Electric Vehicles Standards Charging Inf

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 120 (2020) 109618
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Electric vehicles standards, charging infrastructure, and impact on grid

integration: A technological review
H.S. Das a, *, M.M. Rahman b, S. Li a, C.W. Tan c
a
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 35401, USA
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, 12372, Saudi Arabia
c
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, 81310, Malaysia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Transportation electrification is one of the main research areas for the past decade. Electric vehicles (EVs) are
Electric vehicle taking over the market share of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. The increasing popularity of
Standards EVs results in higher number of charging stations, which have significant effects on the electricity grid. Different
Charging infrastructure
charging strat2egies, as well as grid integration methods, are being developed to minimize the adverse effects of
Grid integration
Energy internet
EV charging and to strengthen the benefits of EV grid integration. In this paper, a comprehensive review of the
current situation of the EV market, standards, charging infrastructure, and the impact of EV charging on the grid
is presented. The paper introduces the current EV status, and provides a comprehensive review on important
international EV charging and grid interconnection standards. Different infrastructure configurations in terms of
control and communication architectures for EV charging are studied and evaluated. The electric power market
is studied by considering the participation roles of EV aggregators and individual EV owners, and different
optimization and game based algorithms for EV grid integration management are reviewed. The paper specially
presents an evaluation on how the future EV development, such as connected vehicles, autonomous driving, and
shared mobility, would affect EV grid integration as well as the development of the power grid moves toward
future energy Internet and how EVs would affect and benefit the development of the future energy Internet.
Finally, the challenges and suggestions for the future development of the EV charging and grid integration
infrastructure are evaluated and summarized.
infrastructures, associated peripherals and user-friendly software [6].

Enormous researchers are working in these areas worldwide. However, a
1. Introduction
good summary of the progress of EV charging infrastructure and the
impact of EV charging on the grid is important for the expansion of the
The conventional transportation system that incorporates an internal
EV market. Several authors summarized charging infrastructure of EVs
combustion engine (ICE) is the major contributor to air pollution [1]. To
[7–9], integration of EVs in smart grid [10,11], impact of the vehicle to
reduce air pollution and oil dependence in the transportation sector,
grid (V2G) technology [12–14], EV and smart grid interaction [15,16] in
there has been an increased overall market adoption of electric vehicles
different publications. However, those reports are quite outdated now
(EVs) in recent years. EVs use batteries, ultracapacitors, and fuel cells as
due to the rapid progress of this field in recent years.
energy sources, which have no dependency on fossil fuel and no polluted
In this paper, an overview of the current EV market is presented in
gas emission. Depending on the EV type, one or multiple of these sources
Section 2. The EV standards, which include the charging standards, grid
can be used in an EV. The structure and configuration of EVs have
integration standards, and safety standards, are evaluated in Section 3.
already been summarized in several articles [2–4]. To make EVs
The EV charging infrastructure, including the power, control and
competitive in the market, a number of challenges need to resolve, such
communication infrastructure, is presented in Section 4. In Section 5,
as battery cost, efficient charging strategies, interoperability of the
the impacts of EV integration on different aspects of power systems are
charging stations, and the impact of EV integration to the grid [5].
elaborated, and the EV grid integration techniques are summarized.
Moreover, successful growth of EVs over the next decade relies on the
Lastly, challenges and suggestions for the development of future EV
development of international standards and codes, universal
* Corresponding author.,
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H.S. Das), [email protected] (M.M. Rahman), [email protected] (S. Li), [email protected] (C.W. Tan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109618
Received 18 February 2019; Received in revised form 9 November 2019; Accepted 20 November 2019
Available online 30 November 2019
1364-0321/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 120 (2020) 109618
List of abbreviations HEV Hybrid electric vehicle

HBPA-PSO Heuristics & proportion-based assignment
AC Alternative current IAN Industrial area network
AEV All-electric vehicles IEA International Energy Agency
BAN Building area network ICE Internal Combustion Engine
BEV Battery electric vehicle ICEV Internal combustion engine vehicle
BTU British thermal unit ISO International Organization for Standardization
CAA Canadian Automobile Association IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
CHP Combined Heat and Power JEVA Japan Electric Vehicle association
CPM Charging point manager LSE Load serving entity
DC Direct Current mild-HEV Mild hybrid electric vehicle
DCFC Direct Current Fast Charging MPG Miles per gallon
DER Distributed Energy Resource MPGe Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
DIN Deutsches Institut fuer Normung NAN Neighborhood area network
DP Dynamic programming NN Neural network
DSL Digital subscriber line NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
DSP Digital Signal Processing NFPA National Fire Protection Association
DSO Distribution system operators NEC National Electric Code
EI Energy internet NLP Nonlinear programming
EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration OACS On-line adaptive EV charging scheduling
EDV Electric Drive Vehicle ORCHARD Online coordinated charging decision
EM Electric motor PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
EMI Electromagnetic interference PI Proportional integral
EREV Extended range full-HEV PID Proportional integral derivative
ESS Energy Storage System PLC Data communication over power line
EV Electric vehicle plug-in HEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
EVGI Electric vehicle grid integration PSO Particle swarm optimization
EVSA EV supplier-aggregator PWM Pulse Width Modulation
FAN Field area network RESS Rechargeable Energy Storage System
FC Fuel cell SOC State of the charge
FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle SA Supplier agent
FCHEV Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
FES Flywheel energy system SPDS Shrunken primal-dual subgradient
FLC Fuzzy logic controller TSO Transmission system operators
full-HEV Full hybrid electric vehicle UC Ultracapacitor
G2V Grid to vehicle UL Underwriters’ Laboratories
GA Genetic algorithm V2B Vehicle to building
GENCO Generator companies V2G Vehicle to grid
GHG Green House Gases V2V Vehicle to vehicle
HAN Home area network WPT Wireless power transfer
HESS Hybrid energy storage system
charging and grid integration infrastructure are presented, and the does not require an external charging system. However, a BEV relies
contribution of EVs to the development of the energy internet is only on external power from the grid for charging the storage unit. A
discussed. plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) is one type of HEVs with an option to recharge
its battery from the grid. In this study, BEVs and PHEVs are together
2. Current status of electric vehicle technology named as EVs. Fig. 1 describes the classification of different types of EVs,
and the power flow from the energy source to wheels is explained in
The story of EVs started long ago before ICE vehicles were intro Fig. 2.
duced. After several vicissitudes, however, only a small portion of the In Table 1, the technical specifications of commercially available EVs
automobile market was occupied by EVs before. The modern EV tech released by different manufacturers are presented [19–34]. The
nologies are comparatively new, and EVs are now gaining popularity approximate charging time required to charge the vehicle from 0% to at
due to several advantages, such as zero emission, no dependency on least 80% in different charging standards are also shown in the table.
fossil fuel, efficient, relatively silent, and so on. Research on EVs has Here, Level 1 corresponds to the charging voltage of 110–120 V, Level 2
been focused on increasing vehicle range and efficiency, reducing the is of 220–240 V and Level 3 or DC fast charging (DCFC) is of 200–800 V.
price as well as developing methods for an efficient charging system. It can be noticed that the range of an EV based on battery drive is about
100 km for most of the vehicles, and several models have the
2.1. Electric vehicle status battery-drive ranges around 200 km–400 km.
EVs can be divided into two main categories: hybrid electric vehicles 2.2. Current and future electric vehicle market
(HEVs) and all-electric vehicles (AEVs) [17,18]. AEVs are equipped with
only electric motors powered by electrical sources. AEVs can be further Recent reports show that the number of EVs have reached 3 million
classified into Battery EVs (BEVs) and Fuel Cell EVs (FCEVs). A FCEV thresholds in the year 2017 whereas ten years before there were only
2
Fig. 1. The classification of EVs [2].
Fig. 2. Power flow in different types of EVs (a) PHEV, (b) BEV.
hundreds of them on the road (Fig. 3) [35]. The list of countries leading 2.3. Progress on EV charging and grid integration
the sales of EVs in 2018 is shown in Fig. 4 [36]. Despite numerous ad
vantages of EVs, only a handful of countries are participating in the Growing EV market results in a large number of EV charging stations,
global EV market. The primary reasons are the high cost and production which are the medium for EV grid integration (EVGI). The implemented
number being limited. To overcome this issue, most of the vehicle charging stations can be classified into residential and non-residential
manufacturers have set a production target (Table 2) [28,37]. The En types, and can facilitate slow charging (level 1 and level 2) as well as
ergy Outlook predicts that about 100 million EVs will be on the road fast charging (level 3 and DC) [41]. The significant portion of EV
worldwide by 2035 [38,39]. According to International Energy Agency charging is residential charging with slow charging ports, however, the
(IEA), the target of EV production is set to 548 million by 2040 [37]. future charging stations are planned to be built up at commercial places
to facilitate them as EV refueling stations which will have all types of
3
Table 1
Popular commercially available EV and EDV (electric drive vehicle) specifications.
Vehicle model Manufacturer model Year Type Battery Capacity (kWh) Range (km) Charging Time (0%–80%) (h)
Level 1 Level 2 DCFC
Prius prime [19] Toyota 2018 PHEV 8.8 40 (battery) 5.5 2.1 –
Leaf [20] Nissan 2018 BEV 40 243 35 7.5 0.5
Volt [21] Chevrolet 2018 PHEV 18.4 85 (battery) 13 4.5 0.33
Bolt [22] 2019 BEV 60 383 – 9.3 1.33
Spark [23] 2016 BEV 19 132 – 7 0.75
Fit [24] Honda 2014 BEV 20 132 15 3 –
Clarity [25] 2018 PHEV 25.5 75 (battery) 12 2.5 –
Model S [26] Tesla 2018 BEV 100 506 96.7 10.7 1.33
Model X [27] 2018 BEV 100 465 89 9.5 1.33
Model 3 [28] 2017 BEV 50 354 – 12 52/60
Kia Soul [29] Kia 2018 BEV 30 177 24 4.8 0.75
Focus [30] Ford 2016 BEV 23 161 20 3.5 0.5
i-MiEV [31] Mitsubishi 2017 BEV 16 180 22 6 0.5
e-Golf [28] Volkswagen 2017 BEV 35.8 201 – 6 1
E-Up [19] 2018 BEV 20 159 – 9 0.5
Zoe [31] Renault 2017 BEV 41 400 16 4.5 2.67
Twizy [32] 2017 BEV 6.1 100 – 3 –
i3 [22] BMW 2018 BEV and PHEV 33 183 (battery) 13–16 5 0.5
Fig. 3. Evolution of global EV stock.
charging ports [42]. Several commercial charging stations have already standards, which oversee different aspects of EVs. From the table, the
been established which have fast charging points and can charge an EV standardization related to EV charging can be segregated into three
within an hour [43]. For example, until 2018, Tesla has established total areas: EV charging component standards, EVGI standards, and safety
1431 supercharger stations in all over the world from which 694 are in standards. Among EV charging component standardization organiza
North America, 442 in Europe and 294 in Asia Pacific region [44]. The tions, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) works on
Canadian Automobile Association (CAA) has declared that with the standardizing EVs as a whole, and the others work on component level
co-operation of another charging infrastructure company Charge Hub, specification.
7906 charging stations have been established in major cities of Canada The grid integration standards handle EV charging/discharging with
[45]. This number includes both fast and slow charging stations. the grid. During charging/discharging from the grid, EVs act like a
Moreover, bidirectional charging stations are being built up which can distributed energy resource (DER). Thus, the grid interconnection
help the power system to compensate power deficiency during the peak standards of DERs also apply on EVGI. There are two major players in
operation periods [46,47]. More discussions about the charging infra grid interconnection standards, namely The Institute of Electrical and
structure are presented in the following sections. Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL).
The safety standards for EV charging and grid integration are defined
3. Standards for EV charging and grid integration by most of the abovementioned organizations. However, organizations
like The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and National
The evolution of EVs has created new dimensions in transportation Electric Code (NEC) work on safety measures mainly. The standards and
and electric power industry. To operate this new technology uniformly codes established by these organizations are elaborated in the sub
all over the globe, it is essential to standardize every aspect of it. Table 3 sections below.
describes the worldwide regulatory bodies and their established
4
Fig. 4. EV sales market share in 2018.
3.1.1.1. IEC61851. IEC61851 covers overall standard operation for EV

