Renegotiating Identities: Displacement and Relocation in

Partition Literature
A comparative study
with special reference to

Footprints on Zero Line: Writings on The Partition (Collection of

A SYNOPSIS
Submitted to
Dayalbagh Educational Institute
(Deemed University)

For the Fulfilment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

In

ENGLISH
(2021)

Under the supervision of: Submitted by:

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH STUDIES

FACULTY OF ARTS

DAYALBAGH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

DEEMED UNIVERSITY

DAYALBAGH, AGRA – 282005

15 august 1947 has been carved with the memories of Independence in Indian constitution.

Whereas former days were spent in drawing a line in order to separate India and Pakistan.

The news of partition travelled like forest fire through the authorities for the partition of

British India. Rumours were airborne and each one had their own preparations. Leaders were

busy writing their speech, journalists were on their toes to capture the most memorable day in

the history of India. Common man was dancing to the tunes of freedom which was a farcical

concept. Independence and partition were interwoven without the slightest hints of violence,

suffering and trauma it would bring along. The major changes were planned with heavy heart

to demarcate the territorial map of the subcontinent based on the majority and minority of

population. The reactions were diversified at the thought of dividing a nation. Some faces

were joyful, others bewildered and frustrated at the thought of leaving their land, house and

cattle behind. W.H Auden sums up the trajectory of Partition in his relentless poem

“Partition”:

Unbiased at least he was when he arrived on his mission,

Having never set eyes on this land he was called to partition

Between two people fanatically at odds,

With their different diets and incompatible gods.

‘Time’, they had briefed him in London, is short.

It’s too late

For mutual reconciliation or rational debate:

The only solution now lies in separation (Auden, lines 1-7)

The division was not only a division of land but discord of hearts, identities, societies and

communities. It was a production house of hatred, recession leading to the paralysis of the
entire nation. It was not a smooth pathway to create a new nation but a tumultuous task which

still wails in the ears and hearts of many beings across the boundaries. The partition was a

disorderly process which threatened the existence of the two nations. It sowed seeds of

immense hatred among people, snatching their social, political, religious and psychological

identities away. People experiencing partition were uncertain of the meaning as higher

authorities refrained from conveying the translucent image for the line drawn. Thus, leading

to bloodshed and violence. Partition was not only a political turn moil, but it equally affected

the intimate lives of every individual encountering it. It had a huge impact on millions

claiming lives in communal riots, loot, abduction of women, rapes and murders. The largest

diaspora took place and millions of refugees were uprooted from their homeland struggling to

settle in regions completely unknown to them. The disorientation of identity was a major

concern during the displacement. Those identities were attached not only to their religious

persona but also to their geographical boundaries.

Trauma and depression were outcomes of such carnage leading to ruthless killings of

children, women as well as men. Men of one religious community were keen in conducting

rapes and killing women, children from other community. The sudden urge to erase the

existence of other communities overpowered sane human mind. Suddenly Insanity appeared

more rational as everyone went awry in such vicious atmosphere. Mindless violence was

unbridled by most sensible and logical gentry of the nation. Muslims, Sikhs as well as Hindus

were all victims regardless of their religious differences. Punjab and province of Bengal were

majorly affected. Cities like Lahore and Amritsar were filled with the smell of corpses. Soon

this fire spread to other parts of the nation creating havoc. The aim was to conduct genocide

on colossal scale irrespective of class, gender and religion. The intensity of violence was hot-

blooded which can never be completely captured by any narrative on partition. These horrors
are only a glimpse of the entire tragedy. A heart wrenching anecdote is expressed in The

Great Partition written by Yasmin Khan:

Small details give only a glimpse of a deeper tragedy, expressed in the cries of an

unknown refugee who, when meeting Nehru as he toured the refugee camps, slapped

on the face, crying, ‘Give my mother back to me! Bring my sisters to me!’ or in the

grief of an unnamed villager ‘whose family had been wiped out,’, who on meeting

Jinnah as he toured the Pakistani camps in 1947, ‘sobbed uncontrollably'(Khan)

There is a deep-rooted connection between the social, political, religious and psychological

identities formed and deformed during the tragedy of Partition. Multiple aspects of the same

can be seen in various texts in literature.

