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Feminisms Matter: Debates, Theories, Activism

Chapter 9: Don’t Men Count, Too? Feminisms and Masculinities

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Before we begin, let’s review: What’s masculinity?

What is masculinity?
• A set of attributes, behaviors, and roles often associated with boys and men
(although there isn’t a biological reason for this)
• A social construct; it is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.
• Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and
historical periods
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What is the stereotypical image of masculinity?
• Constructed as aggressive
• Physically strong
• Dominant
• Authoritative
• Independent
• Detached
• Rational
• Objective
• Reasonable
• Sexually proficient
• These popular ideas about masculinity seem to be fixed and unchanging; they
are constructed in opposition to femininity: to be masculine is NOT to be
feminine
Do all men experience masculinity in the same way?
• Brompley argues that masculinity promises power and privilege, but
male power and privilege is not assured for all men b/c race, ethnicity,
class, sexuality, ability influence men’s position of power and privilege
Why should men be included in feminist theorizing and activism?
• Since feminism is about social justice—the elimination of all forms of
oppressions and exploitations and the realization of gender equality—
women cannot be the sole focus of any feminist movement, which
means men must be involved
o Social justice=
§ Includes equal right and resources for all
§ May include: advocating for women’s rights, gay rights, child
welfare, universal healthcare, right to housing, equal access to
education, and seeks to end racial inequality & income
inequality
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• Men’s experiences of manhood and understandings of masculinity must be

examined
• Feminist men must be welcomed as valuable contributors to ending:
patriarchy, sexism, racism, classism, homophobia, ableism, ageism and
transphobia
Historically, men have already been involved in women’s movement:
• In the 1960s: they were engaged in civil rights, women’s lib, gay and lesbian
lib and peace and anti-war movements
• In the 1970s: many men questioned the consequences and complexities
attached to masculinity, patriarchy, and male privilege
• In the 1980s: there was research on masculinities (specifically the
connection b/w men and feminisms, gay masculinities, ethnic masculinities,
etc.), This exploded in academic spaces; critical thinking about masculinities
took off in men’s movements and lives of men

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Science and masculinity:
• Is testosterone and a penis enough to define a man? Do you have to be born
with a penis to be a man or to know what it’s like to be a man?
• Science has an overwhelming influence on what we know and what we
think about the world. However, science doesn't equal fact. Science takes
facts and adds ideology to the mix to create a particular story
• What is ideology?
o Beliefs, values, myths that guide an individual, social movement,
institution, class or large group
o Is not neutral; it reflects the interests of a particular group (i.e relates to
broader conversations about power)
o Justifies social arrangements
o For example: slavery was justified by the racist ideology that slaves
were inferior. White plantation owners, the church and government
used this ideology for their own self interest (advancing the economy by
receiving free labour by making products, such as cotton)
o The belief or value that “chicken is delicious” is not really ideological
(consider how it doesn’t necessarily justify social arrangements or
reflect power relations)
• People often try to use science to justify ideas about gender
o For example, we often believe the following examples are
scientifically true which is incorrect b/c many scholars argue
that biology doesn’t determine masculinity:




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§ When we hear on TV that men are biologically ‘hard wired’ to

cheat on their partners
§ When we hear that men do better at math
§ When we hear that men don’t ask for directions
§ But keep in mind that the previous examples aren’t rooted
in science or scientific thought
• For example: Emily Martin’s study of human reproduction
o Found that descriptions in scientific textbooks of biological processes
were invested in stereotypical definitions of maleness and femaleness
o These narratives defined sperm as valuable, strong, and aggressive,
and eggs as disposable, passive and vulnerable
o Replicating the ‘hero icon’, in biology textbooks, the sperm is depicted
as saving the ‘damsel in distress’; the egg simply waits for her hero,
the sperm, to make her useful by fertilizing her; otherwise, her value
is lost and she is expelled at the end of the monthly cycle; the
personifying of the egg and sperm is also told in the myth of the
warrior sperm that actively and aggressively swims in enemy
territory to penetrate and capture the passive, lazy egg
o These stories elicit laughter, but they show that scientific texts
reinforce dominant forms of masculinity and femininity
o Emily Martin’s study demonstrates that science is often used to
justify gendered ideas
• So what? We think science is objective, but it reflects the interests of
particular groups

