ENGL 101 Introduction to Academic Discourse

Unit 1
READING (Introduction) …………………..….......... 2
The importance of reading ...............................2
Reading links ...................................................2
Analyzing a reading text ..................................3
Encyclopedia articles .......................................4
Technical descriptions .....................................5

WRITING (Definitions and Technical descriptions)............ 7

Technical descriptions… ................................ 7
Short definitions ..............................................7
Mechanism description ...................................9
Process description.........................................12
Writing tips ....................................................14

REMEDIAL WORK ................................................... 16

Relative clauses in definitions…………… 16

VOCABULARY ........................................................... 19
Academic Word List (AWL) 1…………… 19

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 ENGL 101 Introduction to Academic Discourse

READING: Introduction, Encyclopedia

articles and Technical descriptions
The importance of reading
The ability to read and understand a wide range of academic texts is a crucial skill at
university but a weakness for many students. Reading improves all aspects of English and
increases knowledge, enabling students to better comprehend reading and listening texts
and to formulate ideas for essays or discussions.

It is recommended that outside the classroom, students spend at least 2 to 3 hours per week
reading. This should be divided into:
1. Reading for pleasure / knowledge – across a wide range of topics including science,
technology, current affairs, business, politics, sport etc... Sources include
newspapers, magazines, journals and encyclopedias (e.g. Wikipedia).
2. Reading for exam / test practice – doing past TOEFL, IELTS or KFUPM exams,
under exam conditions (e.g. time limits) to become familiar with the level of texts
and types of questions.

Reading links
The following are lists of suggested websites for reading practice.

Reading for pleasure / Reading for exam / test practice

knowledge
http://www.bbc.com/news/world http://www.ielts-mentor.com/reading-
sample/academic-reading

http://www.arabnews.com/ http://www.testpreppractice.net/IELTS/Reading-
Comprehension-IELTS-Practice-Tests.aspx

http://www.economist.com/ http://researchguides.ben.edu/c.php?g=301171&p
=2174534

https://www.newscientist.com/ http://iteslj.org/links/ESL/Reading/

http://www.nationalgeographic.co Note: A bank of 60 past TOEFL exams (300 texts)

m/ is available on Blackboard. There are many other
websites offering IELTS / TOEFL style reading
http://www.sciencefocus.com/ practice tests.

http://literacynet.org/cnnsf/archiv
es.html

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Analyzing a reading text

When studying a text closely, consider the following points. Note that reading exam questions
often test your ability to understand these elements of a text. Read the article on ‘Encyclopedia
Articles’ and answer the questions below in class.

What is the text about / the main idea?

- Look at the title, sub-title and any pictures, graphs or tables
- Read the introduction. Look for a thesis statement (a sentence showing what the article
is about). Note that in some academic texts this could be in the second paragraph.
- Skim the paragraphs. What are most paragraphs about? The balance of information
often reflects the main purpose of the article.
- Read the conclusion. It should reaffirm your thoughts on the main idea of the article.
- Note that in test conditions, some students prefer to answer these types of questions
last, after reading the text in more detail from answering the other questions.

1. What type of text is it?

- Is the writer just reporting the facts or news, an event or research, or describing the
causes and / or effects of something, providing a comparison or giving an opinion?
- Where would you see this type of text? The topic, length and use of vocabulary should
indicate if it is an article aimed at the average reader (e.g. a newspaper article) or the
more academic reader (e.g. a science journal)
- What tense is used? Does it change? Why?

2. What is the main idea of each paragraph?

- It’s important, especially in test situations, to understand the main idea of each
paragraph. Look for the topic sentence (usually first or second).
- The main idea should be supported with an explanation and/or examples.

3. Does the writer include facts (statistics, dates, people)?

- If so, what do these statistics mean? It’s important to understand them. If graphs or
tables are provided with a text, it’s vital to read and understand them.
- If dates are given, why? They often indicate something important.
- If people are mentioned, why? Are they experts, witnesses or giving an opinion? Again,
it’s important to consider why individuals or organisations are mentioned in a text and
what role they play.

4. Does the writer suggest or imply anything?

- Sometimes a writer suggests something (e.g. an opinion) without saying it directly.
Can you see any examples in the text?

