International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Heat transfer evaluation of metal oxides based nano-PCMs for latent

heat storage system application
Zakir Khan a,b, Zulfiqar Ahmad Khan a,⇑, Philip Sewell a
a
Bournemouth University, Department of Design & Engineering, NanoCorr, Energy and Modelling (NCEM) Research Group, Fern Barrow, Talbot Campus, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK
b
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article is focused on numerical analyses of commercially available metal-oxides as potential nano-
Received 18 March 2019 additives for paraffin in thermal storage applications. Technical and economic prospects of metal-
Received in revised form 14 August 2019 oxides based nano-PCMs are evaluated to help formulate selection criterion for nano-additives to achieve
Accepted 22 August 2019
optimum thermal performance at acceptable cost. Numerical model based on enthalpy-porosity tech-
Available online 6 September 2019
nique is developed which incorporates natural convection and transient variations in thermo-physical
properties of nano-PCM. Numerical model is simulated for charging and discharging cycles of
Keywords:
nano-PCMs in shell and tube heat exchanger at controlled temperatures. Transient simulations help in
Thermal energy storage (TES)
Latent heat storage (LHS)
analysing heat transfer categorisation and isotherms distributions, solid–liquid interfaces propagations,
Phase change material (PCM) charging and discharging rates, and overall thermal enthalpy. Inclusion of nano-particles increase the
Nano-particles effective thermal conductivity and surface area for heat transfer, which results in enhanced charging
Melting and solidification and discharging rates. The conductive heat transfer, peak heat flux, charging and discharging rates are
Shell and tube heat exchanger significantly enhanced by increasing volume concentration of nano-particles. The percentage enhance-
ment in charging rates of SiO2 based nano-PCM samples with 1% and 5% are 29.45% and 41.04%, respec-
tively. Likewise, the discharging rates are improved by 21.09% and 30.08%, respectively. However, an
increase in volume concentration reduces natural convection and overall thermal enthalpy, and increases
total cost of nano-PCM. For instance, the percentage reductions in total enthalpy of CuO based nano-PCM
samples with 1% and 5% volume concentrations are 8.01% and 32.14%, respectively. Likewise, the total
costs are increased from 14.26 €/kg for base paraffin to 70.89–309.33 €/kg, respectively. Hence, the sig-
nificance and originality of this research lies within evaluation and identification of preferable metal-
oxides with higher potential for improving thermal performance at reasonable cost. This article will help
bring significant impact to large-scale utilisation of low-carbon and clean energy technology in domestic
and commercial applications.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the intermittent and unpredictable nature of renewable energy

sources are detrimental to wide-spread implementations. Thermal
The global socio-economic developments are associated with energy storage (TES) systems are determined as crucial technology
higher demands of primary energy supply. Since the industrial rev- to eradicate the energy supply and demand imbalance. Latent heat
olution, the ever increasing worldwide demands for primary storage (LHS) utilises phase change materials (PCM) to capture and
energy supply have been escalated by 150%. Fossil fuels have liberate thermal energy during phase transitions between solid–
remained the main sources to provide primary energy supply liquid at almost isothermal conditions. PCMs are available at broad
(about 80%) at the cost of energy security due to depleting natural range of phase transition temperatures with higher thermal stor-
resources and climate change due to emission of hazardous gases age capacity, lower vapour pressure and insignificant environmen-
[1,2]. To alleviate climate change and energy security challenges, tal hazards [3–5]. Despite being considered a promising approach,
the provision and development of effective and reliable technolo- the wide-spread implementation of LHS systems are hindered by
gies for renewable energy sources are vitally important. However, weaker charging and discharging rates caused by low thermal con-
ductivity of PCMs (0.1–0.7 W/m K). Hence, to minimise the impact
of low thermal conductivity, several performance enhancement
⇑ Corresponding author. techniques have been recently devised and implemented such as:
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.A. Khan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118619
0017-9310/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Nomenclature

C mushy zone constant l dynamic viscosity (kg/m s)

Cp specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K) UVC volume concentration of nano-particles
d diameter (m)
f liquid fraction of nano-PCM Subscripts
!
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2) i initial
H total enthalpy (kJ) l liquefied phase
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) s solidified phase
kB Boltzmann constant pc phase change
L latent heat capacity (kJ/kg) np nano-particles
MW molecular weight pcm base paraffin
NA Avogadro number npcm nano-PCM
p pressure (N/m2) ref reference
q heat source term (W/m3)
T temperature (°C) Acronyms
t time (s)
! Nu Nusselt number
V velocity (m/s) Pr Prandtl number
V volume (m3) Ra Rayleigh number
w weight of nano-particles (g)
HTF heat transfer fluid
LHS latent heat storage
Greek PCM phase change material
a small constant value TES thermal energy storage
b thermal expansion coefficient (1/°C)
q density (kg/m3)

geometrical orientation of heat exchanger and inclusion of Xia et al. [18] conducted experimental investigations on
extended surfaces, inclusion of thermal conductive nano- expanded graphite (EG) based PCM composite in heat recovery
additives and micro or nano encapsulations [6–9]. condenser. In case of optimum mass ratio of 10:1, the charging
In case of geometrical configurations, the shell and tube heat and discharging rates were increased by 81.7% and 55.3%, respec-
exchanger coupled with extended surfaces are preferred due to tively. Likewise, Sharshir et al. [19] reported that the solar still pro-
their strengths in heat transfer, design simplicity and easier inte- ductivity was increased by 73.8% with inclusion of graphite flakes
gration to applications. Rathod and Banerjee [10] reported that based nano-PCM. Moreover, Yu et al. [20] reported that graphene
both charging and discharging rates of stearic acid in vertical shell nano-platelets have better thermal enhancement potential than
and tube, with and without three longitudinal fins, were increased carbon nano-tubes and carbon nano-fibres with relatively higher
by 24.52% and 43.6%, respectively. Likewise, the inclusion of thermal conductivity and lower dynamic viscosity. Qian and Li
extended surfaces significantly increase thermal penetration in [21] developed n-octadecane and diatomite decorated with carbon
PCM. Lohrasbi et al. [11] noticed that the addition of longitudinal, nano-particles based composite, which increased the thermal con-
circular and v-shaped fins improved the charging rates in vertical ductivity of composite from 0.24 to 0.73 W/m.K. Kant et al. [22]
shell and tube by 3.26, 3.55 and 4.28 times as compared to no- reported that inclusion of graphene nano-particles in capric acid,
fins configurations. Rabienataj Darzi et al. [12] concluded that both calcium chloride hexahydrate and n-octadecane increased the
charging and discharging rates of n-eicosane were influenced by phase transition rates. However, the augmented dynamic viscosity
increasing number of longitudinal fins in shell and tube. It was of composites hindered the influence of natural convection. More-
observed from numerical simulation that as compared to no-fins, over, Yuan et al. [23] reported significant reduction in latent heat
the charging and discharging times were reduced by 39–82% and capacity of graphene nano-platelets and expanded graphite based
28–85% by increasing longitudinal fins from 4 to 20. Moreover, a composite PCMs by 20.90% and 25.17%. Tang et al. [24] conducted
novel geometrical configuration of shell and tube with multiple experimental investigation on performance enhancement of MA/
passes and longitudinal fins for large-scale applications was pro- HDPE composite with Al2O3 and graphite nano-additives. It was
posed in [13]. It was noticed that the optimised design under reported that the effective thermal conductivity was significantly
increasing inlet temperature from 50 to 70 °C significantly enhanced by 95.56% and 121.67%, respectively. Warzoha and Fleis-
improved the phase transition rate and total enthalpy by 68.8% cher [25] experimentally investigated the thermal enhancement in
and 18.06%, respectively. Later on, the proposed novel design was base paraffin with inclusion of graphene, carbon nano-tubes, Al
experimented for series of charging and discharging cycles with and TiO2 nano-particles. It was reported that the total charging
connection to solar collector [14–16]. It was reported that the pro- and discharging time for paraffin composites were reduced by
posed design was capable of charging 14.35 MJ in 3 h and discharg- 29.82%, 27.19%, 16.67% and 12.28%, respectively. Moreover, the
ing 13.63 MJ in 1.5 h. Also, the mean charging and discharging thermal energy release was boosted by 11% for graphene based
powers were augmented by 69.71% and 36.05% with increasing composite, whereas reductions in the range of 15–17% were
temperature gradient. noticed for other nano-additives. Alizadeh et al. [26] informed
Despite the excellent thermal enhancement, the extended sur- through numerical investigations that the solidification rates for
faces significantly increase the overall weight of LHS system. TiO2–Cu based composites were influenced by shape factors of
Hence, the inclusion of nano-additives to improve the effective nano-particles. Hexahedron, platelets and lamina nano-particles
thermal conductivity is another promising approach with compar- based composites were studied. It was noticed that due to rela-
atively slighter increase in overall weight. Nano-additives are clas- tively higher shape factor, the solidification rate for lamina nano-
sified into two main groups: (a) carbon allotropes and (b) metals or particles were higher as compared to hexahedron and platelets.
metal-oxides, nitrides and carbides [17]. However, the total thermal energy was inversely related to shape
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 3

