –mvx – (mvx) = – 2mvx .
uniform velocity. The distance travelled • By the principle of conservation of
between two successive collisions is called momentum, the momentum imparted to
free path. Average distance between the the wall in the collision = 2mvx .
successive collisions is called mean free • In a small time interval Δt, a molecule with
path x-component of velocity vx will hit the wall
 Time for a collision is negligibly small if it is within the distance vx Δt from the
compared to the time taken to traverse wall.
mean free path. • That is, all molecules within the volume
 The mean KE of the molecule is a Avx Δt only can hit the wall in time Δt.
constant at a given temperature and is • But, on the average, half of these are
proportional to absolute temperature. moving towards the wall and the other
Concept of Pressure. half away from the wall.
 The pressure exerted by a gas may be • Thus the number of molecules with
defined as the total momentum velocity (vx, vy, vz ) hitting the wall in time
imparted to unit area of the walls of the Δt is ½A vx Δt n, where n is the
container per second due to molecular number of molecules per unit volume.
impacts (collisions). • The total momentum transferred to the
Root mean square (rms) velocity of gas wall by these molecules in time Δt is :
molecules.
 rms velocity of gas molecules is the • The force on the wall is the rate of
square root of the mean of the squares of momentum transfer Q/Δt and pressure is
individual velocities of the molecules. force per unit area :
 If c1, c2, …….cn are the velocities of a gas
molecules, then mean square velocity,
• The above equation therefore, stands for
pressure due to the group of molecules
 Hence root mean square velocity with speed vx in the x-direction and n

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stands for the number density of that • For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases,
group of molecules. the total pressure gets contribution from
• The total pressure is obtained by each gas in the mixture.
summing over the contribution due to all • Thus
groups:
• In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy
of the molecules of different gases will be
• Now the gas is isotropic, i.e. there is no equal.
preferred direction of velocity of the • That is,
molecules in the vessel.
• Therefore, by symmetry,

• Thus ******

Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

 We have

• We may write

• where N (= nV) is the number of molecules

in the sample.
• The quantity in the bracket is the average
translational kinetic energy of the
molecules in the gas.
• Since the internal energy E of an ideal gas
is purely kinetic,

• Thus

• But we have

• Thus

• Thus the average kinetic energy of a

molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas; it is independent
of pressure , volume or the nature of the
ideal gas.
Pressure of a Mixture Of Non- reactive Gases

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Chapter : 14 Angular frequency (ω):

OSCILLATIONS 2
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST, GMRHSS , Kasaragod)
• The angular frequency is,  
T
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) • The SI unit of angular frequency is radians
• In SHM the restoring force on the per second.
oscillating body is directly proportional to
its displacement from the mean position, The Simple Pendulum
and is directed opposite to the • A simple pendulum, consists of a particle
displacement. of mass m (called the bob of the
• Eg: small oscillations of simple pendulum, pendulum) suspended from one end of an
swing, loaded spring, etc. unstretchable, massless string of length L
DISPLACEMENT OF SHM fixed at the other end.

 The displacement is given by

x(t )  A cos(t   )

• The forces acting on the bob are:

Displacement – Time graph of SHM • Tension in the string
• Gravitational force.
Expression for time period

.
Amplitude(A):
• It is the magnitude of the maximum
displacement of the oscillating particle
Phase:
• The time varying quantity, (ωt + φ ), is • The string makes an angle θ with the
called the phase of the motion. vertical.
• Phase describes the state of motion at a • We resolve the force Fg into a radial
given time. component Fg cos θ and a tangential
Phase constant (or phase angle): component Fg sin θ.
• The constant φ is called the phase • The radial component of force Fg cos θ, is
constant. cancelled by the tension.
• The value of φ depends on the • The tangential component, Fg sin θ
displacement and velocity of the particle produces a restoring torque .
at t = 0. • The restoring torque τ is    LFg sin 
• Where the negative sign indicates that the
torque acts to reduce θ.
• For rotational motion we have   I

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• where I is the pendulum’s moment of

inertia about the pivot point and α is its
angular acceleration about that point.
• Thus ,  LFg sin   I
• But Fg  mg ,
• Thus  Lmg sin   I
• Or
mgL
  sin 
I
• If θ is small sin    , therefore
mgL
  
I
• That is, the angular acceleration of the
pendulum is proportional to the angular
displacement θ but opposite in sign.
• Thus the motion of a simple pendulum
swinging through small angles is
approximately SHM.
• Comparing equations a(t )   2 x(t )
mgL
and    , we get
I
• The angular frequency

• And Period
I
T  2
mgL
• We have I  mL2
• Thus
L
T  2
g
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN equilibrium positions as the wave passes

WAVES through them.
Travelling or progressive wave • It is a positive quantity, even if the
• A wave which travels from one point of displacement is negative.
the medium to another is called a Phase
travelling wave. • It describes the state of motion as the
wave sweeps through a string element at
a particular position x
• The constant φ is called the initial phase
DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A PROGRESSIVE angle.
WAVE • The value of φ is determined by the initial
• At any time t, the displacement of a wave (t = 0) displacement and velocity of the
travelling in positive x-axis is given by element (say, at x = 0).
Wavelength (λ)
• It is the minimum distance between two
• Where , a- amplitude , k- angular wave consecutive troughs or crests or two
number or propagation constant , ω- consecutive points in the same phase of
angular frequency , φ- initial phase angle wave motion.
and (kx- ωt+ φ) - phase
Plots for a wave travelling in the positive
direction of an x-axis at different values of time
t.