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• Where do we learn how boys and men should act, look and think? In
other words, who and what shapes our understandings about men and
masculinities?
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• According to Bromley, much of what we know about men and
masculinities is learned from:
o 1. Pop culture—for example: sports, video gaming, movies, television,
music (popular culture=the culture of the majority; mainstream forms
of music, art, food, etc)
o These forms of media tell us how boys and men should act, look and
think
o What kinds of models of masculinities provide boys and young
men with a gauge against which to measure their own
masculinities?
§ Professional athletes, entrepreneurs, celebrities, politicians,
soldiers, policemen and criminals are influential


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o 2. Men are important sources for the affirmation or denial of
masculinity; it can be argued that all boys and men, of all ages look for
confirmation of their masculinity from male networks that exclude
women; masculinity is socially constructed by and for men in a
patriarchal society
o Boys and young men are taught what it means to be a ‘real man’
from watching and emulating other men, in their lives and in pop
culture
o Masculine heroes provide norms, rules and scripts for
embodying and performing masculinity and femininity (note:
“performing” gender, which includes masculinity and femininity,
suggests that we act out our gender and that there isn’t anything
natural about it)
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SHOW GILLETTE COMMERCIAL AND HAVE DISCUSSION

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Dominant forms of masculinity in Western culture

• The dominant form of masculinity has endured in Western culture through 4
classic images: the hero, the warrior, the sports star, and the entrepreneur;
these images can be found everywhere, from fairytales and pop culture, to
‘scientific’ accounts of reproduction
• Each of these representations are not achieved by one man
• Some of these characteristics exist in different men and ourselves
• These models of masculinity construct ideals of masculinity that are
reproduced in popular culture’s fictive characters, celebrities and in
real life by boys and men
• These models include “the hero,” “the warrior,” “the sports star” and
the entrepreneur”
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• “The Hero” icon:
o What characteristics would you use to describe a hero?
§ Heroes are: honourable, trustworthy, respected, intelligent,
easily outwitting their opponents; they are skilled with
weapons and with their bodies; they have a strong sex drive,
always rewarded and are respected
o The masculine hero:
§ Requires a feminine counterpart
§ Must have someone to protect and to save
§ The heroine, traditionally, has been protected and saved
§ Examples:
• Robin Hood: his masculinity and heroism are affirmed
in saving Maid Marian and providing for the poor
• Cinderella: a handsome prince saves Cinderella from
her wicked stepmother and stepsisters (Cinderella is
hyper-feminized as weak and dependent)
o Modern incarnations of the hero: found in Hollywood movie
characters such as James Bond, Rocky, Batman, and Captain Jack
Sparrow of the Pirates of the Caribbean movies
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• “The Warrior” icon:
o What characteristics would you use to describe a warrior?
o Warriors are:
§ Strong, invulnerable, aggressive, powerful, threatening and
violent; control of and domination over are central features
§ Protects his territory AND conquers foreign territories, defeats
the enemy, and dominates others
§ Protects women, children and nations



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o The masculine warrior:

§ The classic binary of masculinity/femininity is reproduced
in the protector/protected dichotomy
§ The warrior icon has multiple purposes in affirming men’s
masterful roles in history: the warriors story legitimizes the
processes of conquest (of women, nations and the
environment); colonization (of nations, cultures, resources and
people); and globalization (of markets, technologies, and
cultures).
Note: We previously discussed colonization in earlier lectures. Colonization is the
process of establishing control over indigenous people (people who are native to a
particular part of land) and creates power imbalances between the colonizers (those
who take over) and the colonized (the indigenous groups). Globalization refers to
integration and interaction among people and countries. It also refers to
international travel and organizations, cross border trade, and difficulty separating
cultures, products, technology, information and jobs across national borders
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• “The Sports Hero” icon:
o What characteristics would you use to describe a sports hero?
o Sports heroes are:
§ Athletic, active, skilled, powerful, muscular, successful,
handsome, strong sex drive, rich and famous