factor. Hosseinzadeh et al. [27] reported that the solidification are neither considered in [13–15,28] nor reported in previous liter-
rates for Al2O3–Go based composites with volume concentration ature. Numerical model for nano-PCM include the effects of
of 2.5% and 5% were 1.74 and 2.69 times higher as compared to thermo-physical properties of base material and metal-oxides,
no nano-additives case. Likewise, as reported in [28], the charg- nano-particles size and volume concentrations, and operating tem-
ing/discharging rates and overall thermal enthalpy capture/release perature. Transient numerical simulations are conducted for both
of base paraffin in shell and tube were significantly augmented charging and discharging cycles for all nano-PCM samples. Thermal
with inclusion of Al2O3, AlN and graphene nano-additives. It was performance evaluations include charging/discharging rates, total
noticed that with inclusion of 1 vol% of nano-particles, the charging enthalpy capture/release, heat transfer characterisation and natural
rates were augmented by 28.01%, 36.47% and 44.57%, and dis- convection assessment, temperature/enthalpy distribution and
charging rate by 14.63%, 34.95% and 41.46%, respectively. Owolabi solid-liquid interfaces propagation in shell container. Numerical
et al. [29] reported an increase in effective thermal conductivity of simulation results are validated with experimental results for both
paraffin from 0.25 W/m K to 0.29, 0.33, 0.35 and 0.54 W/m K for Al, charging and discharging cycles. Furthermore, the economic valua-
Cu, Zn and Fe based nano-PCM composites with 1.5 wt%. However, tion of nano-PCM samples help distinguish appropriate metal-
Lin and Al-Kayiem [30] reported that with an increase in concen- oxides for wide-ranging domestic and commercial applications.
tration from 0.5 to 2 wt% for Cu based paraffin composites, the
latent heat was reduced from 184.2 kJ/kg for base paraffin to
2. Numerical model
172.2–157.3 kJ/kg, respectively.
Said and Hassan [31] examined the power saving potential of
2.1. Physical model and computational domain
air-conditioning unit coupled with nano-PCM based heat exchan-
ger instead of conventional condenser unit. It was reported that
The schematic of physical model and cross-sectional geometri-
the power saving was increased from 7.18% for pure paraffin to
cal dimensions of shell and tube heat exchanger and nano-PCM
7.28%, 7.35% and 7.41% for Al2O3, CuO and Cu based nano-PCM
based LHS unit is illustrated in Fig. 1. The horizontal shell and tube
samples with 5 vol%. Harikrishnan et al. [32] reported that thermal
heat exchanger is made of acrylic plastic shell container and seven
conductivity of LA/SA was significantly increased by 34.85%,
stainless steel tubes. The length, inner and outer diameter of shell
46.97% and 62.12% with inclusion of TiO2, ZnO and CuO with
container are 185 mm, 50 mm and 60 mm, respectively. Exterior
1 wt%. Thus, the melting rates were improved by 11.39%, 15.54%
boundary of shell container is insulated with glass wool. Similarly,
and 21.24%, and solidification rates by 5.56%, 13.89% and 19.84%,
the inner and outer diameter of tubes are 4 mm and 6 mm, respec-
respectively. Babapoor et al. [33–35] examined the impact of
tively. Water is utilised as heat transfer fluid (HTF), which is regu-
Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2, and ZnO nano-additives with different concen-
lated to flow through tubes and transfer thermal energy with
trations on thermal performance of paraffin, polyethylene glycol
nano-PCM in shell container. Paraffin (RT44HC) is considered as
and eutectics fatty acids. For all cases, thermal conductivity was
base material and metal-oxides as nano-additives. Table 1 provides
significantly enhanced and noticeable reduction in latent heat
the thermal and physical characteristics of base paraffin. The mate-
was reported. Al2O3 and SiO2 were suggested as preferable nano-
rials specifications, thermal and physical properties and cost of
additives due to their reasonable reduction in latent heat. It was
commercially available metal-oxides nano–particles are listed in
also noticed that nano-additives response to thermal enhancement
Table 2. For each metal–oxide, three nano-PCM samples are inves-
is dependent on base materials. However, the higher potentials of
tigated with volume concentration of 1%, 3% and 5%. Hence, this
thermal performance enhancement by inclusion of nano-additives
article provide holistic charging and discharging cycles’ perfor-
to base materials are usually undermined by weaker dispersion
mance of 42 nano-PCM samples.
and long-term suspension stability [36,37]. Therefore, the agglom-
eration and sedimentation problems in nano-PCMs should be min-
imised by ultrasonication and inclusion of compatible surfactants 2.2. Governing equations
[38,39]. Moreover, the higher volume concentration of nano-
additives aggravate the agglomeration and sedimentation issues To conduct numerical investigations on charging and discharg-
[40,41], which results in weaker thermo-physical stability, uniform ing cycles of nano-PCM samples in proposed computational
thermal distribution and natural convection. Hence, it is impera- domain, the following assumptions are considered to reduce com-
tive to identify the optimum volume concentration and to investi- putational time and complexity:
gate the thermo-physical stability by conducting accelerated
charging and discharging cycles [42,43]. (i) Liquid phase of nano-PCM samples and their movement in
In recent years, a significant body literature is published on syn- shell container are laminar, incompressible and Newtonian
thesis and characterisations of various metal oxides, nitrides and in nature.
carbides based nano-PCMs with different concentrations to (ii) Volumetric expansion or contraction of samples associated
achieve thermal enhancement [44–47]. However, the majority of with phase transition in shell container are neglected.
literature is focused on synthesis of nano-PCMs and there is lack (iii) Due to low thermal conductivity of shell container material
of investigations on optimum concentration for nano-additives and exterior boundary insulation, the shell material is not
and respective thermo-physical analyses of nano-PCMs in actual considered in computational domain and adiabatic condi-
heat exchanger. Literature also lacks comparative and all- tions are applied to outer boundary to avoid heat transfer
inclusive thermal analyses of commercially available metal- with surrounding.
oxides based nano-PCMs with varied volume concentrations in (iv) Due to relatively higher thermal conductivity of tubes mate-
heat exchanger. Moreover, the literature lacks to provide a detailed rial, the thickness of tubes are neglected and temperature
insight into economic assessment of metal-oxides enhanced nano- variations of HTF are also ignored.
PCMs and a holistic selection criterion for nano-additives to (v) Boussinesq approximation is implemented to compute for
achieve optimum thermal enhancement at reasonable price. variation in density and respective buoyancy driven natural
This article aims to conduct a comprehensive numerical analy- convection.
ses on fourteen commercial metal-oxides based nano-PCM samples
with three volume concentrations to evaluate their thermo- The governing equations for evaluating charging and discharg-
economic performance in shell and tube heat exchanger, which ing rate, thermal energy capture and retrieval, liquid phase propa-
4 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Nano-PCM HTF tubes Nano-PCM

Inlet

HTF Inlet HTF Outlet

185 mm
Physical Model
Shell container
OD: 60 mm ID: 50 mm Inlet Temperature
HTF tubes Boundary
OD: 6 mm ID: 4 mm

Nano-PCM
Insulated
Exterior Boundary
Cross-Seconal Geometry Computaonal Domain Adapve Mesh - Grid Structure

Fig. 1. Schematic of physical model, cross-sectional geometry, computational domain and grid structure of shell and tube HX with nano-PCM based LHS unit.

Table 1 buoyant forces and momentum source terms [53]. Boussinesq

Thermal and physical specifications of paraffin (RT44HC) [48]. approximation [54] is implemented to compute the buoyancy dri-
Phase change temperature (oC) 41–44 ven natural convection. The buoyant forces regulate upward move-
Latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg) 255 ment of higher temperature and lower density nano-PCM
Density (kg/m3) 800 (s) 700 (l) molecules. Natural convection has significant influence on melting
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.2 (s) 0.2 (l)
process of nano-PCM. Moreover, enthalpy–porosity method is con-
Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K) 2 (s) 2 (l)
Volumetric heat capacity (kJ/m3 K) 1600 (s) 1400 (l) sidered for modelling solid–liquid phase transitions. Darcy law for
porous medium [55] is implemented for momentum source term,
which evaluates the porosity in mushy zone.C represents the mor-
gation and temperature distribution in shell container, transient phological constant to control damping effects in mushy zone due
heat flux and dimensionless numbers for nano-PCM samples are to variations in velocity with phase transitions. In current study,
given below [51–53]: the numerical results are in good agreement with experimental
Mass conservation: results for C ¼ 106 . Likewise, f represents liquid fraction, which
@ qnpcm
! ranges between 0 and 1 as temperature of nano-PCM varies
þ r: qnpcm V ¼ 0 ð1Þ between solidus and liquidus phase, as follow [51,52]:
@t
Momentum conservation: 8
> 0 T npcm < T s

<
! f ¼
T npcm T s
T s  T npcm  T l ð4Þ
@ qnpcm V !
! ! > T l T s
þ qnpcm V : r: V ¼ rpnpcm þ lnpcm r2 : V :
@t 1 T npcm > T l
!
þ qnpcm bnpcm g ðT npcm  T pc Þ In energy conservation Eq. (3), the second term on left hand side
2 denote the thermal convection due to rotational and transitional
C ð1  f Þ !
þ
3 V ð2Þ motions of nano-PCM. Likewise, the right hand side represent the
f þa heat conduction and volumetric heat source terms. Hnpcm repre-
sents the total enthalpy of nano-PCM which includes both sensible
Energy conservation: and latent portions, as given below [51,52]:


@ qnpcm Hnpcm
! Z T npcm
þ r: qnpcm Hnpcm : V ¼ knpcm r2 :T npcm þ q ð3Þ Hnpcm ¼ href þ C p dT þ fL ð5Þ
@t T ref
In momentum conservation Eq. (2), the second term on left
hand side represent the convective term. Similarly, the terms on where href and L represent reference enthalpy (at T ref ¼ T i ) and
right hand side symbolise the pressure gradient, viscous diffusion, latent heat capacity of nano-PCM, respectively.
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 5

Table 2
Thermal and physical properties of nano-particles along with suppliers and prices [49,50].