5. Who / what do the pronouns refer to?

- Underline all the pronouns (he, it, this etc.…). What do they refer to? This a common
exam question.

6. Is there any unknown vocabulary?

- Again, underline any unknown / unsure vocabulary. Read the sentences before and after
the word. Does any information help to guess the meaning of the word?

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Encyclopedia articles
Traditionally, an encyclopedia is a book or set of books
containing articles on many different topics, usually
arranged in alphabetical order. An encyclopedia typically
covers all branches of knowledge but it may also
specialize in one particular branch, such as science &
technology, medicine, oceans, transport, biography, and
so on. The most famous is probably Encyclopedia
Britannica (https://www.britannica.com/). Nowadays,
encyclopedias are also commonly found online,
Wikipedia being the most famous.

Encyclopedias are reference tools, often used as the starting point in basic research. They
do not generally cover a topic as deeply as a textbook, nor are they as up to date as a
periodical article. Their main value lies in the wide range of background information they
can provide. Encyclopedia articles typically define topics, classify them, describe them,
exemplify them, and provide a historical perspective.

Because encyclopedias are used as a source of factual information, they have to give clear,
unbiased and unambiguous information. Because they cover a vast range of topics, they
need to be well organized to enable the user to locate the information he needs quickly.

A typical article is well-researched and well-written, often by an expert or team of experts.

It will have an informative title, headings, and sub-headings to aid navigation through it.
In addition, it will contain clear topic sentences at the start of paragraphs; typographical
help such as boldface and italics; lists for easier access to information; a variety of
illustrations; a table of contents at the start and a summary at the end; a list of references
and related articles for further study; and links to related websites.

Online encyclopedia articles will also have most of these features and, in addition, offer
multimedia content such as sound files and videos. Online encyclopedias also have one
further advantage: they can be updated faster than the print versions. However, some online
encyclopedias, including some Wikipedia articles, are not always considered reliable.

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Technical descriptions
Features of technical descriptions are that they are logical, precise and concise or in other
words, explained as simply as possible. Instruction manuals, safety procedures, company
policies and reports are all examples of texts that include technical descriptions. As
mentioned, encyclopedia articles may include elements of technical writing and some
websites are dedicated to describing processes or how things work.

The two most common types of technical description texts describe a mechanism or
machine, or describe a process. Sometimes a text combines both of these elements.

Technical description text

Read the following text.

Laptop
A laptop is a portable personal computer, microphone
and is similar to a desktop computer
speaker monitor
because it incorporates all of the same
elements. Laptops are designed for keyboard
internet use, producing documents,
graphic design, storing files, and mousepad USB
communicating with others.
memory CD Drive
A laptop operates with the use of battery
CPU
power, or can be plugged into an hard drive battery
electrical outlet. It performs typed
commands, and is used to communicate
with others or to produce documents and
designs. Furthermore, laptops have internal software storage capabilities, and some laptops
are enclosed for high performance gaming.

A laptop has several main parts including the monitor, keyboard and the central processing
unit (CPU). The CPU is an electronic circuit that executes commands implied by computer
program instructions and performs all functions entered by the user. The keyboard is a
device that is used to input information, and it can be compared to a typewriter, because it
has letter keys and symbols. Also, these keys transmit electrical signals, which register
inside the keyboard’s circuitry. The monitor is an output device that resembles a television
screen. It transmits commands, and it displays commands in the form of text, images, or
graphics.

Other important parts of a laptop include the mouse-pad which is a small touchpad that is
used to point to objects and to detect two-dimensional motion. The mouse translates the
motion of a person’s hand into the computer by using mechanical sensors. Memory is
stored inside silicone chips built into the computer, and it is used to store large amounts of
information, and to store temporary files or permanent files. The hard disk is the part of the
computer’s disk drive, which stores digitally encoded data, and the USB is a socket on

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the side of the computer, which is used to install or connect additional components. Laptops also
include a microphone, speaker, CD drive and other features such as cameras.

Many different tasks can be accomplished by a laptop because its main function is to
respond to commands that allow it to produce documents, retrieve information or communicate
with others. First, commands are typed into the keyboard, and are executed by the computer
processor; these signals are then transmitted on the computer monitor. In addition, a person can
operate a mouse, and command the laptop to do certain tasks. For example, an individual can
open and close files, or may also choose to design documents with the use of a mouse.