Table 2
conductive charging systems and applies to onboard and off-board
Vehicle manufacturers’ announcements on EV target [28,37,40].
equipment for charging EVs/PHEVs with supply voltages up to 1000 V
OEM Announcement AC and 1500 V DC [57]. There are a few important sections regarding
BMW 0.1 M EV sales in 2017 and 15–25% of the BMW group’s sales by IEC61851 which are summarized in Table 5.
2025.
Chevrolet 30,000 EV sales by 2017.
3.1.1.2. IEC 61980. IEC 61980 provides a standard for WPT system and
Chinese OEMs 4.52 M EV sales by 2020.
Daimler 0.1 M EV sales by 2020. is applicable for a supply voltage up to 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC. This
(smart) 15–25% of sales should be EVs by 2025. standard also applies to the WPT system supplied by the on-site storage
Ford 13 new EV models by 2020. systems.
Honda Two-thirds of the sales to be electric drive vehicles by 2030.
Renault-Nissan 1.5 M cumulative sales of EVs by 2020.
30% of yearly sales should be EVs by 2022. 3.1.1.3. IEC62196. IEC62196 provides a standard for plugs, socket-
Tesla 0.5 M annual EV sales by 2018. outlets, vehicle connectors, and vehicle inlets that are used for
25% of total sales would be electric by 2025. conductive charging of EVs [57]. A few important sections in IEC62196
Volkswagen 2–3 M annual EV sales by 2025.
are summarized in Table 6.
Volvo 1 M aggregate sales and 50% of total sales would be electric by
2025.
Audi 50% of new sales would be EV by 2025. 3.1.2. SAE standards
Porsche 50% of new sales would be EV by 2023. The SAE is a U.S. based professional association, which develops
Toyota 1 million EV sales per year by 2030. standards for engineering bodies in different industries.
3.1. Electric Vehicle Charging standards 3.1.2.1. SAEJ2293. SAEJ2293 establishes the requirement of on and
off-board charging equipment. This standard has two sections: J2293-1
There are several standards available worldwide which deal with EV discusses the power requirements and system architecture for three
charging infrastructure. SAE and IEEE are used in U.S.A. based manu operating conditions (conductive AC, conductive DC and inductive
facturers whereas IEC is vastly used in Europe. Japan has their own EV charging), and J2293-2 discusses the communication requirement and
charging standards named CHAdeMO. China uses Guobiao (GB/T) network architecture for EV charging [58,59].
standard (issued by the Standardization Administration of China and
Chinese National Committee of ISO and IEC) for AC and DC charging, 3.1.2.2. SAEJ1772. SAEJ1772 discusses all the equipment ratings for
where GB/T AC charging standards are similar to IEC standards. The IEC EV charging including circuit breaker current rating, charging voltage
and SAE standards that deal with EV charging are discussed here in rating and so on [60]. The standard is defined for both AC and DC where
detail, because these two are widely used standards. Table 4 shows a each of them has 3 levels [7] (Table 4). Most vehicles are being designed
summary of the voltage and current levels of IEC and SAE standards. It to accept a Level 2 AC onboard charging at less than 30 A. SAE DC level
can be seen that IEC61851 and SAE J1772 have almost the same re refers to DC charging and brings a very high speed of charging. The
quirements except for the use of terms. In SAE, level of power called actual charging rate is limited by battery chemistry, infrastructure, and
‘level,’ whereas in IEC ‘mode’ is used to determine the level of power. some other factors though.
3.1.1. IEC standards 3.1.2.3. SAEJ1773. This standard specifies the minimum requirements
The IEC is a British standardization organization, which develops of inductively coupled charging scheme for EVs [61]. SAEJ1773 estab
standards for electrical, electronic, and other related technologies. lishes explicitly the requirement for manually connected inductive
charging systems and elaborates the requirements of software interface
5
Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Regulatory organizations and standards associated with EV [36,40,48–56]. Organization Standards Detail
Organization Standards Detail
Supplement draft of UL 1741,
International Electro-technical TC21 Standard for all secondary cells defining safety requirements of
Commission (IEC, Britain) and batteries regarding inverters for grid stability
[40] dimension, performance safety, UL62109 Safety requirements of inverters
testing, installation & used in grid connected
maintenance. photovoltaic systems.
TC22 Standard for power electronic NFPA [54] 70 Safety standards for grid
systems, equipment and their integration of DERs.
component design, control, 70B Contains safety measures for
protection, monitoring and electrical equipment
measurement. maintenance.
TC64 Standards for installation and 70E The electrical safety standards in
coordination of equipment for workplace.
protection against electric shock NEC [55] 625 Standard for off board charging
due to equipment installation system, such as conductors,
error and high voltage supply. connecting plugs and inductive
TC69 for different types of EDVs charging devices.
IEC61851 Standards related to general 626 Requirements for parking lots for
charging requirements electrified trucks, including
IEC61980 Standards for wireless power conductors and other equipment
transfer (WPT) for EVs. used to charge the trucks.
IEC62196 Standards for plugs, sockets, and Deutsches Institut fuer 43538 Specifications of battery systems.
connectors for EV conductive Normung (DIN, Germany) EN50620 Charging cable specifications.
charging. [56] VDE0510- Specification and testing
Society of Automotive J2293 EV and off board EV Supply 11 procedure of Li-ion batteries
Engineers (SAE, United Equipment requirements for Standardization GB/T 20234 Standards for plugs, sockets, and
States) [50] charging from utility grid. Administration of China GB/T connectors for EV conductive
J1772 Standard for conductive (SAC) [36] 20234.1- charging.
charging. 2015
J1773 Standard for contactless GB/T
charging. 20234.2-
J2847 Communication standard 2015
between EV and utility grid, and GB/T
off board DC charger. 20234.3-
J2836 Provides use cases for analog and 2015
digital communication between GB/T EV conductive charging –
EV and utility grid. 18487.1- General Requirements.
J2931 Standard for digital 2015
communication between EV and GB/T Standards of EV requirements for
utility grid. 18487.2- conductive connection to AC/DC
J2954 WPT for EVs. 2001 supply.
J2894 Power quality requirements and GB/T EMC requirements for off-board
testing procedure for EVs. 18487.2- EVSE
J1766, Safety requirements for charging. 2017
J2344, GB/T AC/DC EV charging station
J2578 18487.3- standards.
Japan Electric Vehicle C601 Standard for charging plugs and 2001
Association (JEVA, Japan) & receptacles. GB/T Interoperability test
CHAdeMo Association [51] D001-002 Standardizes the battery 34657.1- specifications for supply
characteristics for EV. 2017 equipments for EV conductive
D701-709 Instruction for battery testing. charging
G101-105 Quick charging standards GB/T Interoperability test
G106-109 Contactless charging standards 34657.2- specifications for EVs for
IEEE [52] P1547 Standards of different aspects of 2017 conductive charging
grid connection of DERs GB/T Communication protocols
P2100.1 WPT and charging system 27930-2015 standard for off board chargers
standardization. GB/T and BMS
P2030 Standard for addressing the 34658-2017
interoperability of smart grid QC/T 895- On board conductive charger
P2030.1 Draft for electrified 2011 standards for EVs
transportation infrastructure. GB/T EV charging/battery swap
UL [53] UL2231 Requirements for protection 37293-2019 infrastructure specifications
devices for EV charging circuits. GB/T
UL2251 Requirement for charging plugs, 37295-2019
receptacles and couplers GB/T
UL2202 Requirements for charging 31525-2015
system equipment. GB/T Technical specification for EV
UL2594 Requirements for EV supply 36278-2018 charging/battery swap
equipment. infrastructure for distribution
UL1741 Specifications for inverter, network interconnection.
converter, charge controller and GB/T EV decentralized charging
output controllers used in power 51313-2018 facility standard.
system GB/T Charging cable specifications for
UL1741 SA 33594-2017 EVs.
GB 50966- EV charging station design
2014 specification.
6
Table 4 charging, the specifications set by SAEJ2931 must be satisfied [62].