Literature exploring the whereabouts of Partition and its effect on society, economy,

politics, gender as well as identity is known as Partition literature. The agony and wounds

caused by partition have found their voice in partition literature. Many prolific writers have

contributed in being the mouthpiece of adversities undergone by people. Some of them are

Khushwant Singh, Salman Rushdie, Saddat Hasan Manto, Rajinder Singh Bedi etc. Partition

literature depicts common characteristics such as barbarism, hooliganism, abduction, rape

and mass killings. Memories are triggered to bring out the tales of violence and bloodshed

during the catastrophe. History and memory are intertwined in the narratives of Partition

literature. Partition texts generally trace the journeys of the survivors and their reactions to

the sudden shift in the geographical location, economic status and religious congruence. The

afterlife of partition and longingness to return their native land has been widely discussed

through various characters in partition literature. The sense of belonging was blurred in the

pathway of partition leading to mental strains. Various narratives have looked upon partition
from the perspective of women. Their plight was manifested through multi-faceted

standpoints.

It is through female characters partition can be seen through the lens of personal tragedy

instead of being only a political one. History is majorly written from male gaze where female

gaze lacks significance. Men had the slightest opportunity to wilfully choose the nation they

wanted to devote their territorial identities to whereas women had the misfortune of being

abducted with no choice left to choose the nation they wanted to belong to. They were

tortured mentally and physically. Forced to walk naked on the roads, breasts were cut off,

raped, impregnated to bear illegal children. Women were traded in exchange for freedom by

their families. Many female writers have collected the tales of women dealing with partition

closely and penned them down diligently. Some of them are Bapsi Sidhwa, Attia Hosain,

Anita Desai. Representation of Pooro in Amrita Pritam’s Pinjar depicts her transformation

from a Hindu girl to a Muslim married woman. Her fate was decided by the Radcliffe line

drawn between the two nations.

Women are considered to be the custodians of honour by their community, society and

family. The atrocities caused to the females were generally to assure the reconciliation of

community’s stained or lost honour. Partition consists of millions of stories verifying the

same stance. Oral tradition was considered to be a crucial element in texts circumscribed

around partition especially for capturing voices of women.

As women are always left behind in the framing of historical narratives, oral tradition helped

capture lost voices of women. History is dictated by men; women are never included in the

historical framework. Historical framework of Partition also excluded the physical, emotional

and psychological wellbeing of women. The impact of divide on women was not even taken

into consideration. With the advent of Women’s writing, their voice began to be heard
.Partition Literature in every genre captured the barbarism delivered to women . Their self

esteem was trampled under the feet of patriarchy.

As explained by Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin in their book Borders and Boundaries:

Hardly ever and hardly anywhere, have women “written history”. They have left few

accounts, personal or otherwise, and have committed much less to writing than men.

Women historians have noted this absence and emphasized the importance of

retrieving women’s history through oral sources. Because women have used speech

much more widely than the written word, oral history practitioners have found in

interviews and testimonies a rich vein to mine and to surface what, so far, has been

hidden from history. (Menon and Kamla Bhasin 14)

Black days of Partition projected deep wounds which brought with itself mass displacement

and exodus. People in large numbers left their regions and migrated taking shelter in refugee

camps before leading to the other side of the Radcliffe line. The dominant factor which

overshadowed the exodus was religion. People from one religious community comprising of

Muslims were moving towards the new-born nation, Pakistan. The displacement was

disturbing and upsetting. The hasty and unplanned decision undertaken by Jawahar Lal Nehru

and other members of Congress led to massive destruction even inside the refugee camps set

up to provide shelter to people. They were unable to reconcile partition in their minds.

Transport infrastructure was overloaded during migration. Train to Pakistan by Khushwant

Singh vividly captures the aftermath of partition.

It will take us more than one night to clear out of homes it has taken our fathers and

grandfathers hundreds of years to make. (Singh 177)

leave. Some travelled miles on foot to reach their new homes but the memories stayed with

them throughout their lives. These memories provided enough material for the reconstruction

of history through partition literature.

After the idea of Two nation theory was jeopardized, religious men begin to enter the

arena of politics. Entangling Religion and Politics was one of the major flaw in the course of

dividing the two nations. The boundaries which were not marked between religion and

politics led to the genesis of religious ideologies attached to a particular political party. It

ignited violence which involved young men who were just committing the act for

materialistic gains by looting shops and houses. Nostalgia, anxiety of separation from their

native land formed one of the vital elements in the subject matter linked with partition.

Starting a new life amidst violence was indeed a herculean task.