Exercise 1 - Questions
Answer the following questions.

1. What is the purpose of the first paragraph?

2. Why does the writer use the word “portable” in line 1?

3. What is the purpose of the second paragraph?

4. Why does the writer start his description of the parts by describing the CPU?

5. Why doesn’t the writer describe the CD drive in detail?

6. What is the purpose of the fourth paragraph?

7. What grammar is mainly used in the text?

8. What grammar is used in the fourth paragraph? Why?

9. Why does the writer use the words “first” and “then” in the fifth paragraph?

10. Why isn’t there a separate conclusion for this text?

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Writing: Technical descriptions

Technical descriptions

One of the most important forms of communication for both students and employees is
technical writing. Technical writing is a special type of writing, one that requires some
knowledge of a particular major / field and of the terminology (vocabulary) that is used
there. This Unit focuses on the two most common types of technical writing – describing
a process and describing a machine or mechanism.
One of the most common applications of technical writing is description. Writers are
often called on to describe mechanisms, processes, locations, systems, and so on. Very
often, a visual will appear alongside the description. For example, the instruction manual
for a new mobile phone will include a labeled picture of the phone, or a safety process
may be explained with diagrams alongside the description.
There is a great variety of technical writing tasks. In fact, so widespread and so important
is technical writing that many companies employ specialized staff to do the job.
Examples of technical writing include the following:
- You may have to prepare a set of instructions explaining to non-technical colleagues
how to operate a piece of machinery.
- As a manager, you may have to set out the company’s policies, rules and procedures
for employees.
- You may have to write proposals, projects and company reports in your job including
timelines and deadlines.
- You have to explain research methods when devising questionnaires and surveys, and
produce well-researched reports on a variety of topics of interest to a business.
- At university, you will also have to write reports in many majors which will all
include aspects of technical writing.

Starting a technical description with a short definition

One logical method of starting your description is by giving a short definition. A
definition, "the act of stating a precise meaning" (The American Heritage Dictionary),
tells us clearly and precisely what something is. The lack of a needed definition, or the
use of an imprecise definition, can result in a breakdown in communication between
writer and reader. In technical descriptions, it is critical the reader understands what the
main purpose or function of the mechanism or process is before proceeding.

Short Definitions
Definitions can be classified into two principal categories according to their length: short
definitions, consisting of a phrase or sentence, and long definitions that are a paragraph or
more in length. This Unit focuses on short definitions of one sentence as a way to introduce

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our technical descriptions. Sometimes, one or two additional sentences follow a sentence
definition in order to clarify the term.

Sentence definitions

One common type of sentence definition, often referred to as a formal definition, consists
of three elements:

Term Class Specific differences

Gold A valuable, Which is mainly used in jewelry, coins and dentistry or

yellowish metal bought as an investment.

The term is the particular word or expression that needs defining. When defining a process,
the term is the thing that has or undergoes a process, for example gold, coffee, silk, bread
etc… If writing a text on the bread-making process, for example, define “bread” and not
bread-making. When defining a mechanism, we are simply saying what the device or
machine is, for example thermometer, video recorder, drill, ATM and so on.

The class is the category to which this word belongs (e.g. a valuable metal, a natural
material, a staple food, a heat measuring device, a money dispensing machine). We use
adjectives to give detail and clarity to the definition. For example, gold is a valuable metal,
to differentiate it from other metals such as iron, or bread is a staple food to show it is cheap
and common around the world.

Specific differences are those features of the term that make it different from all the other
terms that belong in the same class (e.g. which is mainly used in jewelry, coins and dentistry
or bought as an investment). The specific differences are usually given in a relative clause
or prepositional phrase that follows the class. Relative clauses include words like who
(for people), when (for time) and in technical descriptions of a mechanism or process, which
or that are commonly used.

Study the following sentence definitions. In each case, identify the term, class, and specific
differences.
• Computer hardware can be defined as the machinery and equipment used in
computer applications.
• We can define a carbon footprint as the measure of carbon dioxide which is
produced by a person or organization over a given period of time.
• A paywall is a website feature that allows access only to paying subscribers.