Nano-particle Materials Density Thermal Specific Heat Volumetric Suppliers and Prices
(kg/m3) Conductivity Capacity Heat Capacity
IoLiTec weight (g) Sigma - Aldrich weight (g)
(W/m K) (kJ/kg.K) (kJ/m3.K)
nanomaterials
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), 20 nm 3980 38.493 0.778 3096.44 € 49.00 100 £61.50 50
Cerium (IV) Oxide (CeO2), 15–30 nm 6100 11.715 0.352 2147.20 – – £80.20 25
Cobalt Oxide (CoO), 30 nm 6460 10.042 0.703 4541.38 € 49.00 100 £47.70 25
Copper Oxide (CuO), 40–80 nm 6500 17.991 0.536 3484.00 € 69.00 100 £62.00 25
Gadolinium Oxide (Gd2O3), 20–80 nm 7640 10.042 0.290 2215.60 – – £184.50 10
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3), 20–40 nm 5240 12.552 0.628 3290.72 € 89.00 100 £86.10 25
Magnesium Oxide (MgO), 35 nm 3580 61.923 0.921 3297.18 € 49.00 100 £290.00 25
Nickel Oxide (NiO), 20 nm 6400 12.970 0.603 3859.20 € 89.00 100 £37.00 25
Silicon Oxide (SiO2), 10–20 nm 2650 11.715 0.753 1995.45 € 49.00 100 £74.80 50
Strontium Titanate (SrO.TiO3), 100 nm 5110 05.858 0.536 2738.96 € 45.00 100 £106.50 50
Tin Oxide (SnO2), 100 nm 5560 31.380 0.343 1907.08 € 79.00 100 £176.50 25
Titanium Oxide (TiO2), 100 nm 4250 08.954 0.686 2915.50 € 59.00 100 £55.90 25
Yttrium Oxide (Y2O3), 30–50 nm 5000 14.226 0.448 2240.00 € 59.00 100 £110.50 25
Zinc Oxide (ZnO), 100 nm 5630 27.196 0.494 2781.22 € 59.00 50 £63.00 50

 
2.3. Nano-PCM thermo-physical properties relations knp þ 2kpcm  2 kpcm  knp UVC
knpcm ¼   kpcm þ 5
knp þ 2kpcm þ kpcm  knp UVC
Thermo-physical properties of base material (RT44HC) and sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jB T npcm
metal-oxides nano–particles are listed in Tables 1 and 2, respec-  104 fqpcm UVC C p;pcm f ðT; UVC Þ ð13Þ
tively. Inclusion of metal-oxides nano–particles have presented qnp dnp
significant influence on thermo–physical properties of nano-PCM
[24,32,56,57]. Therefore, the relations for mixture of two compo- where the correction factor f ðT; UVC Þ is defined as:
nents are implemented to estimate the corresponding thermo-
T 
f ðT; UVC Þ ¼ 2:8217  102 UVC þ 3:917  103
npcm
physical properties of nano-PCM [28,37]:
T ref
qnpcm ¼ ð1  UVC Þqpcm þ UVC qnp ð6Þ
þ ð3:0669  102 UVC  3:91123  103 Þ ð14Þ
ð1  UVC Þqpcm C p;pcm þ UVC qnp C p;np Vajjha and Das [60] model for evaluating the effective thermal
C p;npcm ¼ ð7Þ
qnpcm conductivity of nano-PCM accounts for the effects of nano–parti-
cles size, volume concentration, operating temperature, thermo–
ð1  UVC Þqpcm Lpcm physical properties of both base paraffin and nano-particles, and
Lnpcm ¼ ð8Þ the effects of Brownian motion of nano-particles in liquid phase.
qnpcm
Whereas, the earlier models proposed by Maxwell [61], Brugge-
man [62], Hamilton and Crosser [63] and Xuan et al. [64] were sig-
ð1  UVC Þqpcm bpcm þ UVC qnp bnp nificantly dependent on volume fractions of nano-additives.
bnpcm ¼ ð9Þ
qnpcm Therefore, the effective thermal conductivity values were either
not influenced or were under/over predicted at varying operating
where UVC represents the volume concentration of metal-oxides
temperatures. However, the implemented proposed model by
nano–particles. Likewise, the dynamic viscosity of nano-PCM varies
Vajjha and Das [60] was validated with experimental thermal con-
with volume concentration and material specifications of nano-
ductivity values for Al2O3, CuO and ZnO nano-additives enhanced
particles. Hence, the transient modifications in effective dynamic
composites, with average percentage deviations of 0.23%, 5.74%
viscosity of nano-PCM are estimated by semi-empirical model pro-
and 1.97%, respectively. Hence, Eq. (13) and Eq. (14) are utilised
posed by Corcione [58], as follow:
to calculate the effective thermal conductivity of all fourteen
lpcm metal-oxides nano–particles listed in Table 2, with volume concen-
lnpcm ¼  0:3 ð10Þ
1  34:87 dnp =dpcm UVC 1:03 tration of 1%, 3% and 5%. Fig. 2 illustrates the transient variation in
effective thermal conductivity of nano-PCM samples with respect
where lpcm represents the dynamic viscosity of base paraffin and is to temperature. It is noticed that the effective thermal conductivity
determined as follow [59]: of nano-PCM samples are higher for metal-oxides with smaller
  density. For instance, due to relatively smaller density of SiO2
1790
lpcm ¼ 0:001exp 4:25 þ ð11Þ nano–particles, the effective thermal conductivity of respective
T pcm nano-PCM samples with all three volume concentrations are sig-
dpcm shows the equivalent diameter of base paraffin and is calcu- nificantly higher as compared to other metal-oxides.
lated as follow [58]:
!13 2.4. Initial and boundary conditions
6MW
dpcm ¼ 0:1 ð12Þ
pNA qpcm;o In case of charging cycles, the nano-PCM in shell container is set
to initial temperature of 15 °C which confirms a complete initial
where qpcm;o represents the density of base paraffin at T pcm ¼ 20 °C. solid phase. Moreover, the inlet temperature boundaries in compu-
Moreover, the transient variations in effective thermal conduc- tational domain, representing the HTF tubes, are given a constant
tivity of nano-PCM are approximated by employing the proposed temperature of 52 °C. Similarly, in case of discharging cycles, the
model by Vajjha and Das [60], as follow: initial temperature of nano-PCM are set to 52 °C to ensure com-
6 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Volume Concentraon: 1%

(A)

Volume Concentraon: 3%

(B)

Volume Concentraon: 5%

(C)

Fig. 2. Effective thermal conductivity of nano-PCMs with three different volume concentrations: (A) 1%, (B) 3% and (C) 5%.

plete liquid state and the inlet temperature boundaries are kept 2.5. Numerical simulation technique
!
constant at 15 °C. The initial velocity V of nano-PCM in shell con-
tainer is kept at zero in both charging and discharging cycles. The Finite volume method is implemented to discretise the govern-
outer boundary of shell container in computational domain is set ing equations for complex flow nature of nano-PCM in computa-
to adiabatic conditions. tional domain [65]. Pressure–based solver is selected for solving
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 7

the transient problem for charging and discharging cycles. Pres- 2.6. Time step and grid independency tests
sure–implicit with splitting of operators (PISO) scheme is preferred
for solving transient pressure–velocity coupling in momentum To ensure accuracy of simulation results, the time-step and grid
conservation equation. Further, the spatial discretisation of pres- resolution independency for computational domain are evaluated.
sure, momentum and energy conservation equations are con- Three time-steps of 0.1, 0.5 and 1 s are simulated for MgO – 1 vol%
ducted by pressure staggering option (PRESTO) and second order nano-PCM sample in computational domain, with fixed grid reso-
upwind algorithms. Absolute convergence criterion is adopted for lution of 27420, as presented in Fig. 3(A). The liquid fraction curves
residual monitoring of continuity, momentum, energy and k  e for all three time steps are almost identical throughout the charg-
equations with residual values of 106 , respectively. Moreover, ing cycle. Therefore, the time step of 0.1 s is chosen to secure
the first order implicit formulation for fixed time-stepping iterative higher accuracy. Similarly, three grid resolutions of 6930, 27,420
advancement is selected to achieve stable solutions in both charg- and 78,675 are examined with fixed time step of 0.1 s, as shown
ing and discharging cycles. in Fig. 3(B). It can be noticed that the liquid fraction curves for grid

Fig. 3. Time step and mesh size independency tests with 1% volume concentration of MgO based nano-PCMs: (A) liquid fraction of different time steps and (B) liquid fraction
of different mesh sizes.

Fig. 4. Experimental steps involving formation of Al2O3 based nano-PCM sample and its charging in shell container: (I) shell and tube heat exchanger, (II) ultrasonic
emulsification to develop nano-PCM sample and (III) filling the shell container with nano-PCM sample.
8 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

resolution of 27,420 and 78,675 are matching. Therefore, to reduce tion of nano–particles in base paraffin and experimental tests of
computational time, the grid size of 27,420 is chosen. nano-PCM samples in heat exchanger can be found in [28].
Nano-PCM sample in heat exchanger is subjected to charging and
2.7. Experimental validation discharging cycles at inlet temperatures of 52 °C and 15 °C, respec-
tively. Two K–type thermocouples (K1 and K2) are installed at top
To validate numerical simulation results with experimental and bottom position in shell container to register transient temper-
data, an experimental setup is designed which is comprised of shell ature response of nano-PCM sample during charging and discharg-
and tube heat exchanger with identical geometry to the computa- ing cycles, as shown in Fig. 5. It can be noticed that during charging
tional domain, preparation of nano-PCM sample through ultrasonic cycles, the transient temperature curves for numerical and exper-
emulsification technique and experimental investigation of nano- imental tests are in good agreement, with mean absolute error of
PCM sample in heat exchanger, as presented in Fig. 4 [28]. Calcu- 1.31% (for K1) and 2.17% (for K2), respectively. During discharging
lated quantity of Al2O3 nano–particles is loaded in pre–melted base cycles, the transient temperature curves represent excellent agree-
paraffin and a good suspension is achieved by magnetic stirring for ment within latent heat discharge region. However, the tempera-
1 h with intensive ultrasonication for another 2 h for preparing ture drop during sensible heat discharge region is rapid for
nano-PCM sample. Further details related to ultrasonic emulsifica- numerical simulation as compared to experimental tests. Due to