Summary of voltage and current levels in IEC62196, IEC61851 and SAEJ1772 There are several subsections of this standard summarized in Table 8.
standards.
Standards Source Mode/Level Voltage (V) Phase Max Current (A) 3.1.2.6. SAEJ2954 & SAEJ2954 recommended practice (RP). This stan
IEC62196 AC Mode 1 120 Single 16 dard is the world’s first WPT specification for EVs. The SAEJ2954
Mode 2 240 Single 32 specifies wireless charging up to level 2 (7.7 kW) but recently published
Mode 3 250 Single 32–250 RP version declared up to level 3 (11 kW). The updated version also
DC Mode 4 600 DC 400 provides a standardized testbed for performance measurement and
IEC61851 AC Mode 1 120 Single 16
Mode 2 240 Single 80
validation of new products from EV manufacturers and infrastructure
DC Mode 4 200–450 DC 80 companies. This standard also includes driving assistance for seamless
SAEJ1772 AC Level 1 120 Single 16 EV parking, payment establishment and autonomous charging [63].
Level 2 240 Single 32–80
DC Level 1 200–450 DC 80
Level 2 200–450 DC 200 3.2. Electric vehicle grid integration standards
Three standards and codes are available: IEEE1547, UL1741 and

Table 5 NFPA70 [49–51]. The important aspects of all these standards and codes
Sections in IEC61851 [7]. are presented below.
Section Explanation
3.2.1. IEEE1547
IEC61851-1 - Standard for cable and plug setups to charge EVs IEEE1547 is known as “Standards for interconnecting distributed
Case A: The cable is permanently attached to the EV
resources with electric power systems.” It is applicable for all DER
Case B: The cable is not permanently attached to anything
Case C: The cable permanently attached to the charging station technologies with a collective capacity of 10MVA or less at the PCC,
IEC61851- - On board charger EMC requirements for conductive charging. covers requirements relevant to the performance, operation, testing,
21-1 safety considerations and maintenance for interconnection of DERs, and
IEC61851- - Off board charger EMC requirements for conductive charging.
emphasizes on the installation of DERs on primary and secondary
21-2
IEC61851-23 - Requirements for DC fast charging stations network distribution systems [64]. Table 9 summarizes the major focus
IEC61851-24 - Digital communication for DC charging control between charging points of IEEE1547.
controller in EV and EV supply equipment
3.2.2. UL standards
UL published several standards to cover different aspects of grid
Table 6 integration of DERs. Among them, the most significant standard is UL
Sections in IEC62196 [7]. 1741, which discusses the power conversion equipment and their pro
Section Explanation
tection device specifications applicable for grid integration of DERs. The
other standards are UL 62109, UL 62109-1 and UL 62109-2 and UL 1741
IEC62196- - Contains general requirements such as plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle
SA. All these standards and their attributes are summarized in Table 10.
1 couplers and vehicle inlets for EV connectors
IEC62196- - Standardizes three types of mains connecting systems which are
2 known as type 1, 2 and 3 to modes 1, 2 and 3 3.3. Safety standards for EV
IEC62196- - Defines connectors and inlets for fast DC charging
3
The safety measure is a mandatory part for EV charging and grid
integration. Although most of the standardization organizations have
for inductive charging. safety standards, NFPA and NEC focus particularly on safety and secu
rity. The codes concerned to the EV charging and grid integration
3.1.2.4. SAEJ2847 & SAEJ2836. These two standards along with defined by these two organizations are elaborated below.
SAEJ1772 specify the communication requirements between an EV and
the charging infrastructure. SAEJ2847 specifies the communication re 3.3.1. NFPA standards
quirements and SAEJ2836 defines the use cases and provides the testing NFPA is a worldwide leader in the provision of fire, electrical and life
infrastructure. Table 7 shows the titles of the subsections where the safety to the public. The standard released by NFPA in the area of EV and
application areas can be assumed. its grid integration is NFPA 70 [54], which covers instructions on elec
trical equipment wiring and safety on the customer side of the PCC. They
3.1.2.5. SAEJ2931. This standard establishes the requirements for include:
digital communication between EVs, EVSE, utility, energy service
interface, advanced metering infrastructure, and home area network. To � Electric conductors and equipment installed within or on public and
set up a communication network in a smart grid environment for EV private buildings and other structures.
� Electric conductors that connect the installations to a supply of
electricity and other outside conductors and equipment on the
Table 7 premises.
Sections in SAEJ2847 & SAEJ2836.
Section Titles Table 8
SAEJ2847/1- Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid and Sections in SAEJ2931 [62].
2 Plug-in Vehicles and Off-Board DC Chargers.
Section Explanation
SAEJ2836/1- Use Cases for Communication Between Plug-in Vehicles and the
2 Utility Grid, and Plug-in Vehicles and Off-Board DC Charger, SAEJ2931/1 Defines the architecture and general requirements for digital
respectively. communication.
SAEJ2836/3 Use Cases for Plug-in Vehicle Communication as a DER. SAEJ2931/2- Specify a MAC and Physical layer implementation using SAEJ1772
SAEJ2836/4- Use Cases for Diagnostic, Customer, and Wireless Charging 4 pilot wire and frequency shift keying, narrow band OFDM and
6 Communication for Plug-in Vehicles, respectively. baseband OFDM, respectively.
7
Table 9 Table 11
Summary of IEEE1547 [64]. Summary of articles of NFPA 70.
Standards Explanation Articles Explanation
IEEE - known as “Standard for Conformance Tests Procedures for 230: Services - Includes provisions and requirements for
P1547.1 Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric electrical services to a building
Power Systems”. 690: Solar photovoltaic system - Specifies interconnection to the grid
- Provides detail test procedure for confirming that interconnection requirements.
specifications and equipments follow to the test requirements of IEEE - Focuses on components description and proper
1547. wiring technique.
IEEE - Known as “Application Guide for IEEE 1547, IEEE Standard for 700: Emergency systems - Includes provisions that apply to emergency
P1547.2 Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems”. power systems and information about
- Provides technical background and application details to make IEEE interconnection such as transfer switches.
1547 user friendly. 701: Legally required standby - Includes provisions that apply to standby
- Characterizes DERs and associated interconnection issues. systems power systems.
IEEE - Known as “Guide For Monitoring, Information Exchange, and - Contains information regarding
P1547.3 Control of Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power interconnection of standby power such as UPSs
Systems”. and generators.
- Aids interoperability by offering guidelines for monitoring, data 702: Optional standby systems - Includes provisions that apply to standby
exchange, and control among distributed generators interconnected systems that are not required legally.
with an electric power system. - Contains several information regarding
IEEE - Known as “Draft Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of interconnection such as grounding, transfer
P1547.4 Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems”. switches and circuit wiring.
- Addresses engineering features of how local facilities can operate as 705: Interconnected Electrical - Broadly covers the interconnection of
‘‘electrical islands’’ to supply power during utility power is not Power Production Systems alternative energy systems except PV and fuel
available. cell systems.
- This article applies widely on EV integration.
Table 10 instructions for EV charging station equipment.