Be as specific as possible when defining. For example, use adjectives to specify the class,
as in the gold example above (“a valuable, yellowish metal”). Also, be sure that the specific
differences really do distinguish the term from other terms in the same class.

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For instance, in the gold example, copper can also be described as “a valuable yellowish
metal” however, unlike gold, it is not used in all the stated purposes.

Avoid imprecise classes, such as "thing" or "object," which are much too general.

Finally, whenever possible, avoid circularity, which occurs when the term and class, or
term and specific differences, are the same. A formal definition such as "A neutral solution
is a solution which is neutral" will not help the reader in any way.

Exercise 1
Identify weaknesses in the following definitions.

1. Bread is a food which people eat everywhere.

2. A geologist is someone who studies geology.
3. We can define a photocopier as a tool for making prints.
4. Inorganic substances that occur naturally in the earth are defined as minerals.
5. A thermometer is a thing for measuring heat.
.
Exercise 2 - Short Definitions
Use your general knowledge to write short definitions of some of the following
terms. Focus on the essential characteristics of the term: the class it belongs
to and the specific differences that distinguish it from other terms in the same
class.

1. coffee 11. tap (faucet)

2. bread 12. pencil
3. bricks 13. video camera
4. steel 14. vacuum cleaner
5. chocolate 15. thermometer
6. solar power 16. flash memory
7. silk 17. ATM
8. water 18. light bulb
9. glass 19. bicycle
10. satellite 20. lighthouse

Mechanism description
Mechanisms include relatively simple items such as a thermometer, ballpoint pen, and
hammer but also more complex devices like a wristwatch, camera, and human eye.
Descriptions can also be general (dealing with aspects typically associated with the
mechanism) or specific (aspects that refer only to a unique, identified mechanism).

Depending on the purpose and the audience, writers should consider the following aspects
when describing a mechanism. Not all these aspects will be relevant in every
description.

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function (the definition)

What is the mechanism used for?
parts
What are its main parts and sub-parts?
What are the functions of each part?
How do the parts fit together for their function?
physical characteristics size (20 cm long;
10cm in width) shape (cylindrical, Y-
shaped) weight (just under 3 grams) colour °F °C
140 60
(white, various)) texture (smooth, rough, 50
120
hard) materials (steel, clay, plastic) 100
40

position (behind, to the left of) analogies 80

30
20
(like a pen; similar in size to a shoebox) 60
10
40
FREEZING 0
20
implications 0
-10
-20
Why does the mechanism have that shape, size, -20 -30

part, etc.? Who uses it? When? Where? Why? -40 -40
-60 -50

(“The handle is 25 cm long so it can be gripped

-60

with both hands.”)

Example: A stethoscope

A stethoscope is a device used by medical doctors to listen to sounds emitted from a

patient’s chest, such as a heartbeat or the sound of air entering the lungs. It basically
works by amplifying these sounds and channeling them into a narrow passage leading
directly to the doctor’s ears.
A typical stethoscope can be divided into three main parts. The chest piece is the part that
makes contact with the patient’s body. It can be compared to a microphone in the way it
picks up sounds. The chest piece consists of two parts: a flat
diaphragm and a hollow, conical cup known as the bell, both of
which are 2.5 cm in diameter. When in contact with the patient, the
diaphragm picks up high-pitched sounds while the bell gathers
lower-pitched sounds. The lower end of the rubber tube, which is
about 50 cm in length, is joined to the chest piece, where it collects
the sounds and transmits them up the tube. The top part of the tube
then divides into two where it meets the metal headset so that the
sounds reach both ears of the listener. Each end of the headset has a
soft rubber tip to exclude unwanted noise and to provide some
comfort for the wearer.

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• Identify the purpose for this description.

• What does the description start with?
• Why has the description been divided into two paragraphs? What is the purpose of
each one?
• Identify the parts of the mechanism.
• What analogy is used in this description?
• Identify physical characteristics (size, shape, materials, texture, etc.).
• Which aspects of physical description have been excluded? Why?
• Which descriptions include implications?
• What grammar is used?