Partition Literature also spills light on the absurdity of communal violence. Rumours

were the triggering point while the communal riots broke. People hastily decided to kill each

other without verifying the source of information as they were swayed by the newly built

communal-religious identities which they wanted to cling to in order to hold their chaotic

selves together. Khushwant Singh in his short story “The Riot” expounds the folly of

communal violence:

Men emerged from their houses making hasty enquiries. A Muslim or a Hindu, it was

said, had been attacked. Someone had been kidnapped and was being butchered. A

party of goondas were going to attack, but the dogs had started barking. They had

actually assaulted a woman and killed her children. There must be resistance. There

was. Groups of five joined others of ten. Tens joined twenties till a few hundred,

armed with knives, spears, hatchets, and kerosene oil cans proceeded to Ram
 Jawaya’s house. They were met with a fusillade of stones, soda-water bottles and

acid. They hit back blindly. Tins of kerosene oil were emptied indiscriminately and

lighted. Flames shot up in the sky enveloping Ram Jawaya’s home and the entire

neighbourhood, Hindu, Muslim and Sikh alike. (Singh 333)

Partition came with a sense of homelessness. People had their lives ruptured and this existed

in collective memory rather than individual. The relocation of masses was politically

recorded by the historians whereas their intimate experiences were captured by the works of

literature. Urvashi Butalia in her book The other side of silence records the private stories that

went beyond history, the secrets which were not broadcasted by media but held within them

scarring their souls each day. She has acknowledged that partition is still alive in the

memories and souls of the bruised. Similarly, Amrita Pritam laments the sexual violence

inflicted on women during partition and implores Waris shah to wake up from tomb in her

poem “Aj Aakhan Waaris shah Noo …”.

Ajj Aakhan Waris Shah Nuu,

Kiton Qabraan Wichon Bol,

Tey Ajj Kitaab-e-Ishq Daa,

Koi Agla Warka Phol

Ikk Royi Sii Dhi Punjab Di,

Tu Likh Likh Maarey Wain,

Ajj Lakhaan Dhiyan Rondiyan,

Tenu Waris Shah Nuu Kain

Uthh Dard-Mandaan Diya Dardiya,

Utth Tak Apna Punjab

Tey Lahoo Di Bhari Chenab (Pritam lines 1-12)

To demonstrate the analysis of resettlement and quest for identity in partition literature, the

following works have been selected:

A) From Gulzar’s Footprints on Zero line: writings on the Partition, collection of poems:

“Zero line”, “Dina”, “Dhaiyya”, “Millstone”, “If Possible…”

B) Qurratulain Hyder’s novels River of Fire and My Temples, too

C) Sadat Hassan Manto’s short stories: “Khol do”, “The Dog of Tithwal”, “Thanda

Gosht”, “Toba Tek Singh”

Sampooran Singh Kalra, professionally known as Gulzar was born on 18 August 1934 in

Dina which is now in Pakistan is a renowned poet, author, film maker, screenplay and

dialogue writer. His career took a kick start as an assistant to Bimal Roy (a film maker). He

has written numerous poems and short stories which were finest among the lot. His book

Ravi Paar highlights the multi-faceted nature of Partition. He has also acclaimed himself as

the renowned children’s writer. He received Sahitya Academy Award and Padma Bhushan

(third highest civilian award). He is also a recipient of Oscar for his song “Jai Ho” in

Slumdog Millionaire in 2008. The horrors of Partition have been empirical in the memory of

Gulzar as he experienced them with body and soul. Himself being included in the greatest

mass migration made him crave for his land. His Book Footprints on Zero Line: Writing on

the Partition translated by Rakshanda Jalil is an anthology consisting of Poems and Tales

illustrating the terrific times of Partition. The book renders the stories of Homeless people

jumbled in the frantic hours incorporating the dreadful and inhumane acts. The collection of

poems “Zero Line”, “Dina”, “At Dina”, “Dhaiyya”, “Millstone” and “If Possible”

reminiscences the dreadful rearrangement of mankind during divide. The yearning to return
to his native land and region is captured gracefully by Gulzar. The childhood memories have

been evoked with a deep longing to return to his lost home. It is astonishing to see the role of

memory in the poems where each imagery about the past have been minutely captured.