Summary of UL standards for EV integration [65–68].
Standards Explanation 3.3.2.2. NEC 626. This standard titled as “Electrified Truck Parking
UL 1741 [65] - Covers inverters, converters, charging controllers, and output Spaces” covers the area of parking spaces for trucks. It defines the
controllers intended for use in stand-alone or grid-connected specifications for the electrical equipment and conductors external to
power systems compliance with NEC certification and utility the truck which are used to charge the trucks. The specifications include
specific interconnection needs.
circuit breakers, groundings, cable sizes, back feed prevention and so on.
UL 62109 [66] - UL 1741 is renamed as UL 62109, after harmonized with IEC
standards.
- Named as “Power Converters for Use in PV Systems”
- Specifically discusses the photovoltaic inverter/converter 3.4. Application of EV charging standards
construction requirements and testing.
- Has two subsections: UL 62109-1 and UL 62109-2 Different countries follow different charging standards. The major
UL 62109-1 - Named as “Standard for safety of power converters for use in
difference among these charging standards lies in the ports/connectors
[67] photovoltaic power systems – part 1: General requirements”
- Covers the minimum requirements for designing and design. Fig. 5(a and b) shows different charging ports and connectors
manufacturing of power conversion equipment for protection produced by following different standards, respectively. Manufacturers
against electric shock, energy, fire, mechanical and other hazards. are trying to come up with a common charging connector solution to
UL 62109-2 - Named as “PV Inverter Specific Requirements”.
avoid the charging standard conflicts [69]. In the U.S., SAE J1772
- Addresses the inverter specific safety function requirements, such
as: total harmonic distortion, DC injection, voltage and frequency
connectors are used and have both AC and DC charging capability. Tesla
control, system isolation protection, labeling and documentation. has designed its own connector, which also supports both AC and DC fast
UL 1741 SA - It is a supplement draft standard of UL 1741. charging. Tesla also has designed an adapter for other car models, which
[68] - Identifies required inverter functions for optimal grid stability. converts SAE J1772 connectors into Tesla connectors to enable them to
- Specifies modern smart inverter topographies and their testing
use in Tesla supercharging stations. Another popular charging connector
approaches.
- Important for smart grid integration of DERs named as “combo,” which is used in Europe, is shown in the same figure.
The combo is produced by adding separate DC charging pins in the
existing AC charging connectors. It can be seen from the figure that all
� Optical fiber cable. these connectors present in the current market are quite different in
� Buildings used by the electric utility that are not integral part of a shape. EV and charging equipment manufacturers are trying to harmo
generating plant, substation or control center. nize the charging standards and come up with a universal solution of the
EV charging device.
There are several articles in NFPA 70 where the instructions for Apart from charging ports and connectors, the standards play a vital
different DERs are specified. The articles are summarized in Table 11. role in grid integration. Fig. 6 shows the standards associated with
different areas of the grid integration infrastructure. It is clear that
3.3.2. NEC standards different standardization bodies cover different areas of the system. To
NEC is another standard provider who works on safety measures in operate the whole infrastructure, which includes the electric grid,
the EV industry. It also provides the standards for EV charging charging stations, charging equipment and the EVs, all these standards
equipment. are necessary to follow.
3.3.2.1. NEC 625. NEC 625 titled as “Electric Vehicle Charging and 4. Electric Vehicle Charging infrastructure
Supply Equipment Systems” provides the standards for off-board EV
charging systems. It covers the infrastructure connected to either feeder In general, the overall EV charging infrastructure comprises power
or branch circuits for EV charging, such as conductors, connecting plugs infrastructure and control and communication infrastructure as shown
and inductive charging devices, and provides the installation in Fig. 7.
8
Fig. 5. Schematic of charging ports and connectors manufactured from different standards.
4.1. Power infrastructure in EV charging in a private location while setting up of Level 3 charging facilities,
involving separate wiring and transformer, requires permission from
The power infrastructure (Fig. 8) provides an electric circuit or sys utility providers and are usually built in public charging stations. At the
tem for power flow between EVs and the grid [70,71]. It can be classified same voltage level, DC charging is faster and usually has a high charging
according to the types of power used, accommodation of the charging power capacity [72]. The latest DC fast charging (DCFC) technology can
circuit, physical contact requirements, and power flow direction (Fig. 9). fully charge an EV within as low as 20 min [44,73].
4.1.1. Types of power used 4.1.2. Accommodation of charging circuit