Summary of main points - mechanism description

- Start with a definition. The definition should:
o Clearly state the main purpose / use of the mechanism.
o Follow the correct order – term, class, specific differences.
o The class should be as specific as possible – e.g. An ATM is a
“money dispensing machine” (not “thing”). The specific differences
should differentiate it from similar objects (e.g. pen and pencil).
o Use a relative clause and correct grammar.
- Then, mention the number of main parts and sub-parts.
- Describe as clearly as possible the function / purpose of each main part.
- Summarize the function / purposes of the sub-parts if necessary.
- Describe the size / shape / weight and explain why it has these characteristics.
- No conclusion sentence is necessary.
- Present tenses (active and passive) and the infinitive are mostly used. Use a variety
of grammar and a mix of short and compound or complex sentences.

Exercise 3: Mechanism description

Write technical descriptions of the following mechanisms. Visual aids for all questions are on the internet.

Easy Medium Difficult

1. eraser-tipped pencil 7. thermos 13. lightbulb
2. catapult 8. coffee grinder 14. video camera
3. lighthouse 9. vacuum cleaner 15. bicycle
4. can label 10. tap (faucet) 16. microscope
5. caliper 11. sustainable home
6. thermometer 12. solar pump

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Process description

The second type of technical description is process description. A process can be defined as a
connected series of events with a beginning and an end and which results in a product or a
change of some kind. Processes can be carried out by people (e.g. withdrawing from a
course, making a cup of coffee, topping up a mobile phone), by machines (the function of an
internal combustion engine, the manufacture of a car, the production of paper), or by nature
(the formation of rust, the development of a tsunami, the transmission of sound).
Process descriptions need an introduction sentence and a body, but a conclusion is not always
required. Again, using a definition of the product is a logical way to start the process
description. Note that if describing the process of gold mining, for example, define “gold”
and not “gold mining”. The next sentence should state the number of steps / stages involved
in the process.
In the body, the steps are described in chronological order from the first to the last. Each step
could include some additional explanation or a necessary implication, as is the case with a
mechanism description. We often use signal words (eg. first, next, then, finally) in process
descriptions. It is also common to use the present passive tense although other tenses (eg.
present simple, continuous, the infinitive) are often used.
In most process descriptions, a conclusion is not required so the description can end with the
last step or with a simple statement about the usefulness of the process. However, if the
purpose of the description is to evaluate a process, a conclusion in the form of one or more
recommendations would be appropriate.
Example: Making paper
Paper is a sheet of natural material usually made
Read the description and then answer the questions. from trees which is mainly used to write or draw
on. Papermaking is carried out in a
straightforward process that involves six main
steps. First, a suitable raw material is gathered,
usually wood but recycled paper products such
as newspapers are also used. Next, after the bark
is removed, the material is cut into small chips
roughly one centimeter square. The chips then
undergo the Kraft process to remove resin,
producing a mixture of pulp fibers and residual
chemicals. These are then separated by water
washers. The removed chemicals are recycled in
the Kraft process while the pulp fibers are
processed in a Fourdrinier machine. This
machine uses screen filters to remove dirt and
debris and rollers to squeeze out liquid to
produce a smooth paper which is then dried.
Finally, the paper undergoes finishing, which
can make the paper smoother, softer or water-resistant
resistant according to requirements.

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• What tense has been used? Why?

• Why is the passive used more than the active?
• Identify the transitions between each step.
• Are the sentences mainly simple or complex?
• How much specific detail is used?
• How much technical vocabulary is used?
• Are the introduction and conclusion suitable?

Summary of main points - process description

- Start with a definition. The definition should:
o Define the product / item (not the process). Clearly state the main purpose / uses
of the product.
o Follow the correct order – term, class, specific differences
o The class should be as specific as possible – e.g. a valuable metal (not “thing”).
The specific differences should differentiate it from similar objects (e.g. gold
and copper)
o Use a relative clause and correct grammar.
- Then, mention the number of stages / steps in the process.
- Describe as clearly as possible the purpose of each stage.
- Use signal words (first, then, finally, etc.) to indicate different stages.
- No conclusion sentence is necessary.
- The present passive tense is often used.
- Use a variety of grammar and a mix of short and compound or complex sentences.

Exercise 4: Process description

Write technical descriptions of the following processes.
Visual aids for all questions are on the internet.