The poems do not refrain from showcasing the helplessness of humans when tragedy hits

them hard. They had to endure twists and turns with only possibility of recollecting the past

by commemorating it. “Zero line “takes us back to Dina, a city in Jhelum district of Punjab

eliciting images of ‘Tiny carboard railway station’ and a ‘bazaar’. The poet pines to return to

his land after he embraces death. “Dina “and “At Dina “takes us on a voyage of infancy and

youth in the background of Partition. “Dhaiyya” and “If Possible” expands the silence and

hollowness that remains in the heart of everyone who left his home constantly marking the

possibility of going back and reliving the memories again.

Qurratulain Hyder, an Indian Urdu novelist, a journalist and a short story writer is an

influential personality in Urdu Literature. She received appreciation for her magnum opus,

River of Fire as well as retained credits for other published works such as Patjhar Ki Awaz

(1982), Chaye Ke Bagh (1965), Chandni Begum. She has successfully attempted writing a

short story “Bi-Chuhiya (Little Miss Mouse), which got published in Children’s Magazine

Phool.

My Temples Too, published in 2004 narrates the wrenching tale of Partition, Independence

and Democracy amidst false promises and prevailing disenchantment. The story revolves

around Rakshanda, her brother Peechu and their group of friends Kiran, Vimal, Salim,

Christabel. They have progressive ideals instilled in them as passion of youth was bubbling

inside their souls. Their cogent nationalism was inclined towards creating a new world where

they would live life on their own terms. This illusion was abruptly shattered when demon of

partition crawled in creating turbulence in their innocent lives. Their immaculate friendship

was poisoned by the newly framed identities which were suffused with animosity against
each other’s community. Unable to cope up with the unpleasant times their friendship gave

up like many others in the entire nation. The characters were wrestling throughout the novel

to figure out the resolution for the problems of identity and belonging.

River of Fire, published in 1998 is divided into Four eras:

A) Classical

B) Medieval

C) Colonial

D) Pre- Partition and Post Partition

Every Era has its own plot and characters. The novel provides us with various hints about

characters who existed in post partition era were the descendants of characters in colonial era.

The voyage of life is portrayed through different time periods. The land of Hindustan faced

multiple challenges comprising of social, political, cultural and economic constraints in each

era. The tale evolves through multiple relationships dipped in the sweet nectar of love along

with historical references from the pious land of Hindustan. The novel also traces back to the

major events of history such as The Mutiny of 1857 in the colonial era. The glimpse of Pre

partition and Post Partition is evident. Some characters are leaving India and moving to

foreign land. Their writings reveal the mindset which accompanied each individual after the

division of the land. The blame game continued and detestation wrapped everyone. As the

novel gradually progresses, author unveils the contrast between Post partition and Pre

partition India. The changes are unravelled through the character of Kamal when he visits

India after partition, the land where his childhood memories were buried. The ending takes us

back to the beginning of the novel.

Sadat Hasan Manto was a writer, playwright as well as author in British India. He was

born in Ludhiana on 11 May 1912. He migrated to Pakistan after Partition. His writings are

mainly in Urdu language. He acclaims credit for twenty-two collection of short stories, five
series plays, three collection of essays and two collection of personal sketches. Manto’s

writings are famous for manifesting naked truths of society which was greatly opposed. His

notable works are “Toba Tek Singh”, “Thanda Gosht”, “Boo”, “Khol Do”, “Kaali Salwar”,

“Hattak”. His stories are designated to the background of partition. They are enfolded in

symbolism. Each story has powerful impact on the minds of the readers.

“Toba Tek Singh” was written in 1954 which describes the exchange of lunatics amidst

the partition of India and Pakistan. The story takes us through the actions and activities of

various inmates of asylum, one of them being Bhishan Singh also known as Toba Tek Singh.

Each lunatic was confused at the thought of displacement like others outside it. The story

peers through the heart of the readers when Bhishan Singh stays in no man’s land refusing to

cross boundaries laid by government. Another story “Khol do” is about a father Sirajuddin

who looks for her teenage daughter Sakina lost in the middle of breach of peace. The story

presents a stark reality of violence inflicted on women during partition in form of sexual,

physical and mental abuse. “The Dog of Tithwal” shows the dark side of patriotism and

hatred inbuilt inside each individual. A stray dog was killed by some of the soldiers of Indian

Army after they discovered his sin of taking food from Pakistani soldiers.

“Thanda Gosht” begins with the absurd conversation between a married couple followed

by love making. The story unfolds by describing the heinous act of rape, murderers and loot

conducted in the middle of divide. The devil inherent inside a man unleashes itself

conducting abominable acts is distinctly displayed in the story.