o The masculine sports hero:
§ Boys learn about sports early on in life; they are taught to
play hard and to be competitive
§ Sports heroes are idolized, even when they participate in
bad behaviour; they often get away with bad behaviour
• For example: Lawrence Taylor, an NFL player was
charged with rape; NBA star, Kobe Bryant was accused
of rape in 2003 and boxer, Mike Tyson was convicted of
rape in the early 1990s.
o Many boys view sports stardom as the pinnacle of masculinity
o Even if most men never become professional athletes, they are
rewarded by watching, celebrating, and debating about their
favourite teams and athletes—they are rewarded for participating
in ‘acceptable’ masculine activities
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• “Entrepreneur” icon:
o What characteristics would you use to describe an entrepreneur?



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o Entrepreneurs are:
§ Successful, intelligent, hardworking, aggressive and
knowledgeable
§ Is highly competitive, smart, well educated, tough minded,
strategic, risk-taking and a ruthless deal maker
o Is the ultimate provider—why?
§ Since he provides jobs to workers and boosts local and national
economies
o Wields power and accumulates wealth, which he readily displays
in the following ways:
§ Through his designer suits, fast cars, fancy homes and ‘trophy’
wives
o Unearned privilege applies here; think Donald Trump as embodying
this form of masculinity
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The 4 classic images of masculinity that we discussed connect to other
important concepts related to masculinity such as hegemonic masculinity

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Hegemonic Masculinity refers to the dominant model of masculinity (what
most men try to emulate. Note: the word ‘hegemonic’ comes from the word
‘hegemony’ which was theorized by a Marxist named Antonio Gramsci. He used
this word to refer to how dominant ideology (the ideology of the powerful
groups in a society) were enforced and made to seem natural. The dominant
group reinforces its ideology through curriculum at school for children, through
movies, through news, etc., but not through physical force. In other words, a
person would not have a gun to their head by a police officer threatening them if
they didn’t follow the dominant ideology)
• In North America, hegemonic masculinity is defined as: white, middle
class, heterosexual and able bodied
• Linked to behaviours such as: toughness, not being emotional, eating meat
• It is not the most common form of masculinity found in the everyday lives of
boys and men in North America, and many men may not meet this ideal, but
it remains an idealized mythical status
• Hegemonic masculinity isn’t the only model of masculinity, but it continues
to shape gendered orders and hierarchies of masculinities
• Can be linked to patterns of poor health and premature mortality;
o Internalized assumptions about toughness, independence, and
invulnerability can lead to poor diet, drug and alcohol abuse, and not
seeing a doctor on a regular basis
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• Hegemonic Masculinity relates to sexism and gendered language:

o The power of hegemonic masculinity is widespread but it is often
not examined critically, which means that it often results in
invisibility
o Is reflected in language; language is used to ensure that boys and
men perform and embody hegemonic masculinity
§ For example:
• ‘man up’, which challenges boys and men to be tough
and not to act like a ‘pussy’;
• ‘suck it up’, used to encourage boys and men to play
even after a concussion with potentially serious
consequences;
• ‘dude, you throw like a girl,’ attempts to demoralize or
stigmatize a player on a sports team or any other team;
• ‘grow a pair’, which refers to male genitalia and
confirms that ‘real men’ are biological and that biology
dictates strength and toughness
o Men and masculinities are implicated in other common
expressions:
§ Manpower, manager, manning the phones, manmade,
freshman, brotherhood—all have their roots in maleness
o The point is to recognize how language reflects dominant
cultural patterns and frames our experiences
o The absurdity is the unquestioned normalcy of sexism in the
English language. Sexist words feel comfortable to us.
o Consequently, we can begin to recognize how language masks
masculine, white, heterosexual, classed and able bodied privilege

•Connected to notions of hegemonic masculinity: The
Breadwinner/Homemaker Divide
o The iconic image of men as breadwinners who bring home the
money to their homemaker partner has serious gender
implications:
§ 1) It assumes that not only are men the ones who are
responsible for making money, but also that they are charged
with ensuring the family’s economic security
§ 2) The second assumption is that their partnerships are
heterosexual. This scenario quickly falls apart in the context of
multiple and diverse family configurations—blended families,
lesbian and gay families, single-parent families, etc.