1. photosynthesis (easy)
2. water cycle (easy)
3. making bricks (medium)
4. coffee process (medium)
5. glass recycling (medium)
6. hydro-electric power generation (medium)
7. making chocolate (medium)
8. cement and concrete production (difficult)
9. solar power for a house (difficult)
10. pencil production (difficult)

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Writing Tips: Unity, order of information, planning

The purpose of this section of each unit is to draw your attention to certain aspects of good
writing which will help you write better paragraphs and compositions. In Unit 1, these are unity
(the need for a single main idea); the order of information; and finally, the need to make a short
informal plan of your paragraph before you start writing.

Unity
Paragraphs and compositions require unity. When a paragraph has unity, all the supporting
sentences in the body are directly relevant to the single main idea that was announced at the
start of the paragraph in the topic sentence. This is not always easy to achieve, especially when
the topic of the paragraph is complex. Writers sometimes digress unintentionally from their
purpose and include ideas that, although perhaps interesting, are irrelevant. As a result, the
reader finds it increasingly hard to follow the writer's reasoning or to see the writer's point
among all the unnecessary detail that is included. Unity applies to compositions, too. In a
unified composition, every paragraph is relevant to the overall purpose which was stated in the
introduction at the beginning of the composition.

When revising your work, carefully check every supporting sentence in the paragraph for its
relevance to the topic sentence that you wrote at the start. Eliminate any ideas that do not clearly
contribute to the purpose that is stated in the topic sentence.

Planning: rough outlines

While a careful revision of one’s writing can help identify any irrelevant ideas, it is of course
much more efficient to eliminate irrelevant ideas before actually starting to write. Irrelevance
can be eliminated—and the organization of a paragraph or composition can be improved—by
making a rough outline before writing.

An outline is a plan which shows the information that will be used in a paragraph or
composition (the content) and the order of that information (the organization). Writers devise
an outline by analyzing the information which they have gathered from their knowledge (or
from a source), according to their particular purpose in writing. A careful analysis of this
information will show what information should be eliminated for its irrelevance; it will show
gaps where there is insufficient information; and it will show how the relevant information
should be organized.

Planning becomes more essential, and more difficult, as the length and the complexity of the
writing increase. For short, simple pieces of writing—such as the ones (mechanism / process
description) in this unit—a rough outline consisting of a few main points should be enough.
These informal outlines are sometimes referred to as “scratch outlines.” They don’t require a
rigid system of numbering and lettering, as longer, more detailed outlines do—but it is often
helpful to include indentations to distinguish main points from sub-points. Making a rough plan
helps the writer to organize his ideas and to see if he has missed out important information or
included information that is not necessary.

Exercise 1: Rough Outline

Write a rough outline for the ‘easy’ terms on pages 11 and 14.

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Manuscript Form
"Manuscript" is the word used to describe a handwritten or typewritten document such as a
composition or report. A neat, well-formatted manuscript makes a positive impression on the
reader while an untidy one suggests carelessness or a lack of interest in the work. Follow the
guidelines below for first drafts and revisions. (Your instructor may set additional or
alternative guidelines.)

Materials

Use a standard size of lined paper (8 inches x 10.5 inches, or 8.5 inches x 11 inches). It should
be white with widely spaced lines. The margin, at least one inch wide (2.5 cm), should be on
the left side of the paper along with any holes. Do not use colored paper or paper which has
been torn from a note book. If you use a word processor to type the revised draft, use good-
quality, white, A4-sized paper. For the first draft, you may use a pencil or pen (blue or black
ink only). For a revised draft, you should use either a pen or a word processor. If you use a
word processor, use a letter-quality printer, and type using a normal font and font size (such as
12-point or 14-point Times New Roman or Calibri). Your teacher may require online
submissions of revisions rather than hard copies.

Spacing

At the top right of the paper, identify yourself: write your name, ID number, section number,
and section serial number. Your teacher may also require the date (left or right). Always leave
adequate space between the lines so that your instructor can make comments. Thus, for first
drafts or handwritten revisions, write on alternate lines; for word-processed revisions, the
spacing should be 1.5 or double. On lined paper, you should normally write on one side only
but your teacher may require you to write on both sides of the paper.