55 40

45 30

Absolute Percent Error

Temperature (oC)

K1 (0, 22mm)
Al2O3 - 3% VC
35 Error - K1 20
Error - K2
y
x Num - K1
+
Exp - K1
25 Num - K2 10
Exp - K2
K2 (0, -22mm)

15 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (h)
(A)

55 0

10
Absolute Percentage Error

45
Temperature (oC)

Al2O3 - 3% VC 20

35 Error - K1
Error - K2
Num - K1 30
Exp - K1
25 Num - K2
Exp - K2 40

15 50
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
Time (h)
(B)
Fig. 5. Numerical results validation with experimental results by comparing temperature profiles at two positions in shell container (K1: Top and K2: Bottom): (A) charging
cycles at 52 °C and (B) discharging cycles at 15 °C [28].
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 9

which, the mean absolute error is slightly increased to 9.51% (for During this stage, conduction is driving mode of heat transfer
K1) and 8.67% (for K2) for discharging cycles. Despite that, the between inlet temperature boundaries and nano-PCM. In second
numerical model has demonstrated acceptable validation with stage, the quantity of liquefied nano-PCM increases and thus, the
experimental results. upward movement of high temperature and low density liquid
molecules occur due to buoyance induced natural convection.
3. Results and discussion Increased upward movement of high temperature liquefied mole-
cules promote higher charging rate in top portion of shell container
To provide a detailed insight into thermal performance of nano- as compared to lower portion, as shown in Fig. 6(A) and (B). During
PCM sample in heat exchanger and to reduce numerical simulation this stage, natural convection is the dominant mode of heat trans-
data, the thermal behaviour for MgO based nano-PCM samples are fer. In final stage, the congestion of high temperature liquefied
discussed. In later stages, the comparative thermal behaviour for molecules at top portion of shell container result in re–circulation
all fourteen nano-particles materials are presented and discussed. towards solid nano-PCM in lower portion. However, the high tem-
perature liquefied molecules lose thermal energy to surrounding
3.1. Charging/melting cycles liquid molecules as they reach the solid nano-PCM in lower por-
tion. Hence, the phase transition rate is very slow in lower region
3.1.1. Thermal behaviour of MgO based nano-PCM of shell container, as shown in Fig. 6(C) and (D). During this stage,
In case of charging cycles, the nano-PCM sample in heat exchan- natural convection is controlling the heat transfer between lique-
ger is subjected to fixed inlet temperature of 52 °C. Liquid fraction fied and solid nano-PCM in lower portion of shell container. More-
of nano-PCM in shell container during the course of charging cycle over, the average liquid fraction of nano-PCM in shell container
is illustrated in Fig. 6. It is noticed that during the onset of charging after charging for 10, 20, 30 and 40 min are 0.32, 0.66, 0.83 and
cycle, thermal energy from inlet temperature boundaries are trans- 0.92, respectively. It confirms that the charging rate is higher at
ferred to low temperature nano-PCM in shell container. Nano-PCM first and second stages, whereas it is relatively slower during final
captures thermal energy and consequently increases the tempera- stage.
ture. Melting process initiates as the latent portion of thermal In similar manner, the velocity streamlines of nano-PCM in shell
energy is absorbed by nano-PCM. Liquefied nano-PCM surrounds container during charging cycle are illustrated in Fig. 7. It can be
the solid inlet temperature boundaries and take their shape. noticed that after charging for 10 min, the liquefied nano-PCM

Fig. 6. Liquid fraction contours of nano-PCM sample with 1% volume concentration of MgO at different time intervals while charging at constant inlet temperature of 52 °C:
(A) 10 min, (B) 20 min, (C) 30 min and (D) 40 min.
10 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Fig. 7. Velocity streamlines of nano-PCM sample with 1% volume concentration of MgO at different time intervals while charging at 52 °C: (A) 10 min, (B) 20 min, (C) 30 min
and (D) 40 min.

forms high velocity vortex above the inlet temperature boundaries. convection controls the heat transfer between inlet temperature
As charging cycle progress, the melted quantity of nano-PCM boundaries and solid nano-PCM. However, the upward rise of liq-
increases and consequently the velocity streamlines develop and uefied nano-PCM is still obstructed by solid nano-PCM. Therefore,
expand towards top portion of shell container, as shown in Fig. 7 the high velocity vortex above inlet temperature boundaries are
(B). The liquid fraction of nano-PCM increases which result in strat- generated (see Fig. 7) and consequently, Ra increases until entire
ified liquid layers in top portion of shell container, as shown in mass of nano-PCM in top portion of shell container is melted, as
Fig. 7(C). In final stages, the velocity streamlines are weak and shown in Fig. 8(A). As the liquefied nano-PCM layers stratify in
almost identical, as shown in Fig. 7(D). The stratified liquid layers top portion of shell container, a relatively stable reduction in nat-
at top portion are reason for weaker heat transfer at lower portion ural convection is noticed. Furthermore, Nu increases with aug-
of shell container. The average velocity of liquefied nano-PCM in mented Ra, due to improved natural convection as compared to
shell container after charging for 10, 20, 30 and 40 min are 0.31, conduction heat transfer. Non-linear regression technique is
0.67, 0.28 and 0.08 mm/s, respectively. adopted to generate correlation between Nu–Ra, as given in
Natural convection has demonstrated significant impact on Fig. 8(B). The constant ðC ¼ 0:217Þ and exponent ðn ¼ 0:318Þ of
melting behaviour of nano-PCM in shell container. Non- generated correlation are in close congruence with the results pro-
dimensional numbers (i.e. Nu, Pr and Ra) are computed to quantify duced by Morgan [66] for horizontal cylinder.
and help analyse natural convection effects on nano-PCM, as Heat flux and liquid fraction response to melting process of
shown in Fig. 8. During charging process, the temperature of nano-PCM samples with different volume concentration are plot-
nano-PCM increases which causes reduction in dynamic viscosity ted in Fig. 9. As discussed earlier, the melting process is divided
and enhancement in effective thermal conductivity (see Fig. 2). into three different stages. In earlier stages, the heat flux ascends
The effect of viscous forces are quieten by improved thermal until it reaches the peak value and then follows by a rapid decline.
forces. In other words, Pr is reduced with the progression of charg- The peak heat flux is slightly increased with an increase in volume
ing cycle. Likewise, Ra is augmented with an increase in buoyancy concentration. Inclusion of higher concentration of nano-particles
driven natural convection. Also, Ra provides a criterion to evaluate increases the effective thermal conductivity, which results in
the convectional instabilities during phase transition. Ra undergoes higher peak heat flux. This stage is mainly dominated by conduc-
an irregular increase betweenð0:1h  t  0:25hÞ because natural tion heat transfer. In second stage, the earlier decline in heat flux
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 11

Rayleigh Number Prandtl Number

10 50

8 45
Rayleigh Number x (109)

Prandtl Number
6 40

4 35

2 30

0 25
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Time (h)

(A)
500 Nusselt Number Prandtl Number 60

450
50
400

350
40
Nusselt Number

Prandtl Number
300 MgO - 1% VC
Nu = 0.217*Ra0.318
250 30

200
20
150

100
10
50

0 0
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0
Rayleigh Number x (109)
(B)
Fig. 8. Non-dimensional Ra, Nu and Pr numbers for MgO – 1% VC based nano-PCM sample in shell container during charging cycle: (A) Ra and Pr versus time and (B) Nu and Pr
versus Ra.

from previous stage is followed by a moderate increase until it PCM. Inclusion of higher volume concentration of nano-particles
reaches the second peak value. The earlier decline in heat flux is has demonstrated improved melting rate. For instance, the total
due to thermal resistance offered by liquefied nano-PCM around melting time is reduced from 1.36 h to 1.21 h with an increase in
inlet temperature boundaries. Heat flux reaches to second peak volume concentration from 1% to 5%, respectively. Furthermore,
due to perpetual escalation of natural convection in liquefied the impact of increasing volume concentration of nano-particles
nano-PCM. In this stage, the liquid fraction curves illustrate a rela- on non-dimensional Nu and heat transfer coefficient is evident
tively moderate enhancement with increasing concentration of from Fig. 10. It can be noticed that with inclusion of higher concen-
nano-particles. Also, until the end of second stage, the liquid frac- tration, both Nu and heat transfer coefficient decrease which rep-
tion curves for all samples have presented a rapid and almost lin- resents that conductive heat transfer relatively strengthens with
ear increase. In third stage, the heat flux sustains a gradual decline higher concentration.
due to reduction of temperature gradient, stratification of liquefied
layers in top portion and weaker thermal and momentum diffu- 3.1.2. Thermal behaviour of all nano-PCM samples
sion. As a result, the liquid fraction undergoes a relatively slower In this section, the impact of all nano-particles materials with
increase, which is depicted by logarithmic nature of liquid fraction three different volume concentrations on charging rate, total
curve. Heat flux value approaches zero after achieving thermal enthalpy and heat transfer performance of nano-PCM are dis-
equilibrium between inlet temperature boundaries and nano- cussed. Inlet temperature for all charging cycles are kept constant
12 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

4,500 1

4,000 0.9

3,500 0.8

Heat flux - 1% VC 0.7

Heat Flux (W/m2)
3,000

Liquid Fracon
Heat flux - 3% VC 0.6
2,500 Heat flux - 5% VC
0.5
2,000 Liquid Fracon - 1% VC
Liquid Fracon - 3% VC 0.4
1,500 Liquid Fracon - 5% VC 0.3
1,000 0.2
500 0.1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (h)
Fig. 9. Heat flux and liquid fraction of MgO based nano-PCM samples during charging process.