EV charging uses either AC or DC power supplies. AC charging has The charging circuit can be accommodated either in a car (on-board
different voltage and frequency levels based on the power system of a charging) or in a charging station (off-board charging) as shown in
concerned country. In terms of the voltage levels, AC charging can be Fig. 10 [80]. Onboard charger allows the EV owner to recharge their car
divided into Levels 1, 2 and 3 charging, where level 3 has the highest batteries wherever power supply is available [74]. It is compact in size,
charging voltage. The Levels 1 and 2 charging facilities can be installed lightweight, and low cost but possesses low power delivery capacity to
9
Fig. 6. Different EV charging standards and their application areas.
the EVs [75], which causes a longer charging time and affects the driver cannot provide most of the grid ancillary services [113].
satisfaction. Contrarily, off-board EV charger has less concerns in weight A bidirectional EV charger has a bidirectional grid-connected AC-DC
and size [76–79] and facilitates multiple charging modes including slow converter and a bidirectional DC-DC converter [114]. This kind of
and fast charging schemes in the same infrastructure. However, setting charger can operate in either charging or discharging mode, which en
up off-board chargers can be expensive due to the multiple charging ables EVs to provide various ancillary services to the grid. But, the
schemes within a charging station. frequent cycling of the discharging power back to the grid can degrade
Apart from on and off-board chargers, wireless charging can be the EV battery lifetime. In addition, the metering and grid stability is
considered as a third type of charging system, in which the energizing sues, which involves selling and buying electricity from utilities, makes
coils are set up outside the vehicle, but the receiving coil and converter the process complex.
are mounted inside the vehicle [81]. This charging method is convenient
for power transfer between the charging stations and EVs.
4.2. Control and communication infrastructure in EV charging
4.1.3. Physical contact
From the physical contact perspective, the charging topologies can Control and communication system is the fundamental element for
be divided into conductive and contactless charging. A conductive real-time monitoring and control of EV charging [115]. Although EV
charging system maintains physical contact between the power supply charging represents an additional load demand in the power system, it
and the battery on-board whereas a contactless charging system trans can be scheduled to reduce the peak demand [116] and charging cost
fers power without any physical contact [82,83]. through proper management and coordination of EV charging stations
Conductive charging can be subdivided into slow charging (Levels 1 connected with the grid based on the control architecture and commu
and 2) and fast charging (Level 3 or DCFC). The latest charging stations nication infrastructure involved in the EV charging as elaborated below.
use DCFC to charge the vehicles, and it is the key to increase the
popularity of EVs [84,85]. To make it market’s best solution, issues like 4.2.1. Control architecture in EV charging
charging time [86], availability for public access [87], renewable energy The control structure of EV charging involves the distribution grid,
sources integration [87,88] and so on are required to be resolved. the EV charging stations and EVs, and can be classified according to the
Contactless charging system typically uses WPT technology to charge mobility, coordination and the control structure as shown in Fig. 12.
the battery. WPT system can operate in every voltage levels (Levels 1, 2
and 3) and has the power rating up to 20 KW. The recorded efficiency is 4.2.1.1. Vehicle mobility consideration. In this aspect, EV charging
up to 90% [89]. Based on the charging technology, WPT can be divided infrastructure can be classified into static and dynamic charging. In
into four types namely, resonant inductive, inductive, capacitive and static charging, the vehicle is considered to be parked in a charging
low-frequency permanent magnet coupling power transfer [90–93]. The station while charging. On the contrary, dynamic or mobility aware
techniques introduced in different literature until now for WPT, charging scheme considers different temporal movement, such as
including the operation strategy, capable distance efficiency, and fre vehicle arrival and departure time, trip history and any unplanned
quency range, are summarized in Table 12 [94–100]. occasion of EV arrival/departure [117,118], which is more realistic due
to the considerations of spatiotemporal relations of EVs but is more
4.1.4. Direction of power flow complex and requires advanced control infrastructure [119].
Based on the direction of power flow, EV chargers can be classified as
unidirectional and bidirectional as shown in Fig. 11 [7]. 4.2.1.2. Charging coordination. In this aspect, EV charging follows two
An EV charger with a unidirectional topology uses a diode rectifier methods: uncoordinated and coordinated charging control. The unco
and a unidirectional DC-DC converter for charging control [7]. The ordinated charging means that EV batteries either start charging
unidirectional charger is easy to control because of less complexity. It immediately when plugged in or start after a user-adjustable fixed delay
minimizes battery degradation and has fewer interconnection issues and continue the charging until they are fully charged or disconnected
compared to bidirectional types. However, unidirectional chargers [120,121]. Uncoordinated charging operations tend to increase the load
at peak hours and may lead to overloads in distribution transformers and
10
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of EV charging infrastructure.
cables, increased power losses, and reduced reliability of the grid [122]. The main concept of centralized charging is to utilize the centralized
Some utility companies offer a dual tariff (cheap night rates) to EV structure to acquire the information from the EVs, process them cen
owners as a way to reduce peak loads [123–125]. trally and provide a global optimal solution considering all the grid and
On the other hand, coordinated or smart charging optimizes time and user constraints [53,131–148], in which a master control engine per
power demand [126], and reduces daily electricity costs, voltage de forms the decision making regarding the charging rate and schedule of
viations, line currents, and transformer load surges [122,127]. A simple EVs. The limitation of the centralized charging is that the optimization
coordinated charging method is off-peak charging, where the EVs are problem size becomes large with the increase of the vehicle count in a
charged in a specific time of the day when the grid load is minimum. particular area. As a solution to this problem, hierarchical based control
This partially solves the overloading issue, however, determining the architecture is proposed, which segregates the EV loads into a number of
specific time information of the day from utility providers is required. In groups depending on their locations. The central controller only ad
addition, it may affect the EV users’ convenience of charging the EV ministers the load demand from the groups, and the groups use a local
[128]. controller to manage the power distribution to the individual EVs [16,
149–156]. The hierarchical control strategy is beneficial in terms of
4.2.1.3. Control structure consideration. The EV charging stations are communication and computational requirements. Several other control
spatially distributed in the distribution grid. To manage and control the strategies named as online control [157–160] and real time charging
power flow in and out of the EV charging stations, two strategies can be [161–177] are also available which uses centralized structure.
applied: the centralized and decentralized charging strategies [129,130]
as illustrated in Fig. 13. � Decentralized/Distributed Control
� Centralized Control Decentralized charging control, also known as distributed charging
11
Fig. 8. Power infrastructure in EV charging infrastructure.
Fig. 9. Classification of EV charging infrastructure.
control, is a strategy where the EV users directly choose their charging Available communication protocols can be classified into wired and
schedules [178]. In this type of control, electricity price and user con wireless communication technologies [182,183]. These technologies are
venience are the main factors to provide the charging decision [179]. As applied for grid integration of EVs in different private networks, such as
the EV users decide their charging patterns, decentralized control does home area network (HAN), industrial area network (IAN), building area
not provide the guarantee to reach the global optimal solution for the network (BAN), neighborhood area network (NAN) and field area
overall system. However, by practicing electricity tariff mechanism and network (FAN). These networks are used to control and monitor the EV
EV user responsible behavior, the EV loads can be matched with the grid charging/discharging and other domestic use of electricity as discussed
requirements. below.
4.2.2. Communication network for EV charging 4.2.2.1. Wireline communication. The wireline technologies are suitable
An effective communication system between EVs, EVSEs and the grid for long distance data transfer, such as the EV charging stations
is necessary for a smart EV charging management [180,181] (Fig. 14). distributed in big cities. The most popular protocol in wireline
12
Fig. 10. Possible accommodation of charging circuit in EV.
HomePlug 1.0, HomePlug turbo, HomePlug AV, HD-PLC and UPA [185].
Table 12
Optical and Digital subscriber line (DSL) protocols can be found in
Summary of different types of WPT techniques.
the wireline communication system too. The optical communication
Techniques Distance WPT Operating protocol has extensively higher data rates (up to several Gbps), and the
Efficiency Frequency
transmission range is significantly higher (several kilometers) than the
Resonant Magnetic 10’s cm 50%–95% KHz - MHz PLC. Also, it is resilient against electromagnetic interference. Thus,
inductive Resonant range [101]
using this technology, data transfer over a high voltage line is suitable
coupling Coupling
Magnetic coupled 6–20 cm 50%–80% Hundreds of
[184,185]. DSL protocol enables digital communication over telephone
resonance KHz [102, lines, thus does not require separate infrastructure setup [184].
103]
On-Line Electric around 80% Several KHz
4.2.2.2. Wireless communication. For complete communication struc
Vehicle 25 cm [104–106]
Resonant Reactive around Improved Several KHz
ture, wireless communication is also required, such as for data exchange
Shield 15 cm [107] between the vehicles and the charging stations. It is the prime medium
Inductive Inductive around 88% Several KHz to to provide the charging status information to EV users. The wireless
coupling coupling power 30 cm) MHz [108, communication network is constructed using Wireless LAN devices in a
transfer 109]
hierarchical mesh structure for interconnection of electrical devices. For
Frequency Agile up to 4 Improved Hundreds of
(Qi charge cm KHz [110, EV grid connection, the popular wireless communication technologies
transmitters) 111] include Zigbee, cellular, wifi, WiMAX and satellite networks.
Capacitive Electric Field around 78% Several MHz
coupling Coupling 15 cm [97]
5. EV integration in the power grid
Permanent Permanent around 81% 150 Hz [112]
magnet magnet coupling 15 cm
coupling There has been a minimal linkage between the transportation and
electric power sectors only until recently. Large-scale electrification of
transport has substantially disrupted the traditional business models of
communication technology is data communication over power line electric utilities. Overall, EVs have brought both significant challenges
(PLC) which uses the same power line to send and receive information. and benefits for the electricity grid.
The advantage of this protocol is its reliability and robustness to inter
ference [184,185]. Several protocols that use the PLC concept are
Fig. 11. General topology of unidirectional and bidirectional charger.
13
Fig. 12. Classification of control strategies used in EV charging system.
Fig. 13. Centralized and decentralized Control architecture of EV charging system.
5.1. Impacts of EV integration on the grid problems, all these issues can be resolved using advanced power man
agement techniques [199–203]. In Table 14, the positive impacts of EV
The impacts of EVGI can be classified into negative and positive. integration on the grid in a coordinated environment are summarized.
Details are shown in Fig. 15 and discussed in the below subsections.
5.2. EVGI framework
5.1.1. Negative impacts
EVs represent a significant challenge for electric utilities. Excessive Traditionally, to charge the batteries of an EV is the primary purpose
integration of EVs into the distribution network can impact the load for the EVGI. However, in today or future smart grid environment, EVs
profile, distribution system component capacity, voltage and frequency can have another purpose which is to supply power back to the grid and
imbalances, excessive harmonic injection, power losses and the stability provide ancillary services like harmonic mitigation, reactive power
of the distribution grid as summarized in Table 13. supply, peak power shaving and so on [210]. To serve these purposes, a
comprehensive EVGI framework is required, which includes two major
5.1.2. Positive impacts areas: technical and market operation areas.
Although excessive EV penetration in the grid can create issues like The technical operation area is concerned with the infrastructure and
power quality degradation, rise in peak load and power regulation low-level control for power generation, transmission and distribution
14
Fig. 14. Communication network for EV charging.
Fig. 15. Impacts of EV grid integration.
management. The power, control and communication infrastructure (LSE), private and public electricity prosumers, EV users and so on. To
discussed in Section 4 is a part of the technical operation area. Apart integrate a large number of EVs into the grid, a new entity called EV
from that, the technical operation also includes low-level management aggregator is necessary. Basically, an EV aggregator groups the EVs
techniques which combine/coordinate among the power, control and according to EV owners’ choice to realize business opportunities in the
communication infrastructure. On the other hand, the market operation electricity market. Individual EV’s contribution to the market would be
includes different types of agents such as generator companies insignificant and unreliable, which can be improved by grouping the
(GENCO), transmission system operators (TSO), distribution system EVs and operating through EV aggregators. The complete EVGI frame
operators (DSO), supplier agents (SA) also known as load serving entities work with both technical and market operation is shown in Fig. 16
15
Table 13 is capable of controlling their own actions depending on their observa