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o The breadwinner image tells us that ‘real men’ make money,
have important jobs, are good providers—this picture of
masculinity stands in stark distinction to the reality that most
families face:
§ The necessity of two income earners and an economy that no
longer supports the highly paid professional and unionized
jobs of single income earners
o If men’s capacity to provide is woven into their sense of
masculinity, how do men experience their masculinity when they
lose their jobs?
§ Since men’s masculine identity is intimately tied to their
careers, many men experience not only economic crisis but
also personal crisis when they are unemployed—job loss
commonly results in increased vulnerability
§ In contrast to previous independence, the unemployed may
become dependent on family, friends, or the government to
provide for basic needs
§ Vulnerability and dependence are socially constructed as
feminine characteristics, therefore, when men find themselves
in such predicaments, their masculinity is threatened

o What about when women lose their jobs?
§ Few women, in contrast, interpret their femininity through
their careers.
§ Women’s careers can be an important component of their
identity as individuals, but their jobs are often not a measure of
their femininity.
§ Few women, therefore, would experience job loss as negating
their femininity.
§ Because the feminine is not socially constructed as a
provider, femininity is not threatened by unemployment,
even though many women are the primary providers for
their families.
§ Femininity is affirmed elsewhere –particularly in the home
and in relationships with family and friends
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• Connected to hegemonic masculinity: hypermasculinity:
o Refers to an exaggerated sense of hegemonic masculinity, and the
performance of aggression, virility, and courage
o Has been linked to phenomena such as road rage and street racing




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o Present in everyday situations:

§ Someone hitting on a guy’s date
§ Put downs on the job
§ Gay taunts; in such cases there is a jostling for position within
hierarchies of masculinities by both the attacker and the
target; the responses to the threats take various forms,
depending on the context of the situation and those involved
o Can be linked to high levels of violence and victimization
• Connected to hegemonic masculinity: toxic masculinity:
o Note: many people in non-academic settings use the term ‘toxic
masculinity’ rather than hegemonic masculinity. It can be argued that
they are quiet similar, if not the same
o A theorist named, Connell, argues that a key feature of hegemonic
masculinity is the use of ‘toxic’ practices such as physical violence,
being sexually aggressive and unemotional
o Examples:
§ Idea of male-female interactions a competition, not
cooperation
§ Idea that men cannot truly understand women, and that no
true companionship can be had between different sexes
§ The expectation that ‘real men’ are strong, and that showing
emotion is incompatible with being strong
§ Idea that a ‘real man’ cannot be a victim of abuse, or that
talking about it is shameful
§ Idea that ‘real men’ are always interested in sex
§ The idea that ‘real men’ are prepared to be violent, even when
it isn’t called for (for example: if a man’s girlfriend or wife has
experienced street harassment and he says: ‘If I was there, I
would have punched the harasser!”).
§ The myth that men are not interested in parenting and are
unsuited to be single parents; this discourages men from being
involved in their children’s lives
§ Expectation that pregnancy and motherhood will ruin his
relationship

• Note: not all forms of hypermasculinity or hegemonic masculinity are
automatically toxic

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Slide with different images of hegemonic masculinity

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Now that we know about hegemonic masculinity, hyper masculinity and toxic
masculinity, let’s explore non-hegemonic masculinities…

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o Recap: hegemonic masculinity has to do with:
§ Performing particular behaviours that are socially constructed
as acceptable for men AND
§ Embodying particular identity markers that grant privileges
(unfair advantages), regardless of whether one is born with
these identity markers or not—what is meant by this? (being
born white versus becoming wealthy on one’s own)
o In some cases, forms of non-hegemonic masculinities exist due to
not being born with particular “privileges” (for example:
becoming wealthy or becoming muscular)
o What kinds of identity markers don’t grant “privilege” to men in
Western societies? (or “counter” hegemonic masculinity)?
§ Being poor, a visible minority, disabled, etc.
§ Not all black men, Latino men, Asian men, working class men,
gay men, or men with disabilities will experience the same
kind of oppression or privilege—not all will share the same
understandings of what it means to be a black man, a Latino
man, an Asian man, a working class man, a gay man, a man
with a disability, etc. Therefore, it is overly simplistic to
assume that hegemonic masculinity or non hegemonic
masculinity are single models to which all men subscribe
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o Masculinities, like femininities, are:
§ Informed by intersections of identity markers (race, class,
sexuality, ability)
§ Are performed differently in various contexts
§ Reflect specific cultural experiences
o This means that what counts as hegemonic masculinity or non
hegemonic masculinity can shift and change:
§ Changing economic conditions influence constructions of
masculinity, because the actual jobs that are available to men
in North America, have changed
§ Better paying jobs that are unionized are disappearing, and
work that is located in service industries and is more common
(this includes retail, the fast food sector, call centers,
restaurants, etc).