Propagation constant or the angular wave

number (k)
• For t = 0 and φ = 0

• By definition, the displacement y is same at

both ends of this wavelength, that is at x = x1
and at x = x1 + λ.
• Thus

• This condition can be satisfied only when,

• where n = 1, 2, 3... Since λ is defined as the

least distance between points with the
same phase, n =1 and therefore
2
k

• k is called the propagation constant or
• A wave travelling in the negative the angular wave number ; its SI unit is
direction of x-axis can be represented by radian per metre or rad m–1
Period
Amplitude  The period of oscillation T of a wave is
• The amplitude a of a wave is the the time any string element takes to move
magnitude of the maximum through one complete oscillation.
displacement of the elements from their

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(ii) (ii) the tension T.

• The linear mass density, μ, of a string is
the mass m of the string divided by its
length l. therefore its dimension is [ML–1].
Angular Frequency • The tension T has the dimension of force
• The angular frequency of the wave is [M L T–2].
given by • Let the speed v = C μa Tb, where c is a
dimensionless constant.
• Its SI unit is rad s–1. • Taking dimensions on both sides
Frequency [M0L1T-1] = [M1L-1]a[M L T–2]b
• It is the number of oscillations per unit =[Ma+bL-a+bT-2b]
time made by a string element as the  Equating the dimensions on both sides we
wave passes through it get
• The frequency v of a wave is defined as a+b = 0 , therefore a=-b, -a+b = 1,
1/T and is related to the angular therefore 2b=1 or b= ½ and a= - ½
frequency ω by  Thus v = C μ- ½ T ½ , or

 It is usually measured in hertz

 It can be shown that C=1, therefore the
Displacement relation of a longitudinal wave
speed of transverse waves on a stretched
• In a longitudinal wave, the displacement
string is
of an element of the medium is parallel to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
• The displacement function for a
•The speed of a wave along a stretched
longitudinal wave is written as,
ideal string depends only on the tension
and the linear mass density of the string
• where s(x, t) is the displacement of an
and does not depend on the frequency of
element of the medium in the direction of
the wave.
propagation of the wave at position x and
Speed of a Longitudinal Wave - Speed of Sound
time t.
 In a longitudinal wave the constituents of
THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE
the medium oscillate forward and
 The speed of a wave is related to its
backward in the direction of propagation
wavelength and frequency by the relation
of the wave.
 The sound waves travel in the form of
compressions and rarefactions of small
volume elements of air.
 The speed of sound waves depends on
i) Bulk modulus , B and
ii) Density of the medium, ρ
 Using dimensional analysis we may write
v = C Ba ρ b
 The speed is determined by the
 Taking dimensions [M0L1T-1] = [ML-1T-
2 a
properties of the medium. ] [M L-3]b =[Ma+bL-a-3bT-2a]
Speed of a Transverse Wave on Stretched String  Equating the dimensions on both sides we
• The speed of transverse waves on a string get
is determined by two factors, a+b = 0 , therefore a=-b, -2a=-1,
(i) the linear mass density or mass a=1/2 , therefore b=-1/2
per unit length, μ, and  Therefore

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• Therefore, the speed of a longitudinal

wave in an ideal gas is given by,

• where C is a dimensionless constant and

can be shown to be unity. • This relation was first given by Newton
• Thus the speed of longitudinal waves in a and is known as Newton’s formula.
medium is given by, Laplace correction
• According to Newton’s formula for the
speed of sound in a medium, we get for
• The speed of propagation of a the speed of sound in air at STP,
longitudinal wave in a fluid therefore
depends only on the bulk modulus and
the density of the medium. • This is about 15% smaller as compared to
• The bulk modulus is given by the experimental value of 331 m s–1
• Laplace pointed out that the pressure
variations in the propagation of sound
• Here ΔV/V is the fractional change in waves are adiabatic and not isothermal.
volume produced by a change in pressure • For adiabatic processes the ideal gas
ΔP. satisfies the relation,
Speed of sound wave in a material of a bar
 The speed of a longitudinal wave in the
bar is given by,
• Thus for an ideal gas the adiabatic bulk
modulus is given by,
• where Y is the Young’s modulus of the
material of the bar.
Speed of sound in different media • where γ is the ratio of two specific heats,
Cp/Cv.
• The speed of sound is, therefore, given by,

• This modification of Newton’s formula is

referred to as the Laplace correction.
• For air γ = 7/5,therefore the speed of
sound in air at STP, we get a value 331.3
m s–1, which agrees with the measured
speed.
Newton’s Formula
• In the case of an ideal gas, the relation ******
between pressure P and volume V is given
by

• Therefore, for an isothermal change it

follows that

• Thus B=P
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