Negative impacts of EV grid integration. tion on the operating conditions. Agents in the electric power system
Impacts Description/method should have the characteristics of being autonomous, intelligent,
rational and should have learning and incorporating ability [212]. Some
Load demand increase - EVGI can add additional loads up to 1000 TWh (25%
increase of current levels) [186]. agents like GENCOs and LSEs, who act on the wholesale energy market
- Uncontrolled EV charging increases load during peak and retail energy market, respectively, are named as non-regulated
hours which can be a massive problem for utilities [187]. agents. The others like TSO and DSO are named as regulated agents. The
Component - EVGI in extra large numbers causes additive load demand, regulated agents act in natural monopolies, however, consist of
overloading which needs to be generated and transmitted. The existing
power system components are not designed to handle the
incentive-based regulation. Beside these agents, EVGI may require
extra loads, which can cause component overloading and several other agents, such as EV owners, EV supplier-aggregators
influence transformer lifespan [188,189]. (EVSA), charging point managers (CPM) and so on. The roles of all
Phase and voltage - EV chargers being single phased, can create phase these agents are summarized in Table 15.
unbalance unbalance if large number of EVs are charged using the
same phase [188].
- Current unbalances can create voltage unbalances. 5.2.2. Role of EV agregators in EVGI framework
- Further EVGI will originate a voltage drop and deviation at The EV aggregators act as an interface between the grid and EVs and
interconnection points of EV chargers [190]. always take the information of EV drivers, such as charging power de
Harmonics injection - The EV chargers are power electronic devices, which mand and connection time via the smart meter, and send them to the
generates harmonics during power conversion and causes
harmonic pollution in the grid if the penetration is higher.
grid operators. EV aggregators also have the electricity price and in
- Some cases conclude that the THD level caused by EV formation of charging station locations which are delivered to the EV
charging is below 1%, however it may increase with the owners. An EV owner will be benefitted by choosing his aggregator that
number of chargers connected [191,192]. better fits his needs when several aggregators might coexist in the
Power loss - Large penetration of EVs into the grid causes a massive
market. The aggregators will forecast the power demand behavior for
amount of real power consumption, which leads to power
loss in distribution system. the next day and prepare their buy/sell prices through the help of DSO.
- The growth of power loss can reach as high as 40% in the The DSO analyzes and evaluates the technical feasibility of the demand
off-peak hours, considering that 60% of the vehicles are EVs forecast. If the forecast is acceptable, the aggregator can proceed to the
connected to the distribution system [193] market negotiation. If not, the DSO will ask the aggregator to make the
- Coordinated charging can minimize the power losses as
changes needed to make a safe operation [211]. Besides the forecasting
well as maximize the power grid load factor [194].
- Selecting the optimal location and capacity of charging of market prices, the aggregator also faces uncertainties in the EV
stations can minimizing the power loss in the grid [195]. owner’s behaviors and preferences. The main sources of uncertainty are
Stability - EV loads are nonlinear and draws a large amount power in departure/arrival times, distances, and preferences (e.g., when and how
short duration, which causes instability in the power system
much to charge the battery).
[196,197].
- Overall power system becomes more vulnerable to On the grid side, aggregators will buy electricity from the market at
disturbances and it takes longer to return to steady state due lower prices and they may sell it during the day, at peak hours, taking
to larger penetration of EVs into the grid [192]. advantage of their clients’ EV storage capability. Aggregators will then
- If managed properly, EVGI can increase the stability of the compete directly with electricity retailers for energy acquisition and/or
power grid [198].
with GENCO for selling energy. Also with this approach, it will be
possible to have EVs participating in secondary frequency control,
through the link of the aggregators with TSO. Additionally, the aggre
Table 14 gators can also negotiate with other entities like parking and the battery
Advantages of EV grid integration. supplying services for EVs [213]. An overview of the EV aggregators’
Advantages Description/method market activities is shown in Fig. 16.
Power management -By using scheduled charging/discharging, better
power management can be achieved. 5.3. EVGI management techniques
- Peak load demand can be met by scheduling
discharging during peak hours.
According to control and communication architecture of EV charging
Power quality improvement - Voltage surge caused by uncontrolled DER
[74,204,205] penetration can be solved by controlled EVGI. discussed in Section 4, EVGI management can be considered based on
- Voltage flickers can be smoothed out. EV mobility, coordination, and control structure (Fig. 12). In terms of
- Reactive power can be injected when required. Coordination, uncoordinated charging means plug-in and charge when
- Harmonics injected by uncontrolled DER can be
needed, which is not suitable for EVGI in the smart grid environment.
reduced.
- Voltage imbalance can be solved by distributing Therefore, all the EVGI management techniques addressed here are
power flow through phases. coordinated charging. In terms of Mobility, static-based EVGI requires
Regulation [206,207] - Frequency regulation by correcting grid frequency less information from EVs while dynamic-based EVGI needs more EV
deviation. dynamic information and therefore is more efficient. Both have their
- Voltage regulation by supplying/absorbing reactive
advantages and disadvantages. In terms of Control Structure, EVGI
power.
- Power flow balance by storing excess power. management can be mainly classified into centralized and decentral
- Ramping power absorption. ized/distributed structures/algorithms, where static and dynamic
- Stability improvement of isolated electric networks. mobility characteristics can fall under both centralized and decentral
Renewable energy support - The uncertainty in renewable energy can be
ized/distributed structures. Therefore, for proper review and evaluation,
[208,209] suppressed by operating EVs as energy storage.
- Using EVs as renewable energy buffer can reduce
it would be appropriate to categorize them into centralized and decen
emission as well as save money. tralized/distributed EVGI management techniques. Those EVGI man
agement techniques are implemented by using different mathematical
algorithms, each of which addresses either static or dynamic charac
[211]. teristics in the algorithm development. Based on these natures, the paper
presents Table 16 to summarize the centralized charging management
5.2.1. Role of agents in EVGI framework algorithms [16,53], [131–150], [151–177] and Table 17 to summarize
The term “Agent” in Fig. 16 is described as a contained program that decentralized/distributed methods [86,178,179,214–243] for EVGI, in
16
Fig. 16. EV grid integration framework.
constraints, such as grid constraints, price constraints, demand fulfil