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o This calls into question what the gendered meanings

surrounding the ‘appropriateness’ of men and women taking on
certain work
§ For men, in service work no longer are the tenets of hegemonic
masculinity acceptable guidelines.
§ Under these circumstances, men’s way of ‘doing masculinity’
must shift; no longer are the rough, tough, independent traits
valued.
§ Service work demands the performance and embodiment of
so-called ‘feminine’ characteristics such as being empathetic,
caring, and docile.
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Bromley discusses 3 different groups of men when exploring non hegemonic
masculinities: Black men, Latino men and gay men. It is important to
understand that not all Black, Latino or gay men embody the same form of
masculinity because of their group association

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• Non-Hegemonic Masculinities: Understanding Race
o The identity markers “black” and “Latino” are often associated
with one’s race; race influences masculinity
o Race is…
§ A socially constructed label that has been used to describe
certain kinds of physical differences between people—
Why is race socially constructed?
• Women’s Studies scholars aren’t saying that people all
have the same skin colours or that physical differences
are made up—
• They are saying that the meanings that are attached to
skin colours/physical differences are socially
constructed
• There are no biological reasons why one race is
considered to be more superior or powerful than
another; this is created to benefit groups in power
§ Genetic differences between racial groups are small and
insignificant:
• Justin Beiber versus Lebron James (could have more
genetically in common that people of their own ‘races’)





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o It’s difficult to neatly distinguish between races:

§ White slave owners raped black female slaves who gave birth
to children of mixed races
§ Racial inter-marriage (Europeans having children with
Indigenous people in the 18th centuries and current examples)
§ It is difficult to say someone is 100% Black or 100% white
o Racial divisions are social constructs, not biological givens:
§ Jewish people regarded as black by many people in the past
§ Southern Italians from Sicily and Calabria are currently
thought of as Black by many northern Italians
§ Arbitrary distinctions made between Chinese allies and
Japanese enemies during World War 2 to justify the Canadian
policy of placing Japanese Canadians into internment camps

o In a nut shell: race often refers to a person’s physical
characteristics (for example: skin, hair, etc.), and ethnicity often
refers to a person’s cultural markers (for example: food,
language, religion, customs, etc). A person’s ethnicity can be
flexible. For example: a person may identify as Japanese in one
context, may identify as Canadian in another context or identify
as French in another context. All examples illustrate a person’s
ethnicity and how it can be flexible

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o According to Bromley:
o Black men:
• Black men often appear to conform to aspects of
hegemonic masculinity
• However, in qualitative studies, many described
their ideas of manhood as contrasting with both
hegemonic masculinity AND racist stereotypes
placed on Black men—what did these studies
reveal?
o Black men in these studies noted that family,
community, and spirituality shaped their sense
of masculinity and that self respect,
resourcefulness, direction, taking responsibility,
good parenting, providing for family and
demonstrating kindness were important.
o This contrasts with racist stereotypes of
black men as: violent, uncivilized, uneducated
criminals and deadbeat dads.