120 500
MgO - 1% VC MgO - 3% VC MgO - 5% VC
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m 2 K)

100
400

80

Nusselt Number
300

60

200
40

100
20

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (h)
Fig. 10. Heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number of MgO based nano-PCM samples during charging process.

at 52 °C. Inclusion of metal-oxides nano–particles increase the and Al2O3 based nano-PCM samples are standout with 35% and
effective thermal conductivity and surface area for heat transfer. 26%, as shown in Fig. 11(B). In case of 5% volume concentration,
Hence, the charging rate of nano-PCM in shell container can be the average melting time for SiO2, Al2O3 and MgO based nano-
enhanced. PCM samples are significantly reduced to 1.12 h, 1.18 h and
The average melting time for all nano-PCM samples and their 1.20 h, respectively. Similarly, the respective charging rates are
respective percentage enhancement in charging rate as compared enhanced by 41.04%, 33.10% and 31.25% as compared to base
to base paraffin are illustrated in Fig. 11. In case of 1% volume con- paraffin, as shown in Fig. 11(C). Irrespective of higher thermal con-
centration, the average melting time is significantly reduced from ductivity of Al2O3, MgO and ZnO nano-particles as compared to
1.58 h to 1.22 h for SiO2 based nano-PCM as compared to base SiO2 (refer to Table 2), the effective thermal conductivity and
paraffin. Thus, the charging rate is significantly augmented by charging rates of SiO2 based nano-PCM are higher. The reason
29.45% for SiO2 based nano-PCM as compared to base paraffin, as behind is the lower density of SiO2 nano-particles, which allows
shown in Fig. 11(A). Similarly, Al2O3, MgO and NiO based nano- to accommodate more nano-particles in base paraffin for a given
PCM samples have exhibited consecutively higher charging rate volume concentration. As a result, the effective surface area and
as compared to other metal-oxides. In case of 3% volume concen- Brownian motion for heat transfer are significantly improved,
tration, the respective enhancement in charging rates for SiO2 which can generate higher charging rates [65].
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 13

Heat transfer between inlet temperature boundaries and nano- between optimum charging rate enhancement and overall
PCM increases the overall thermal enthalpy of nano-PCM. Tran- enthalpy reduction. In case of 1% volume concentration, SiO2,
sient behaviour of total enthalpy for all nano-PCM samples are Al2O3, MgO and TiO2 based nano-PCM samples have presented
illustrated in Fig. 12. Due to higher heat flux at earlier stages of consecutively higher overall thermal enthalpy as compared to
charging cycles, the nano-PCM samples capture thermal energy other metal-oxides, ranging from 297.8 to 291.2 kJ/kg. Percentage
at higher rate as illustrated by linear increment in overall enthalpy. reduction in overall enthalpy, as compared to base paraffin, range
However, as the heat flux weakens due to accumulation of lique- from 3.12% to 5.27%. In contrast, the inclusion of Gd2O3 nano-
fied layers in top portion of shell container, the thermal diffusion particles have illustrated the lowest overall enthalpy, with percent
also reduces which effects the rate of thermal energy storage. reduction of 9.34%, as shown in Fig. 12(A). Likewise, in case of 3%
Therefore, the overall enthalpy curve illustrates a logarithmic and 5% volume concentration, SiO2, Al2O3 and MgO based
increase until a thermal equilibrium is achieved between inlet nano-PCM samples have remained the suitable candidates, with
temperature and nano-PCM. Moreover, the volume for base paraf- overall enthalpy ranging from 277.1 to 267.4 kJ/kg and
fin in heat exchanger with control volume is compromised with 258.3–244.3 kJ/kg, respectively. However, the total enthalpy for
the inclusion of nano-particles, which results in reduced thermal Gd2O3 based nano-PCM samples with 3% and 5% volume
enthalpy as compared to pure paraffin. Hence, there is trade-off concentrations have significantly reduced by 24.53% and 35.78%,

1.60 50%
Melng Time Percent Enhancement

1.50
40%

Percentage Enhancement
Average Melng Time (h)

1.40 29.45%
30%
1.30
19.62%
15.24% 16.67% 20%
15.24%
1.20 12.50% 13.86%
11.18%
16.67%
13.86% 15.24% 10%
1.10 11.18% 11.18% 11.18%

1.00 0%

(A)
1.60 Melng Time Percentage Enhancement 50%

1.50
40%
Percentage Enhancement
Average Melng Time (h)

35.00%
1.40
26.00% 21.15% 30%
22.73% 24.34% 22.73%
1.30
19.62%
24.34% 20%
1.20 22.73%
19.62% 21.15% 19.62% 19.62%
18.13%
10%
1.10

1.00 0%

(B)
Fig. 11. Average melting time of nano-PCM samples with three volume concentrations and respective percentage enhancement in charging rate as compared to base paraffin:
(A) 1%, (B) 3% and (C) 5%.
14 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

1.60 Melng Time Percentage Enhancement 50%

41.04%
1.50
40%

Percentage Enhancement
Average Melng Time (h) 33.10%
31.25%
1.40 29.45% 29.45% 29.45%
26.00% 30%
31.25%
1.30 29.45% 29.45% 27.70%
27.70% 27.70% 26.00%
20%
1.20

10%
1.10

1.00 0%

(C)
Fig. 11 (continued)

respectively (see Fig. 12(B) and (C)). Furthermore, the enthalpy dis- convection, whereas conduction remained the dominant mode of
tributions in shell container for nano-PCM samples with 5% volume heat transfer at both earlier and later stages of discharging cycle.
concentrations after charging at constant 52 °C for 25 min are illus- Likewise, the temperature contours of nano-PCM in shell con-
trated in Fig. 13. It is construed that the thermo-physical character- tainer for discharging cycle are illustrated in Fig. 15. It can be
istics of nano-particles such as density, heat capacity and thermal noticed that due to cluster of inlet temperature boundaries, the liq-
conductivity have shown significant influence on overall thermal uid nano-PCM in centre of shell container experience rapid thermal
enthalpy of nano-PCM. Hence, the metal-oxides with smaller den- energy discharge as compared to nano-PCM closer to exterior
sity and higher thermal conductivity and heat capacity are prefer- boundary of shell container. The symmetrical temperature con-
able due to their tendency of generating significant enhancement tours in both lower and top portion of shell container confirms
in charging rate with acceptable reduction in overall enthalpy. the insignificant natural convection and dominant conduction heat
Table 3 lists the time average of enthalpy, heat flux, velocity and transfer throughout the discharging cycle. Although, the velocity
non-dimensional Pr and Nu for all three volume concentrations contours illustrated a slight upward movement of relatively higher
based nano-PCM samples. temperature liquid nano-PCM, however the impact on solidifica-
tion rate is insignificant due to geometrical distribution of tubes
3.2. Discharging/solidification cycles in shell container. The earlier formation of solidified layers around
the tubes in centre of shell container confines the upward propaga-
3.2.1. Thermal behaviour of MgO based nano-PCM tion of higher temperature liquid nano-PCM. Hence, the liquid
Thermal performance enhancement of discharging cycles are nano-PCM is trapped in areas adjacent to exterior boundary of
equally essential for promising large-scale practical utilisation. shell container and it requires more time to release thermal energy
During discharging cycles, the high temperature liquid nano-PCM and undergo phase transition. As illustrated in Fig. 15(D), the nano-
in shell container release thermal energy to low temperature water PCM in centre of shell container is completely solidified and
in tubes, which are set to constant 15 °C. As a result, the phase records temperature at 15 °C, whereas the nano-PCM areas adja-
transition of nano-PCM from liquid to solid begins. Liquid fraction cent to exterior boundary are in mushy zone and records temper-
of nano-PCM in shell container reduces with the formation of ature ranging from 42 to 45 °C.
solidified layers, as illustrated in Fig. 14. At earlier stages, the liquid Heat flux and liquid fraction response to discharging cycles of
nano-PCM in close proximity to inlet boundaries release latent por- nano-PCM samples with different volume concentration are illus-
tion of thermal energy and forms a symmetrical thin solid layer trated in Fig. 16. To indicate discharging process, the heat flux is
around the tubes boundaries. Thickness of solidified layers plotted in negative. As previously described, the discharging cycle
increase with the course of discharging cycle, which yields an is divided into three main stages. In earlier stages, the discharging
improved thermal resistance to discharging process. Moreover, as heat flux increases until a peak value is reached and then a rapid
the discharging cycle progress, the temperature gradient between declination in follow-up. It can be noticed that the peak discharg-
inlet boundaries and nano-PCM decreases which is another reason ing heat flux is significantly increased with an increase in volume
for slower discharging rate at later stages. The reduction in average concentration. The reasons behind are the relatively higher effec-
liquid fraction of nano-PCM after discharging for 5, 10, 15 and tive thermal conductivity with an increase in volume concentra-
20 min are noticed to be 0.30, 0.15, 0.07 and 0.02, respectively. It tion and conduction dominant heat transfer. Increase in effective
confirms that the discharging rate is higher at earlier stages and thermal conductivity improves the conduction heat transfer rate
weaker at later stages due to formation of low thermal conductive and as a result, a significant enhancement in peak discharging heat
solidified layers around the inlet boundaries. Furthermore, the liq- flux is achieved. Likewise, the liquid fraction plots have shown an
uid fraction contours indicate an insignificant impact of natural abrupt linear declination from 1 to almost 0.5, which indicates that
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 15

Fig. 12. Total enthalpy of nano-PCM samples during charging cycles with different volume concentrations: (A) 1%, (B) 3% and (C) 5%.

almost half mass of nano-PCM has undergone phase transition 2000 W/m2. During this stage, the temperature gradient between
from liquid to solid. In second stage, the discharging heat flux nano-PCM and inlet temperature decreases and the formation of
appears to follow a moderate declination ranging from 4500 to solidified nano-PCM around inlet boundaries weakens the heat
16 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Fig. 13. Enthalpy contours of nano-PCM samples with 5% volume concentration after charging for 25 min.