Table 15
ment and so on. Another attribute of the centralized control algorithms
Role of agents in EV integration framework [211].
is the vehicle mobility considerations. These control strategies may
Agent Name Description ignore the vehicle mobility (static) or they can include the randomness
GENCO - responsible for bidding electricity prices into the electricity in mobility (dynamic). To provide the application examples of the
market. control strategies, the objectives and constraints of several articles are
- Ensures profitable power generation and selling to the energy
also added in the same table. Among all these centralized charging
market.
LSE - Responsible for selling energy to the end users.
strategies, real time strategies are latest and they contribute more into
- Supplier or retailer agent procures the electricity for end users smart charging system.
and pays DSO the costs for deregulation and other service costs. The decentralized/distributed charging mechanisms (Table 17) are
TSO -Takes care of the operation security of the transmission system one step ahead of centralized charging. They require less computational
- Takes care of the system service procurements like operational
complexity, can provide real time information on grid loading condi
reserve and frequency regulation.
DSO - Takes care of the distribution grid. tions, and more focused on user convenience. Decentralized charging
- Ensures a resilient and secured distribution network. strategies include optimization based control, predictive control and so
- Provides support to the whole system stability and on. The strategies mostly incorporate randomness in vehicle mobility
optimization.
and they are more appropriate for real time implementation, due to low
- Ensures fair and economic distribution network
- Facilitates a competitive energy market.
computational and communication requirements. Being comparatively
EV Owner - Represents each EV and provides load demand to charge the EV new and beneficiary, research area of decentralized/distributed
battery. charging is wider. Researchers propose various techniques to minimize
- determine the ancillary services EVs can provide through V2G. energy cost considering a range of limitations in their algorithm. In
EVSA/EV - sells the electricity to EV owners
Table 17, several algorithms are presented to provide an abstract idea.
aggregator - act similar to other wholesale agents.
CPM - Charging point manager acts as final customer who buys and
sells electricity for EV charging/discharging at a charging 6. Future development trend of EVGI
station
Apart from acting as a transportation tool, EVs can operate as elec
trical loads (G2V), distributed energy storage for the grid (V2G), energy
which other sub-classifications include vehicle mobility (static and dy
source for other EVs (V2V), energy storage for buildings (V2B), and
namic), algorithms, objective and constraints of the proposed
network communication node [244]. Several new technologies are
algorithms.
proposed within the automobile industry that has the potential to in
In centralized charging management (Table 16), the main objective
crease the usability and effectiveness of EVs in the modern power grid.
is to provide an optimum charging scheduling based on different
17
H.S. Das et al.
Table 16
Summary of different types of centralized system for EV charging management.
Vehicle Algorithm Objectives Constraints
Mobility
Static Linear programming with Fuzzy membership [131,132]. Optimization of total energy cost, total energy loss considering EV charging. Network security, power quality, and EV charging/discharging
constraints.
Bender’s decomposition technique [133,134] EV charging/discharging scheduling, operational cost minimization. Grid emissions.
Nonlinear programming (NLP) [135–137]. EV charging management and scheduling for either multiple charging stations or EV Charging price, battery capacity, battery age and remaining
fleet. charging time.
Particle swarm Improved particle swarm optimization EV charging scheduling. Power grid constraints and battery functions.
optimization (PSO) [53,138,139] Peak load shaving [139]. Battery capacity, charging/discharging power limitation.
Heuristics & proportion-based EV charging scheduling and control system [140]. Power grid and battery constraints.
assignment (HBPA-PSO) [140,141] EV charging cost minimization [141].
Artificial Bee Colony [142,143] Charging schedule focusing minimization of vehicle tardiness. Grid stability and limitation on maximum power.
Operation schedule of home appliance and home based EVs to minimize cost.
Ant colony optimization [144,145] Charging scheduling for an EV fleet in a charging station. Maximum power supply and maximum power imbalance
EV load modelling. limitation.
Dynamic programming [146–148] EV charging scheduling for reducing peak load demand and charging cost. Distribution network constraints.
Dynamic Lagrangian Relaxation method [149–151] Maximizing the total utility of charging service provider [141]. Charge demand fulfillment and Power system capacity
18
EV charging scheduling considering bus voltage fluctuation, network power loss (transformer, line flow, bus voltage, power generation) limits.
[151].
Quadratic Optimization [152–154] Load profile and charging cost optimization. Customer charging requirements, maximum grid power limit.
Mixed Integer Linear Programming [16,155,156] Minimizing frequency deviation of the grid, bidirectional power flow between vehicle –
and grid, and generating optimal charging/discharging schedule for EVs.
Online coordinated charging decision [157,158]. Minimize charging cost without knowing the future information of EV charging. –
On line Multi-objective optimization [159]. The multi-criteria optimization framework includes distribution system losses,
rescheduling costs, and wind energy utilization for EV charging.
On-line adaptive EV charging scheduling (OACS) [160]. Optimize EV charging schedule to minimize the power flow, and minimize EV Voltage magnitude, three-phase voltage imbalance, and
charging cost. distribution transformer constraints.
Receding horizon optimization [161,162] EV charging optimization considering the current and upcoming constraints of the Distribution transformer constraints, phase unbalance, and
distribution system. voltage instability in the distribution network.
Sliding time window [163,164]. Real-time charging power dispatch and day ahead scheduling.
Global and local scheduling optimization [165,166]. Real time charging scheduling as well as day ahead scheduling. –
Markov Decision Process [167–169] Optimal charging schedule considering randomness in traffic conditions and –
consumer behavior and real time pricing for EV fleet [167].
Jointly control multiple charging stations [168,169].
Day ahead scheduling [170–172] Day ahead scheduling of flexible small load considering EVs or EV fleet.
Model Predictive control [173,174] Optimal charging schedule with time variant pricing and user charging preference.
Risk-aware day ahead scheduling [175–177]. Minimize the charging cost and mismatch between the forecast and actual EV load. –
The latest technologies include dynamic wireless power transfer (WPT), backing [251]. CM concept enhances the use of information technology
connected mobility (CM), autonomous or self-driving EVs, EV shared in vehicles and pushes the vehicle development towards autonomous
economy and the energy internet. The future of the transportation sector vehicles. For example, the current development progress of CM is the
will be revolutionized by using these technologies. In addition, as the application of adaptive cruise control, automatic lane keeping, and
future electrified transportation sector is tightly connected with the magic body control. These technologies will also be used in autonomous
power grid; it will influence the power and energy network as the vehicles. Apart from that, the enhanced application of VANET to ensure
technology innovation in the automobile industry develops along these V2X communication will overcome the communication barrier for
directions. autonomous vehicles. To assess the effect of CM on EVGI, a city driving
scenario is needed to consider as shown in Fig. 17. If an EV is required to
6.1. Dynamic wireless power transfer charge from a charging station (if dynamic WPT is not available), it can
charge from different charging stations (station 1 or station 2). Station 1
Wireless power transfer is the latest technique to charge/discharge is closer to the EV, but have higher charging price, also the traffic
the EVs without any physical contact between source and load. As dis congestion is high on the road. However, charging station 2 has longer
cussed in section 4.1.3, WPT transfers electrical energy through elec distance, but no traffic on the road and also charging price is lower
tromagnetics. There are several advantages of WPT, such as: (1) the ($0.15/kWh). If the EV can communicate with the traffic network,
physical connection requirement is avoided, which leads to less fault in power grid network, and other cars to get information about the traffic
charging equipment. Also, it helps to start the charging using the soft congestion situation, power grid loading condition, charging price at
ware interface (mobile phone, tablet, in-vehicle application). (2) The different charging stations, the owner can determine the most conve
charging equipment is installed under the ground, which helps to nient charging station (station 2 in this scenario) with the help of CM. As
facilitate higher number of EV charging simultaneously in the same size CM distributes the EVs based on the affecting factors, it improves the
station. In addition, charging equipment is protected from environ grid load management.
mental hazards. The next stage of WPT is the dynamic WPT, where the
charging equipment is installed under the road. The EVs can charge their 6.3. Autonomous electric vehicles
batteries while driving on the road [245–247]. A big advantage of the
dynamic WPT is the benefit of EVGI with the rapid development of Autonomous or self-driving vehicles are the next generation vehicles,
renewable energies. In the United States, many wind and solar power which have the ability to sense their surroundings and act upon it. It is a
plants are built along the highways, in which the dynamic WPT tech driverless technology, where the vehicle itself decides the travelling
nology can be integrated with renewable energy technology. For such route, identifies road conditions, operates the vehicle to reach the
situation, the electric energy used for charging EVs mainly comes from destination set by the user. Six phases of autonomous vehicle develop
wind turbines (during the night) and solar photovoltaic arrays (during ment are defined by National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,
the day) on both sides of roads, and the power from the main grid can be where L0 is no automated driving, L1 is driver assisted driving; L2 is
used as a reserve. This system provides an electric energy source for EVs semi-automated driving, L3 is highly automated driving, L4 is the fully
right close to where the electricity is generated, which helps to reduce automated driving and L5 is the driverless phase where human will be
the transmission network congestion, reduce power transmission losses, just passenger [252]. Until now, semi-automated driving phase (L2) is
improve the utilization rate of renewable energies, improve power sys achieved where technologies like adaptive cruise control, automatic
tem control and management, and greatly reduce carbon emission from lane keeping, magic body control, etc. are implemented and vehicles of
the transportation system. Another future development of WPT is bidi this phase are in mass production. The progress on the development of
rectional power flow facility, which may enable the EVs to assist the grid the L5 automated vehicles shows that it will be available in the market
by providing ancillary services. The EVs can discharge power wirelessly by 2035 [253]. In the L5 phase, the characteristics of EVGI will be
to the grid when the grid load demand is high. It can be done in EV completely different from those based on the current EVGI technologies.
charging stations using static WPT or if the dynamic WPT has bidirec At present, the charging and discharging of an EV is mainly determined
tional power flow facility, the EVs can discharge while driving on the and handled by the EV owner based on the owner’ travel demand to
road and will not need to stop at any charging station. home or work. As a result, the EV owner usually has to choose a location
and time that is convenient to meet the EV owner’s travel need which
6.2. Connected mobility (CM) not affecting the EV owner’s routine living. Such a charging mechanism
may result in a long waiting time and adverse impact of EVGI too, such
Connected mobility (CM) is the concept of communication between as transformer overloading, peak load, power network congestion, etc.
vehicle-to-vehicle, vehicle to a roadside base station, passenger, traffic However, with autonomous EVs in the L5 phase, the charging and dis
signal, power grid, etc. There are 5 ways a vehicle can be connected to its charging of an EV will not be an issue that needs to be worried about by
surroundings and communicate with them [248]: V2I “Vehicle to the EV owner. After taking the EV owner to the work, the autonomous
Infrastructure”, V2V “Vehicle to Vehicle”, V2C “Vehicle to Cloud”, V2P EV can find the best place to park the vehicle or determine the best place
“Vehicle to Pedestrian”, and V2X “Vehicle to Everything”. The V2X and time to charge or discharge the vehicle during the day. From the EV
technology interconnects all types of vehicles and infrastructure systems owner perspective, the owner can get a favorable payment strategy for
with another. Vehicle ad hoc network (VANET) is the communication charging and discharging of the vehicle. From the EV aggregator
network created for connected mobility consisting the vehicles, the perspective, it would be more convenient and efficient for the EV
roadside base stations, and the communication channels. The charac aggregator to play in the competitive power market in the smart grid
teristics of VANET is different from other networks due to being high environment and to be benefitted with more flexible EV management
mobility, rapidly changing network (information, nodes, structure), business models. From the electric utility standpoint, EV charging or
unbounded network size, time critical and wireless communication discharging can be more effectively managed to avoid/reduce the peak
dependent [249]. Currently, VANET is used to collect safety related load, provide load demand in special cases, participate grid frequency
information and apply it to traffic management. However, the usability and voltage regulation, and use energy generated from renewable re
can be further increased to communicate between autonomous vehicles, sources. Overall, the autonomous EVs in the L5 phase would result in a
charging stations, traffic signals, and distribution grid [89,250]. CM can totally different business model and higher benefit to the grid for EVGI.
improve the driving experience, safety, and comfort, whilst reducing
congestion and holdups. As an example, only V2V communication
implemented in 30% of all road vehicle can reduce 20% of total tail
19
H.S. Das et al.
Table 17
Summary of different decentralized/distributed mechanism and system for EV charging.
Strategy Algorithm Objectives Comments
Real time Non-cooperative game theory [179,214–217] Minimize the electricity generation cost. - The constraints are transmission line capacity, distance of EVs and charging stations, and number
optimization of ports in the stations.
Cooperative game theory [218,219] Optimal scheduling for EV charging/discharging. - Charging in load valley and discharging in load peak is the win-win strategy for both EV users
and the grid.
Nash Equilibrium [86,220–222]. Fulfill the energy requirement for a large number of EVs - The method fulfills the energy requirement by using valley-filling technique. It also maximizes
ensuring efficient grid operation [220]. the load factor and minimizes the energy loss.
Minimize EV charging cost considering the charging - The constraints are generation capacity and changing electricity price. Peak load shaving is
requirements and grid constraints. achieved through the game theory approach.
- Provides near optimal charging strategies considering the physical constraints.
Stochastic approach of game theory [223,224]. Peak power reduction and charging cost reduction. - Has high convergence speed, nearly optimal scheduling result, and moderate load management
assuming different penetration of EVs.
Optimal Decentralized Charging [225–227]. EV charging scheduling - Has lower computational complexity, thus can be implemented in a real-time environment.
Shrunken primal-dual subgradient (SPDS) [228, EV charging optimization - Uses EVs for valley filling and also applicable for DERs and reactive power supplies, and other
229] grid-level services, e.g., minimization of energy cost.
Nested optimization approach [230] EV charging optimization - Requires less computational complexity compared to centralized architecture.
Probability transition matrix [231] EV charging optimization - As no computation is required locally, the computational requirement is low at EV side.
20
- The number of iteration requirement is low which makes it suitable for real-time
implementation.
[232] minimize the charging cost and provide an optimized charging - The computational and communication requirement is moderate.
schedule - An effective communication between the EVs and aggregator is compulsory to update the load
profile.
Lyapunov optimization and Lagrange dual minimize grid energy cost and integrate local renewable - The constraints are overloading of distribution grid and random uncontrollable loads.
decomposition Technique [233]. energy sources
Model predictive Model Predictive control [234]. Energy management of MVDC PV based EV charging station. - Discusses the efficient operation of a grid-connected EV charging station.
control Decentralized PEV-charging selection algorithm EV charging optimization - Focuses on user convenience such as state of charge, charging time and charging cost.
[235]. - Low speed communication system is sufficient and user data protection is ensured.
Others Price/quantity-based mechanism [236]. EV charging optimization - The charging method includes a system operator and a load aggregator, which determines
general dispatch and EV charging schedule, respectively.
Fuzzy logic control [237]. Mitigate the effect of EV charging on the electric power grid - The proposed EV charger can automatically regulate the battery charging current according to
the changes in the grid and EV.
Plug-and-Play Decentralized Control [238]. EV charging control - The stability is analyzed by Lyapunov function. The parking lot is able to operate seamlessly for
bidirectional power flow with high efficiency.
Voltage control [239]. EV charging station control. - Voltage control of common DC bus is proposed for the PV-battery-grid based charging station.
Fuzzy logic control [239,240]. EV charging station control. - State of charge of the storage system in the charging station and the voltage of the DC bus are
defined as the control variable of the fuzzy logic controller.
A multi agent-based scheduling algorithm EV charging scheduling. - The objective is to maximize the profit by designing the pricing policy and to provide an optimal
[241–243]. charging schedule for EVs.
Fig. 17. Illustration of connected mobility and autonomous EV charging scenarion in city.
6.4. EV shared economy real time can be effective. Moreover, real-time pricing in charging and
discharging the EVs can also assist in this regard.
With the technological advancement in EV technologies, a new
concept of vehicle ownership may evolve in the near future using the 6.5. Energy internet
shared economy or collaborative consumption concept. As the vehicles
are self-driven, self-charged/discharged, and require lower supervision EVs may play a vital role in the development of the energy internet
(only mechanical maintenance), they can change the present vehicle (EI) technology [257]. The EI concept, first introduced by Jeremy Rifkin
ownership trend. Using the collaborative consumption concept, general [258], is to unify the power, transportation, gas, and thermal systems in
people can share the vehicle for their daily travel, and the vehicles are a single platform as shown in Fig. 18 [259], in which energy can be
owned by a third party company such as Uber, Airbnb, google and so on transformed for heating and cooling using boilers and chillers, or it can
[254]. China has already developed car hailing and bicycle sharing be transformed into electrical power by using different types of power
services, which is very popular among the users [255]. Individual plants. One of the vital element in this interrelated network is the EVs
ownership of EVs that causes problems, such as control and coordination and FCEVs because they are connected to energy, power, and trans
of operation, power grid interaction, data usage and privacy protection, portation network simultaneously. The most challenging part for the
and so on, will be reduced by the vehicle sharing facility [256]. Simul interoperability is the communication and control in the EI. The infor
taneously, using internet of things, big data facility, artificial intelli mation network collects data from each of the networks, processes and
gence, and other information technologies, EV companies can optimize generates optimal operating criteria for each of the networks, and pro
the EV operation, power grid and transportation system interaction to vides the intelligent control algorithm [260].
meet the travel needs of the general public, at the same time increase the Also, renewable energy based systems operate as the primary energy
profit margin. Shared economy has the ability to change the EV char source in the EI. The intermittency of renewable energy based systems
ging/discharging pattern. Usually, EVs owned by individuals are mostly can be mitigated by efficient EV integration to the EI. Intelligent EV
charged at home or workplace when the vehicle is idle. The idle time for charging methods can be developed to meet power demand/supply
individual EV is high. However, using shared economy, vehicle mobility needs at each node of the distribution network [261]. With the help of
increases dramatically. As a result, the charging requirement for indi EV aggregators, EVs can act as giant energy storage for the EI. Moreover,
vidual EV increases. As the EV mobility demand increases, and the ancillary services provided by EVs will make the EI more efficient and
vehicle charging needs to be faster. Thus, with shared economy, indi reliable.
vidual EV charging demand will be high in short period. Moreover, with
shared economy, the vehicle mobility cannot be specified because it
7. Summary and discussion on EV charging and grid integration
depends on the passenger travelling destinations. It will create a
randomness in vehicle charging pattern. The randomness is both in
7.1. Challenges and suggestions for EV charging
spatial and temporal, and it greatly affects the power grid. To minimize
the adverse effect of shared economy on the grid, monitoring of the
The popularity of EV highly depends on the factors like driving
distribution grid loading and sharing the information with the EVs in
range, the convenience of refueling, and cost. These factors are mostly
21
Fig. 18. The energy internet structure.
associated with the EV charging infrastructure. The challenges and planned mostly in cities while most of the highways are yet to be
suggestions regarding EV charging are pointed out below. included in the plan, which concerns the EV owners.
� Charging stations can use renewable energy, such as PV or wind
� The standards for manufacturing charging equipment are not com energy. However, design and implementation of such charging sta
mon globally. For example, Japan, USA, and Europe use separate tions are costly and require large space. Renewable energy based EV
charging connector standards [262]. Homogeneity in charging charging stations are best suitable in the highways where a lot of
standards and devices can bring the cost down and make EVs more unused lands are available.
popular in the market.
� At present, not all the EV models support all levels of charging,
similarly not all the public charging stations have charging facility 7.2. Challenges and suggestions for EVGI
for all power levels. Due to this, EV users face difficulties to find
convenient charging stations. The current situation of EVGI can be further improved based on the
� Currently, demand charges are imposed on the fast charging facility smart grid technology. The following issues are worth further study for
users, which requires a user to pay a fixed monthly demand charge establishing smart grid network where interaction between EVs, power
and makes the EV owners demotivated towards using EVs since they grids, and transportation networks takes place.
cannot charge their EVs flexibly based on a flexible electricity rate.
Policy modification regarding the fixed demand charge can reduce � An efficient operational mechanism is mandatory for efficient EVGI.
the dissatisfaction of EV owners [262]. However, the current research is yet to be successful in this regard.
� As charging stations are set up by different companies in different For example, EV mobility is not accurately considered in some
places, charging facility layouts of the charging stations are diverse. studies while developing EVGI mechanisms.
The users find it inconvenient to adapt with unalike layouts of � In the modern grid, EVs work as electrical load, transportation
charging facilities. A unified charging facility layout similar to ICEV media, energy storage, as well as communication nodes. They
refueling stations will increase the EV popularity. operate as a channel to interconnect the electricity grid, traffic
� The establishment of private fast-charging facilities, such as at home, network, and communication network. Thus, while designing an EV
is still an issue, which normally requires EV owners to have per charging scheduling system, the aforementioned factors should be
missions from the local utility providers and government. This considered.
lengthy process demotivates EV owners to set up private fast- � At present, the scheduling is performed using off-peak charging
charging facilities to meet their demands. [263,264]. Introducing time-variable and charging power level
� Planning EV charging station locations in cities as well as in high (Level 2 or 3) rates for customers would help to resolve the
ways are important. At present, locations of EV charging stations are grid-overloading problem. A coordinated smart charging system
with an aggregator is the best option for making the distribution
system reliable and stable.
22
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What are some of the standards discussed in the document?