The teacher will determine if paragraphs should be indented. If he requires indentation, indent
the first line of every paragraph of your composition about two centimetres. If indentations are
not required, leave one blank line between paragraphs. Leave a margin of about one inch all
around your paper, including the top and bottom edges.

Titles

Leave a line before writing the title. Centre it, capitalizing the first and last words, and every
other word except articles, prepositions, coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for), and the
"to" part of the infinitive. Do not underline the title or put quotation marks around it. Leave
two lines below the title before starting the first paragraph.

Handwriting

Handwriting is important. Clear, legible handwriting puts the reader in a positive frame of mind
from the start, and it makes his task much easier. Untidy handwriting reflects badly on the
writer and, in the worst cases, can result in illegible words which hinder the clear
communication of information. When proofreading, pay particular attention to poorly spaced
words and to badly formed letters: o's which look like u's, c's which look like e's, uncrossed t's
which look like l's, and so on.

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REMEDIAL WORK: Relative clauses in definitions

The purpose of this section of every unit is to draw the students’ attention to some common
major errors in their writing. This unit deals with relative clauses in sentence-length definitions;
other units deal with subject-verb agreement, sentence fragments, and run-on sentences.

In this unit, you learnt how to write a formal sentence definition such as “A pentagon is a
geometric shape that has five sides and five angles.” Grammatically, this is a complex sentence
because it consists of an independent clause (A pentagon is a geometric shape) and a dependent
clause (that has five sides and five angles). In the case of a formal definition, the dependent
clause is often a relative clause and so typically contains relative pronouns like that, who,
which, whom, or whose + noun.

Relative clauses often cause students a lot of problems. In this piece of remedial work, we will
look at some common relative clause mistakes. We will focus only on formal sentence
definitions but, of course, relative clauses appear in many other types of sentences.

A. Relative pronouns as SUBJECT

In the examples below, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb in the dependent
clause:
• An anemometer is a device that measures wind speed.
• An astrophysicist is a scientist who applies the laws of physics to the stars and galaxies.
• A canyon can be defined as a steep-sided valley which often has a river running through it.

Three common mistakes occur with this basic structure:

1. omitting the subject relative pronoun completely:

* “An ammeter is a device measures electric current.”

2. adding a second subject to the subject relative pronoun:

* “A pathogen is any agent which it can cause disease in the body.”

3. replacing the subject relative pronoun with a different pronoun:

* “Polythene is a strong light material it is used to make plastic bags.”

Finally, note that the subject relative pronoun can often be omitted completely when the
dependent clause verb is passive. In this case, the be element of the verb must also be
omitted:
“An ammeter is a device which is used to measure electric current.”

A common error in this case is for students not to omit both elements but to keep one of
them:
* “An ammeter is a device which used to measure electric current.”
* “A fax is an electronic message is sent through a telephone line.”

(Note that * denotes an incorrect sentence.)

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B. Relative pronouns as OBJECT

The relative pronoun can also be the object of the verb in the relative clause, for example:
“An ammeter is a device which electricians use to measure electric current.”

In this case, “electricians” is the subject of the verb “use” while “which” is the object.

A common learner error in this construction is to include a second object after the verb. This
is unnecessary because the object already exists (which):
* “An ammeter is an instrument which electricians use it to measure electric current.”
* “Scanners are devices which people use them to transfer images to a computer.”

C. Relative pronoun WHOSE + NOUN:

Finally, the use of whose + noun often gives students problems:

“A solid is a form of matter whose shape is definite and whose volume is incompressible.”
“An equilateral triangle is a geometric shape whose angles and sides are all equal.”

Because “whose” shows possession, learners sometimes incorrectly replace “whose” with
“which” or “who” and a possessive adjective such as “its,” “his,” or “their.” This results in
the following errors:
* “An equilateral triangle is a geometric shape which its angles and sides are all equal.”
* “Marine biologists are scientists who their work involves the study of plants and
animals that live in the oceans.”

Exercise 1: Relative clause errors in sentence definitions

Find and correct the relative clause errors in the following sentence definitions. Be careful: not all sentences are incorrect.