flux. Liquid fraction also illustrate a similar moderate reduction in a control volume is a trade-off between an enhancement in dis-
due to weakened heat flux. In third stage, the discharging heat flux charging rate and reduction in total enthalpy.
endure a gradual reduction due to smaller temperature gradient Average solidification time and percentage enhancement in dis-
and continuous growth in thickness of solidified nano-PCM around charging rate of nano-PCMs with three volume concentrations are
inlet temperature boundaries. Due to which, the liquid fraction compared to base paraffin, as shown in Fig. 17. For 1% volume con-
indicates a slower logarithmic reduction until solidification is centration, the average solidification time is reduced from
completed. 27.75 min for base paraffin to 22.92, 24.0 and 24.5 min for SiO2,
Al2O3 and MgO based nano-PCM samples, respectively. Hence,
3.2.2. Thermal behaviour of all nano-PCM samples: the discharging rate is significantly enhanced by 21.09%, 15.63%
In this section, the comparative enhancement in discharging and 13.27%, respectively. Likewise, for 3% and 5% volume concen-
rates of metal-oxides based nano-PCM with three volume concen- trations, SiO2 based nano-PCM samples have illustrated excep-
trations are examined. The adiabatic exterior boundary of shell tional discharging performance, with enhancement in discharging
container ensures no thermal losses to surrounding and therefore, rate of 26.62% and 30.08%, respectively. Whereas, the percentage
the total enthalpy charged by nano-PCM is available for discharge enhancement for Al2O3 and MgO based nano-PCM samples seem
to low temperature water. Total enthalpy of all nano-PCM samples inferior to Gd2O3 based nano-PCM. The reason behind is that due
with varied volume concentrations are listed in Table 3. As previ- to inclusion of higher density nano-particles, the total enthalpy
ously discussed, the inclusion of nano-particles to base paraffin of nano-PCM reduces (see Fig. 12). Therefore, it requires relatively
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 17

Table 3
Average values derived from charging cycles of nano-PCM samples with three volume concentrations.

Nano-PCM Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Heat flux (W/m2) Heat Transfer Velocity (mm/s) Prandtl Number Nusselt Number
Coefficient (W/m2 K)
1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5%
Al2O3 295.8 271.9 250.8 561.92 551.53 539.54 15.19 14.91 14.59 0.179 0.171 0.160 32.16 32.60 34.09 62.74 58.68 54.43
CeO2 284.3 244.2 212.9 559.40 543.39 526.20 15.12 14.69 14.23 0.184 0.169 0.160 32.74 30.67 29.75 66.30 61.27 56.28
CoO 282.9 241.2 209.0 559.07 542.48 525.86 15.11 14.67 14.22 0.181 0.170 0.160 32.69 30.41 29.34 66.46 61.36 56.45
CuO 282.8 240.9 208.6 558.01 543.04 524.90 15.09 14.68 14.19 0.179 0.170 0.161 33.08 30.02 28.09 67.76 62.58 57.30
Gd2O3 278.7 232.0 197.4 557.95 541.77 523.97 15.08 14.65 14.17 0.179 0.170 0.159 32.46 29.54 27.95 66.84 61.74 56.64
Fe2O3 287.5 251.6 222.6 559.23 543.61 527.43 15.12 14.70 14.26 0.178 0.171 0.162 32.84 31.33 30.84 65.76 60.83 55.99
MgO 294.0 267.4 244.3 559.52 545.02 527.43 15.13 14.73 14.32 0.181 0.172 0.162 33.01 32.41 32.55 64.92 60.10 55.31
NiO 283.2 241.7 209.7 556.07 541.66 525.99 15.09 14.64 14.22 0.180 0.167 0.158 32.26 30.67 30.46 64.90 59.97 55.24
SiO2 297.8 277.1 258.3 559.64 542.48 527.08 15.13 14.67 14.25 0.175 0.165 0.151 30.27 32.86 37.46 57.19 53.15 49.12
SrO.TiO3 286.2 248.8 218.9 558.65 543.08 527.35 15.10 14.68 14.26 0.179 0.172 0.166 33.72 30.43 28.04 69.03 63.58 58.42
SnO2 287.9 252.8 224.2 558.48 543.06 527.99 15.10 14.68 14.27 0.181 0.173 0.167 33.91 31.04 28.95 68.99 63.84 58.97
TiO2 291.2 260.8 235.1 558.46 545.40 528.99 15.10 14.74 14.30 0.182 0.171 0.165 34.05 31.71 30.00 68.52 63.59 58.51
Y2O3 288.4 253.8 225.5 558.71 543.47 527.47 15.10 14.69 14.26 0.179 0.170 0.161 32.85 31.50 31.13 65.52 60.65 55.82
ZnO 285.9 248.2 218.1 558.37 543.16 527.57 15.10 14.68 14.26 0.181 0.170 0.166 33.71 30.37 27.97 69.03 63.63 58.48

Fig. 14. Liquid fraction contours of nano-PCM sample with 1% volume concentration of MgO at different time intervals while discharging at constant inlet temperature of
15 °C: (A) 5 min, (B) 10 min, (C) 15 min and (D) 20 min.

lesser solidification time to discharge the comparatively smaller (195 kJ/kg), the discharge time required for SiO2, Al2O3, MgO,
total enthalpy. For instance, in case of 5% volume concentration, TiO2 and Gd2O3 based nano-PCM samples with 5% volume concen-
the Gd2O3 based nano-PCM requires 21.67 min to discharge trations are 7.34, 8.5, 9.42, 10.08 and 18.58 min, respectively.
197.4 kJ/kg of thermal enthalpy, whereas, Al2O3 based nano-PCM Therefore, the significance of discharging higher capacity of ther-
requires 22.67 min to discharge 250.8 kJ/kg of thermal enthalpy. mal enthalpy at higher discharging rate identifies SiO2, Al2O3,
In other words, to discharge equal amount of thermal energy MgO and TiO2 as preferable candidates.
18 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

Fig. 15. Temperature contours of nano-PCM sample with 1% volume concentration of MgO at different time intervals while discharging at 15 °C: (A) 5 min, (B) 10 min, (C)
15 min and (D) 20 min.

0 1

0.9
-5,000
0.8
-10,000 0.7
Heat Flux (W/m2)

Liquid Fracon

0.6
-15,000
Heat flux - 1% VC 0.5
-20,000 Heat flux - 3% VC
0.4
Heat flux - 5% VC
-25,000 Liquid Fracon - 1% VC 0.3
Liquid Fracon - 3% VC 0.2
-30,000 Liquid Fracon - 5% VC
0.1

-35,000 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (h)
Fig. 16. Heat flux and liquid fraction of MgO based nano-PCM samples during discharging cycles.
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 19

28 Solidificaon Time Percentage Enhancement 40%

Average Solidificaon Time (min)

Percentage Enhancement
26 30%

21.09%
24 20%
15.63%
13.27%
12.12% 12.12% 12.12%
9.54% 8.82%
22 12.50% 13.27% 10%
10.63% 11.00%
9.54% 9.18%

20 0%

(A)
28 Solidificaon Time Percentage Enhancement 40%
Average Solidificaon Time (min)

Percentage Enhancement
26 26.62% 30%

20.65% 20.65% 20.22%

21.53%
19.35% 19.35%
24 20%
19.78%
18.51% 17.67% 16.43%
16.03%
22 15.63% 14.83% 10%

20 0%

(B)
Fig. 17. Average solidification time of nano-PCM samples and percentage enhancement in discharging rate as compared to base paraffin: (A) 1% VC, (B) 3% VC and (C) 5% VC.

3.3. Economic evaluation of nano-PCM Base paraffin (RT44HC) and metal-oxides prices are taken from
Rubitherm [48] and IoLiTec nanomaterials [50], as listed in Table 2.
It is construed from numerical simulations that the charging In cost calculations, the price of nano-particles per gram is multi-
and discharging rates of base paraffin can be significantly plied with the required weight of nano-particles for respective vol-
enhanced with inclusion of nano-particles at the cost of reduction ume fraction. The calculated cost of nano-particles is then added to
in total enthalpy. Likewise, the inclusion of expensive metal-oxides cost of base paraffin to evaluate total price of nano-PCMs (per kg).
nano-particles will increase the total cost of nano-PCM. Table 4 It can be noticed that the total cost of nano-PCM elevates signif-
provides a comparison between all fourteen metal-oxides based icantly with inclusion of nano-particles. For instance, the percent
nano-PCM in terms of required weight of nano-particles and increase in total cost of nano-PCM ranges from 115% to 14085%
respective elevation in price of nano-PCM with three volume con- for 1% volume concentration, 350–43125% for 3% volume concen-
centrations. The required weight of nano-particles for respective tration and 599–73386% for 5% volume concentration, respectively.
metal-oxides and volume concentration is evaluated as: In addition to significant enhancement in charging/discharging
rates and minimal reduction in total enthalpy by SiO2, Al2O3,
 

UVC MgO and TiO2 based nano-PCMs, the price-performance ratios for
wnp ¼ qnp V npcm  100 ð15Þ
100  UVC all three volume concentrations are lower as compared to other
20 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

28 Solidificaon Time Percentage Enhancement 40%

Average Solidificaon Time (min)

28.08% 30.08%
27.59%

Percentage Enhancement
26 30%
26.14%
24.72% 25.19%
22.88%
21.53%
25.66% 23.79%
24 22.43% 20%
21.98% 21.09%
19.78%

22 10%

20 0%

(C)
Fig. 17 (continued)

Table 4
Price valuation of nano-PCMs with three volume concentrations and price-performance ratio for 5% - nano-PCMs.