What are some of the standards discussed in the document?

What are some charging infrastructure configurations discussed?

What are some charging infrastructure configurations discussed?

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 120 (2020) 109618

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Electric vehicles standards, charging infrastructure, and impact on grid

infrastructures, associated peripherals and user-friendly software [6].

List of abbreviations HEV Hybrid electric vehicle

Fig. 1. The classification of EVs [2].

Level 1 Level 2 DCFC

Fig. 3. Evolution of global EV stock.

Fig. 4. EV sales market share in 2018.

3.1.1.1. IEC61851. IEC61851 covers overall standard operation for EV

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Table 4 charging, the specifications set by SAEJ2931 must be satisfied [62].

Three standards and codes are available: IEEE1547, UL1741 and

Table 10 instructions for EV charging station equipment.

4.1.1. Types of power used 4.1.2. Accommodation of charging circuit

Fig. 6. Different EV charging standards and their application areas.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of EV charging infrastructure.

� Centralized Control Decentralized charging control, also known as distributed charging

Fig. 8. Power infrastructure in EV charging infrastructure.

Fig. 9. Classification of EV charging infrastructure.

Fig. 10. Possible accommodation of charging circuit in EV.

Fig. 11. General topology of unidirectional and bidirectional charger.

Fig. 12. Classification of control strategies used in EV charging system.

Fig. 13. Centralized and decentralized Control architecture of EV charging system.

Fig. 14. Communication network for EV charging.

Fig. 15. Impacts of EV grid integration.

Table 13 is capable of controlling their own actions depending on their observa­

Fig. 16. EV grid integration framework.

constraints, such as grid constraints, price constraints, demand fulfil­

Fig. 18. The energy internet structure.

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Table 13 is capable of controlling their own actions depending on their observa

constraints, such as grid constraints, price constraints, demand fulfil