1. Evaporation is a process it changes a liquid into a gas.

2. An element is a substance cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
3. A seismograph can be defined as an instrument which it records seismic waves.
4. We can define pressure as the force which exerted divided by the supporting area.
5. A catalyst is a substance scientists use it to speed up a chemical reaction.
6. Coulombs are units which used to measure the amount of charge in a current.
7. The equator is an imaginary line that circles the surface of the earth halfway between
the two poles.
8. A widow is a woman who her husband has died.
9. A tsunami is an enormous sea wave caused by an earthquake below the ocean bed.
10. A computer-controlled device can sense and respond to changes in the environment is
known as a robot.
11. An evergreen is a tree or bush which its leaves do not fall in winter.
12. A ring tone can be defined as the sound which made by a phone when someone is calling it.

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GLOSSARY of TERMS

NOUN: It can represent a person, thing, place or quality. Examples are man, chair, USA, joy.
Because of the bad weather the family decided to stay in their hotel.

PRONOUN: It stands in place of a noun. Examples are he, it, they, them.
Ali bought several books. He bought them for his computer studies.

RELATIVE PRONOUN: It stands for a noun in a relative clause, eg who, that, which, whose.
A submarine is a ship that can sail underwater.

VERB: It describes an action or state. Examples are run, be, seem, shout, drive.
Ali was already in the Library when his friend arrived.

SENTENCE: A group of words that usually contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete idea.
The plane landed at Heathrow Airport.

CLAUSE: A group of words containing a subject and a verb. It is often only part of a sentence
but may also form a complete sentence..
which measures temperature although nobody wanted it they used it

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: A clause that forms a complete sentence.

He went back to his room. The Moon revolves around the Earth.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE: A clause that does not form a complete sentence. It depends on
another clause, the independent clause.
after the rocket was launched which gives the definitions of words

RELATIVE CLAUSE: A type of dependent clause that usually starts with a relative pronoun.
who lives next door whose father is the head of the company

SUBJECT: Usually a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb and performs the action.
The examiner asked some hard questions. Speeding causes accidents.

OBJECT: Usually a noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
The examiner asked some hard questions. Speeding causes accidents.

ACTIVE SENTENCE: A sentence in which the subject performs the action of the verb.
The mechanic repaired my car. They don’t allow smoking here.

PASSIVE SENTENCE: A sentence in which the subject is the receiver of the verb’s action.
My car was repaired by the mechanic. Smoking is not allowed here.

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 ENGL 101 Introduction to Academic Discourse

VOCABULARY: AWL 1
The ENGL 101 course vocabulary component consists of the first six sub-lists of the Academic
Word List (AWL 1-6). There are 60 words on AWL sub-list 1 (below), many of which students
should already be familiar with. You can find definitions, exercises, and games for these words
on the following websites:
• http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/~alzsh3/acvocab/wordlists.htm#awl
• http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htm
• http://www.englishvocabularyexercises.com/AWL/id21.htm
• http://www.lextutor.ca/cloze/vp/

When studying the words below, students should learn the basic meaning of the words as well
as the different forms of the headword. It will help to compile a vocabulary list with the word
and its various forms placed into a clear context. An example is given below for the first word,
analysis:

analysis (n): the division of a physical or abstract whole into its constituent parts, usually for the purpose of studying it to
determine its nature or composition. (www.dictionary.com)
eg The analysis of the liquid showed that it contained many impurities.
analyse (v): eg The managers analysed the company’s latest sales figures. (also analyzed)
analytic (adj); analytical (adj): eg He has a very analytic mind and realised the problem immediately.
analyst (n): eg They hired an analyst to re-examine all the experimental data.

1. analysis 21. established 41. occur

2. approach 22. estimate 42. percent
3. area 23. evidence 43. period
4. assessment 24. export 44. policy
5. assume 25. factors 45. principle
6. authority 26. financial 46. procedure
7. available 27. formula 47. process
8. benefit 28. function 48. required
9. concept 29. identified 49. research
10. consistent 30. income 50. response
11. constitutional 31. indicate 51. role
12. context 32. individual 52. section
13. contract 33. interpretation 53. sector
14. create 34. involved 54. significant
15. data 35. issues 55. similar
16. definition 36. labour 56. source
17. derived 37. legal 57. specific
18. distribution 38. legislation 58. structure
19. economic 39. major 59. theory
20. environment 40. method 60. variable

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