Nano-PCM Price of nano- 1% Volume Concentration 3% Volume Concentration 5% Volume Concentration Price performance
particles (€/g) ratio (€/kJ) **
Weight of nano- Price of nano- Weight of nano- Price of nano- Weight of nano- Price of nano-
particles (g) PCM (€/kg) particles (g) PCM (€/kg) particles (g) PCM (€/kg)
Al2O3 € 0.49 44.19 € 35.91 135.31 € 80.56 230.26 € 127.09 0.51
CeO2 € 3.62 77.02 € 293.07 235.82 € 867.95 401.32 € 1467.02 6.89
CoO € 0.49 81.57 € 54.23 249.74 € 136.63 425.00 € 222.51 1.06
CuO € 0.69 82.07 € 70.89 251.29 € 187.65 427.63 € 309.33 1.48
Gd2O3 € 20.82 96.46 € 2022.65 295.36 € 6163.67 502.63 € 10,479.05 53.09
Fe2O3 € 0.89 66.16 € 73.14 202.58 € 194.55 344.74 € 321.08 1.44
MgO € 0.49 45.20 € 36.41 138.40 € 82.08 235.53 € 129.67 0.53
NiO € 0.89 80.81 € 86.18 247.42 € 234.47 421.05 € 389.00 1.86
SiO2 € 0.49 33.46 € 30.66 102.45 € 64.46 174.34 € 99.69 0.39
SrO.TiO3 € 0.45 64.52 € 43.29 197.55 € 103.16 336.18 € 165.54 0.76
SnO2 € 0.79 70.20 € 69.72 214.95 € 184.07 365.79 € 303.23 1.35
TiO2 € 0.59 53.66 € 45.92 164.30 € 111.20 279.61 € 179.23 0.76
Y2O3 € 0.59 63.13 € 51.51 193.30 € 128.31 328.95 € 208.34 0.92
ZnO € 1.18 71.09 € 98.14 217.65 € 271.09 370.39 € 451.33 2.07

*Paraffin (RT44HC) price is 14.26 €/kg.

price of nano  PCM ð€=kgÞ
**
Price  performance ratio ð€=kJÞ ¼
total enthalpy of nano - PCM ðkJ=kgÞ

listed metal-oxides. Therefore, these four metal-oxides can be rec- non-dimensional Nu, Pr and Ra numbers. Moreover, the economic
ommended for utilisation as nano-additives in LHS systems. evaluations of nano-PCM samples assist in identification of prefer-
able metal-oxides candidates as thermal additives. The following
conclusions are obtained from these numerical analyses:
4. Conclusions
 Inclusion of metal-oxides nano-particles significantly enhances
This article is focused on numerical analyses of fourteen metal- the effective thermal conductivity and surface area for heat
oxides based nano-PCMs to establish a holistic approach for select- transfer. However, the dynamic viscosity also improves and
ing nano-additives for optimal thermal enhancement. The simu- overall enthalpy reduces. Hence, an increase in volume concen-
lated numerical model includes the impact of material thermo- tration of nano-particles increase the conductive heat transfer
physical properties, nano-particles size and volume concentration, and curtail the buoyancy driven natural convection.
and operating temperature while evaluating thermal performance  In charging cycles, the heat transfer is mainly divided into three
enhancement in terms of charging and discharging rates, overall stages: an earlier conduction dominant period of rapidly charg-
thermal enthalpy, heat transfer categorisation and respective tem- ing nano-PCM around tube boundaries, followed by natural
perature distribution, velocity response to natural convection and convection dominant upward rise of high temperature liquefied
 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619 21

nano-PCM and final stage of weaker and gradually reducing [8] J. Giro-Paloma, M. Martínez, L.F. Cabeza, A.I. Fernández, Types, methods,
techniques, and applications for microencapsulated phase change materials
natural convection dominant heat transfer between solid and
(MPCM): a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 53 (2016) 1059–1075.
liquefied nano-PCM at lower section of shell container. The rea- [9] L. Liu, D. Su, Y. Tang, G. Fang, Thermal conductivity enhancement of phase
son behind weaker and depleting natural convection is the change materials for thermal energy storage: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy
stratification of liquefied nano-PCM in upper section. Rev. 62 (2016) 305–317.
[10] M.K. Rathod, J. Banerjee, Thermal performance enhancement of shell and tube
 In discharging cycles, heat transfer is dominated by conduction Latent Heat Storage Unit using longitudinal fins, Appl. Therm. Eng. 75 (2015)
with symmetrical temperature contours in both lower and 1084–1092.
upper section of shell container. In earlier stages, a rapid forma- [11] S. Lohrasbi, M. Gorji-Bandpy, D.D. Ganji, Thermal penetration depth
enhancement in latent heat thermal energy storage system in the presence
tion of thin solid layers around tubes boundaries are noticed. In of heat pipe based on both charging and discharging processes, Energy
next stages, the thickness of solidified layers increase which Convers. Manage. 148 (2017) 646–667.
results in augmented thermal resistance and consequently, [12] A.A.R. Darzi, M. Jourabian, M. Farhadi, Melting and solidification of PCM
enhanced by radial conductive fins and nanoparticles in cylindrical annulus,
the heat flux is rapidly reduced. In final stages, the continued Energy Convers. Manage. 118 (2016) 253–263.
increase in thickness of solidified layers and reduction in tem- [13] Z. Khan, Z. Khan, K. Tabeshf, Parametric investigations to enhance thermal
perature gradient results in weakened and gradually depleting performance of paraffin through a novel geometrical configuration of shell and
tube latent thermal storage system, Energy Convers. Manage. 127 (2016) 355–
heat flux. 365.
 Increase in volume concentration can augment peak heat flux [14] Z. Khan, Z.A. Khan, Experimental investigations of charging/melting cycles of
and phase transition rate. However, the convective heat transfer paraffin in a novel shell and tube with longitudinal fins based heat storage
design solution for domestic and industrial applications, Appl. Energy 206
coefficient and Nu are reduced due to relative increase in effec-
(2017) 1158–1168.
tive dynamic viscosity. For instance, the percentage enhance- [15] Z. Khan, Z.A. Khan, An experimental investigation of discharge/solidification
ment in charging rate of SiO2 based nano-PCM samples with cycle of paraffin in novel shell and tube with longitudinal fins based latent
1% and 5% volume concentrations are 29.45% and 41.04%, heat storage system, Energy Convers. Manage. 154 (2017) 157–167.
[16] Z. Khan, Z.A. Khan, Thermodynamic performance of a novel shell-and-tube
respectively. Likewise, the discharging rates are improved by heat exchanger incorporating paraffin as thermal storage solution for domestic
21.09% and 30.08%, respectively. and commercial applications, Appl. Therm. Eng. 160 (2019) 114007.
 Metal-oxides with lower density can accommodate more nano- [17] J. Khodadadi, L. Fan, H. Babaei, Thermal conductivity enhancement of
nanostructure-based colloidal suspensions utilized as phase change
particles in base paraffin for given volume concentration and materials for thermal energy storage: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
therefore, the specific surface area for heat transfer can be 24 (2013) 418–444.
increased. In consequence, a higher phase transition rate can [18] M. Xia, Y. Yuan, X. Zhao, X. Cao, Z. Tang, Cold storage condensation heat
recovery system with a novel composite phase change material, Appl. Energy
be achieved. For instance, SiO2, Al2O3, MgO and TiO2 based 175 (2016) 259–268.
nano-PCMs demonstrate relatively higher charging/discharging [19] S. Sharshir, G. Peng, L. Wu, F. Essa, A. Kabeel, N. Yang, The effects of flake
rates and reasonable reduction in total enthalpy. graphite nanoparticles, phase change material, and film cooling on the solar
still performance, Appl. Energy 191 (2017) 358–366.
 Inclusion of nano-particles can significantly enhance charging/ [20] Z.-T. Yu, X. Fang, L.-W. Fan, X. Wang, Y.-Q. Xiao, Y. Zeng, X. Xu, Y.-C. Hu, K.-F.
discharging rates at the cost of reduction in overall enthalpy Cen, Increased thermal conductivity of liquid paraffin-based suspensions in
and increase in total cost. Hence, there is trade-off between the presence of carbon nano-additives of various sizes and shapes, Carbon 53
(2013) 277–285.
optimum thermal performance and higher cost of nano-PCM.
[21] T. Qian, J. Li, Octadecane/C-decorated diatomite composite phase change
It is identified from price-performance ratios that SiO2, Al2O3, material with enhanced thermal conductivity as aggregate for developing
MgO and TiO2 are preferable nano-additives due to their rela- structural–functional integrated cement for thermal energy storage, Energy
tively lower cost and excellent thermal enhancement. 142 (2018) 234–249.
[22] K. Kant, A. Shukla, A. Sharma, P.H. Biwole, Heat transfer study of phase change
materials with graphene nano particle for thermal energy storage, Sol. Energy
146 (2017) 453–463.
[23] Y. Yuan, N. Zhang, T. Li, X. Cao, W. Long, Thermal performance enhancement of
Declaration of Competing Interest palmitic-stearic acid by adding graphene nanoplatelets and expanded graphite
for thermal energy storage: a comparative study, Energy 97 (2016) 488–497.
[24] Y. Tang, D. Su, X. Huang, G. Alva, L. Liu, G. Fang, Synthesis and thermal
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. properties of the MA/HDPE composites with nano-additives as form-stable
PCM with improved thermal conductivity, Appl. Energy 180 (2016) 116–129.
[25] R.J. Warzoha, A.S. Fleischer, Improved heat recovery from paraffin-based phase
Acknowledgement change materials due to the presence of percolating graphene networks, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 79 (2014) 314–323.
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support pro- [26] M. Alizadeh, K. Hosseinzadeh, H. Mehrzadi, D. Ganji, Investigation of LHTESS
filled by Hybrid nano-enhanced PCM with Koch snowflake fractal cross section
vided by Bournemouth University, UK and National University of in the presence of thermal radiation, J. Mol. Liq. 273 (2019) 414–424.
Sciences & Technology, Pakistan (BU grant number 8399). [27] K. Hosseinzadeh, M. Alizadeh, M. Tavakoli, D. Ganji, Investigation of phase change
material solidification process in a LHTESS in the presence of fins with variable
thickness and hybrid nanoparticles, Appl. Therm. Eng. 152 (2019) 706–717.
References [28] Z. Khan, Z.A. Khan, Experimental and numerical investigations of nano-
additives enhanced paraffin in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger: a comparative
study, Appl. Therm. Eng. 143 (2018) 777–790.
[1] REN21, Renewables 2017 Global Status Report, Paris: REN21 Secretariat, 2017.
[29] A.L. Owolabi, H.H. Al-Kayiem, A.T. Baheta, Nanoadditives induced
[2] M. Höök, X. Tang, Depletion of fossil fuels and anthropogenic climate change—
enhancement of the thermal properties of paraffin-based nanocomposites
a review, Energy Policy 52 (2013) 797–809.
for thermal energy storage, Sol. Energy 135 (2016) 644–653.
[3] L.F. Cabeza, A. Castell, C.d. Barreneche, A. De Gracia, A. Fernández, Materials
[30] S.C. Lin, H.H. Al-Kayiem, Evaluation of copper nanoparticles–Paraffin wax
used as PCM in thermal energy storage in buildings: a review, Renew. Sustain.
compositions for solar thermal energy storage, Sol. Energy 132 (2016) 267–278.
Energy Rev. 15 (3) (2011) 1675–1695.
[31] M. Said, H. Hassan, Effect of using nanoparticles on the performance of thermal
[4] Z. Khan, Z. Khan, A. Ghafoor, A review of performance enhancement of PCM
energy storage of phase change material coupled with air-conditioning unit,
based latent heat storage system within the context of materials, thermal
Energy Convers. Manage. 171 (2018) 903–916.
stability and compatibility, Energy Convers. Manage. 115 (2016) 132–158.
[32] S. Harikrishnan, M. Deenadhayalan, S. Kalaiselvam, Experimental investigation
[5] J.P. da Cunha, P. Eames, Thermal energy storage for low and medium
of solidification and melting characteristics of composite PCMs for building
temperature applications using phase change materials–a review, Appl.
heating application, Energy Convers. Manage. 86 (2014) 864–872.
Energy 177 (2016) 227–238.
[33] S.I. Golestaneh, G. Karimi, A. Babapoor, F. Torabi, Thermal performance of co-
[6] N.S. Dhaidan, J. Khodadadi, Melting and convection of phase change materials
electrospun fatty acid nanofiber composites in the presence of nanoparticles,
in different shape containers: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 43 (2015)
Appl. Energy 212 (2018) 552–564.
449–477.
[34] A. Babapoor, G. Karimi, Thermal properties measurement and heat storage
[7] M. Kibria, M. Anisur, M. Mahfuz, R. Saidur, I. Metselaar, A review on
analysis of paraffinnanoparticles composites phase change material:
thermophysical properties of nanoparticle dispersed phase change materials,
comparison and optimization, Appl. Therm. Eng. 90 (2015) 945–951.
Energy Convers. Manage. 95 (2015) 69–89.
22 Z. Khan et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 144 (2019) 118619