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§ Racism affects how black men can experience their

masculinity—how? In what ways?
• Young, urban, black men are commonly labeled as
‘gangsters’ and ‘players’
• These images depict the supposed criminality of back
men
• While individual black men are not necessarily viewed
in these ways, because of racism, black men, as a group,
are often homogenized by racist stereotypes
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o Latino men:
§ Stereotypically, Latino men’s masculinity is socially
constructed as macho; to be a Latin man is to perform and
embody machismo—what does ‘macho’ or ‘machismo’
mean?
• Aggressive, strong, dominant and virile
• It parallels the definition of hegemonic masculinity,
except for the white part
• Is represented in the Latino characters portrayed by
Hollywood and on TV; often depicted as outlaws, drug
dealers, who degrade and violate women, and recklessly
abuse drugs and alcohol—many Latino men do not
conform to these stereotypes
§ Caballerismo provides a counterbalance to
representations of machismo—what does it emphasize?
• It emphasizes the social construction of Latino
masculinity as embracing honour, dignity, respect for
others, caring, and family
§ What does the term “guido” mean? Why is this a
problematic term?
• Guido is a racist term used to depict Italian men as
working class, crass, uneducated, and unintelligent.
• It has been re-popularized by the MTV reality series
“Jersey Shore”, which adds hyper-sexualization to the
stereotype
§ Research shows that when asked to define their manhood,
Latino men often do in positive and counter-hegemonic
ways, yet racialization based on light or dark skin tones can
influence understandings of themselves as men
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o Homosexual men:
§ Homosexuality is often seen as a threat to both
masculinity and heterosexuality
§ Homophobia, the fear and hatred of homosexual men,
constructs homosexuality as incompatible with
masculinity
• In other words, Kimmel (1997) argues that to be a
‘real man’ in North America, means being
heterosexual
§ In North America, while men who have sex with other men
experience oppression, they also experience some
advantages of male privilege (they can have an advantage
over women)
§ Historically, research has focused on the origins of
homosexuality, rather than gender relations and power;
homosexuality has been medicalized as a disease, analyzed as
deviant from ‘normality’ and constructed as a lifestyle or
culture which scripts sexual performances. Research along
these lines has ignores understandings of masculinity and how
they are not formed in isolation
§ Gay men understand their manhood as shaped by
gendered stereotypes of masculinity and femininity.
§ Some gay men may feel forced to perform aspects of
hegemonic masculinity, even when it feels uncomfortable

§ Findings from Sanchez (2009):
• Among gay men, stereotypically masculine attributes
were described as being unemotional, controlling, and
good under pressure as well as being interested in
sports, cars, and outdoor activities.
• Some gay men in Sanchez’s (2009) study added the
ability to ‘pass’ or act straight, as part of the definition
of masculinity.
• Some gay men added that being comfortable and secure
with one’s sexuality was an important indicator of
masculinity.
*****

Lastly, let’s explore men ‘doing’ feminisms…

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• Men ‘doing’ feminisms

o There are connections between feminism and masculinity:
§ Feminisms have influenced the ways in which we understand
the complexities of masculinities
§ Many men embrace feminism as a vehicle for social change, not
just to support women but also in recognition that feminism
benefits men, too
§ Feminism provides men with a lens to see hegemonic
masculinity as unattainable and problematic—how?
• Allows men to break free from male breadwinner model
• To be more expressive when it comes to their emotions,
• To stop participating in the struggle to be a ‘real man’
o There is some debate about whether men can be feminists, or
whether they need to qualify their status as male feminists or
pro-feminist men; this is a debate over labeling
o Doing feminism affects every part of one’s life—at home, at work, and
in the community—so men who embrace feminism are allies in the
struggle to end oppression
o Men have been excellent allies and activists in the fights to end
violence against women, homophobic violence, and racist violence.
Women’s movement activists cannot be naïve in thinking that social
change will happen without men’s full participation
o Men have a role to play in ending violence against women
§ Violence against women is often committed by men
§ Kaufman (2008):
• Argues that men hold a lot of power –over social
discourse, political policies, jurisprudence and
policing—and in large part, have been silent about
violence against women, which has allowed it to
continue unchecked
§ A challenge to Kaufman is the White Ribbon Campaign—
what is this?:
• Originated in Canada in 1991 when a group of men
decided to take responsibility in urging men to speak
out against violence against women
• The wearing of a white ribbon symbolizes the pledge to
never commit or condone violence against women.
• Some feminist activists are concerned that men’s voices
and men’s groups could be heard the most, which could
result in the funneling of funds away from supporting
feminist frontline supports for women and children
who are victimized from violence