[35] A. Babapoor, G. Karimi, M. Khorram, Fabrication and characterization of [50] Iolitec Ionic Liquids Technologies GmbH, https://iolitec.de/en, in, 2018.
nanofiber-nanoparticle-composites with phase change materials by [51] M. Parsazadeh, X. Duan, Numerical and statistical study on melting of
electrospinning, Appl. Therm. Eng. 99 (2016) 1225–1235. nanoparticle enhanced phase change material in a shell-and-tube thermal
[36] S. Ebadi, S.H. Tasnim, A.A. Aliabadi, S. Mahmud, Geometry and nanoparticle energy storage system, Appl. Therm. Eng. 111 (2017) 950–960.
loading effects on the bio-based nano-PCM filled cylindrical thermal energy [52] J.M. Mahdi, S. Lohrasbi, D.D. Ganji, E.C. Nsofor, Accelerated melting of PCM in
storage system, Appl. Therm. Eng. 141 (2018) 724–740. energy storage systems via novel configuration of fins in the triplex-tube heat
[37] S. Ebadi, S.H. Tasnim, A.A. Aliabadi, S. Mahmud, Melting of nano-PCM inside a exchanger, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 124 (2018) 663–676.
cylindrical thermal energy storage system: Numerical study with [53] O. Mahian, L. Kolsi, M. Amani, P. Estellé, G. Ahmadi, C. Kleinstreuer, J.S.
experimental verification, Energy Convers. Manage. 166 (2018) 241–259. Marshall, M. Siavashi, R.A. Taylor, H. Niazmand, Recent advances in modeling
[38] M. Al-Jethelah, S.H. Tasnim, S. Mahmud, A. Dutta, Nano-PCM filled energy and simulation of nanofluid flows-part I: fundamental and theory, Phys. Rep.
storage system for solar-thermal applications, Renewable Energy 126 (2018) (2018).
137–155. [54] D.D. Gray, A. Giorgini, The validity of the Boussinesq approximation for liquids
[39] R. Sharma, P. Ganesan, V. Tyagi, H. Metselaar, S. Sandaran, Thermal properties and gases, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 19 (5) (1976) 545–551.
and heat storage analysis of palmitic acid-TiO2 composite as nano-enhanced [55] D.A. Nield, A. Bejan, Nield-Bejan... Convection in porous media, Springer, 2006.
organic phase change material (NEOPCM), Appl. Therm. Eng. 99 (2016) 1254– [56] M.T. Chaichan, H.A. Kazem, Single slope solar distillator productivity
1262. improvement using phase change material and Al2O3 nanoparticle, Sol.
[40] R. Hossain, S. Mahmud, A. Dutta, I. Pop, Energy storage system based on Energy 164 (2018) 370–381.
nanoparticle-enhanced phase change material inside porous medium, Int. J. [57] K. Venkitaraj, S. Suresh, B. Praveen, A. Venugopal, S.C. Nair, Pentaerythritol
Therm. Sci. 91 (2015) 49–58. with alumina nano additives for thermal energy storage applications, J.
[41] N.S. Dhaidan, J. Khodadadi, T.A. Al-Hattab, S.M. Al-Mashat, Experimental and Storage Mater. 13 (2017) 359–377.
numerical study of constrained melting of n-octadecane with CuO [58] M. Corcione, Empirical correlating equations for predicting the effective
nanoparticle dispersions in a horizontal cylindrical capsule subjected to a thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of nanofluids, Energy Convers.
constant heat flux, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 67 (2013) 523–534. Manage. 52 (1) (2011) 789–793.
[42] X. Zhang, X. Chen, Z. Han, W. Xu, Study on phase change interface for erythritol [59] R. Kandasamy, X.-Q. Wang, A.S. Mujumdar, Transient cooling of electronics
with nano-copper in spherical container during heat transport, Int. J. Heat using phase change material (PCM)-based heat sinks, Appl. Therm. Eng. 28 (8–
Mass Transf. 92 (2016) 490–496. 9) (2008) 1047–1057.
[43] C.-J. Ho, J. Gao, An experimental study on melting heat transfer of paraffin [60] R.S. Vajjha, D.K. Das, Experimental determination of thermal conductivity of
dispersed with Al2O3 nanoparticles in a vertical enclosure, Int. J. Heat Mass three nanofluids and development of new correlations, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf.
Transf. 62 (2013) 2–8. 52 (21–22) (2009) 4675–4682.
[44] Z. Qian, H. Shen, X. Fang, L. Fan, N. Zhao, J. Xu, Phase change materials of [61] J.C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
paraffin in h-BN porous scaffolds with enhanced thermal conductivity and 1873.
form stability, Energy Build. 158 (2018) 1184–1188. [62] V.D. Bruggeman, Berechnung verschiedener physikalischer Konstanten von
[45] W. Yuan, X. Yang, G. Zhang, X. Li, A thermal conductive composite phase heterogenen Substanzen. I. Dielektrizitätskonstanten und Leitfähigkeiten der
change material with enhanced volume resistivity by introducing silicon Mischkörper aus isotropen Substanzen, Ann. Phys. 416 (7) (1935) 636–664.
carbide for battery thermal management, Appl. Therm. Eng. 144 (2018) 551– [63] R.L. Hamilton, O. Crosser, Thermal conductivity of heterogeneous two-
557. component systems, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 1 (3) (1962) 187–191.
[46] P. Bose, V.A. Amirtham, A review on thermal conductivity enhancement of [64] Y. Xuan, Q. Li, W. Hu, Aggregation structure and thermal conductivity of
paraffinwax as latent heat energy storage material, Renew. Sustain. Energy nanofluids, AIChE J. 49 (4) (2003) 1038–1043.
Rev. 65 (2016) 81–100. [65] O. Mahian, L. Kolsi, M. Amani, P. Estellé, G. Ahmadi, C. Kleinstreuer, J.S.
[47] H. Helvaci, Z.A. Khan, Heat transfer and entropy generation analysis of HFE Marshall, R.A. Taylor, E. Abu-Nada, S. Rashidi, Recent advances in modeling
7000 based nanorefrigerants, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 104 (2017) 318–327. and simulation of nanofluid flows-part II: applications, Phys. Rep. (2018).
[48] RubithermÒ Technologies GmbH, http://www.rubitherm.eu/en/, in, 2018. [66] V.T. Morgan, The overall convective heat transfer from smooth circular
[49] Sigma-Aldrich Company Ltd., https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/united- cylinders, in: Advances in heat transfer, Elsevier, 1975, pp. 199–264.
kingdom.html, in, 2018.