Literature Review reveals that Partition literature has been widely studied in every form

such as novels, short stories as well as poems. Partition has been seen through every lens:

Displacement, Condition of women during partition, Trauma and Violence in every form and

problems of identity and belongingness. It has been observed that Poems of Gulzar taken

from his book Footprints on Zero line: Writings on the Partition has not been studied from
the lens of Partition. The novel River of Fire has been critically evaluated by some scholars

based on culture, history, narrative and stylistic techniques as well as travelling memory.

Some of the works had a slight peek of Partition. It can be seen that the novel has not

received any specific critical attention based on the underlying trauma after relocation and

new sense of identity and belongingness. The journal article Published by Indian

International Center in 2002 Beyond Partition: turns of centuries in Aag Ka Darya. The

author explored the newly emerging Indo- Islamic culture after Partition. Major differences

emerged in both the communities after one piece of land was shredded. The article studies the

broken cultures and emerging hatred along with its assimilation in bits and pieces.

Questioning Partition’s Rationale: Quarratulain Hyder’s “My Temples, Too” another

Journal Article published by Sahitya Akademi in 2016 discusses the earthquake and frenzy

experienced by each character in the novel during the process of Partition.

Short stories of Manto have been perceived from various standpoints such as Post

colonialism, treatment of women, historical aspects along with memory and partition. The

Journal Article published by Economic and Political Weekly Memories of Partition:

Revisiting Sadat Hasan Manto recollects the memories of partition through short stories By

Manto. The Author uses subheadings to give a scintillating view of themes embedded in

various short stories. The humane aspect of Partition is evaluated in the article.

Another Journal Article published by Economic and Political weekly Manto’s “Open it”:

Engendering Partition Narratives discloses the assumptions made by several minds on sexual

violence women faced during Partition.

Partition has discoloured minds and brains of many. Partition literature has widely

captured the horrors and terrors of Partition. It is crucial to evaluate different forms of

Partition literature from different perspectives. The survey reveals that the viewpoint of

Relocation, Quest for Identity and sense of belonging has not been widely studied in the
selected texts. The present dissertation proposes to do the comparative study of selected

works of different writers from the outlook of resettlement, rehousing and formulating

identities discussing their relevance in literary studies and contemporary times.

The objectives of the proposed study would be: -

1) To make an in-depth study of Partition Literature with reference to the aspect

Relocation and Identity.

2) To analyse the selected works of Gulzar, Qurratulain Hyder and Sadat Hasan Manto

within the framework of chosen perspectives.

3) To compare and contrast the selected works within the structure of Theme, Style,

Form of genre, Setting, Tone, Point of view, Language used, etc.

4) To study the contribution of selected writers in disclosing the fright of the Divide.

5) To study the relevance of selected works in Post Colonial studies.

In the light of the above objectives, the tentative chapter scheme of the proposed study would

be as follows:

1) Introduction

2) Exploring Mass Exodus and longing to revisit the lost land: A collection of poems in

Gulzar’s Footprints on Zero Line: Writings on the Partition

3) River of fire and My Temples, Too: An interpretation of Partition novels by

Qurratulain Hyder in the light of Parleying Identities germinating bewilderment

4) Elucidating Violence, Trauma and depression in the tales of Manto: “khol do”, “The

Dog of Tithwal”, “Thanda Gosht” and Toba Tek Singh

5) A comparative and stylistic study of selected texts By Gulzar, Manto and Hyder
 6) Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES:

Hyder, Qurratulain. My Temples, Too. Women Unlimited an associate of Kali for Women, 2004.

Hyder, Qurratulain. River of Fire. New Directions Publishing Corporation, 2003.

Jalil, Rakhshanda, translator. Footprints on Zero Line: Writings on the Partition, By Gulzaar,

Harper Perennial an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers, 2017.

Manto, Saadat Hasan. Thanda Ghosht aur Anya Kahaniyaan. Rajpal & Sons, 2016.

Manto, Saadat Hasan. Toba Tek Singh Aur Anya Kahaniyaan, Rajpal & Sons, 2013.

Manto, Saadat Hasan. Khol do. https://www.rekhta.org/stories/khol-do-saadat-hasan-manto-stories

Manto, Saadat Hasan. The Dog of Tithwal. Kingdom’s End and Other Stories. Translated by

Hasan, Khalid.

SECONDARY SOURCE:

Sarvar V. Sherry Chand. “Manto's ‘Open It’: Engendering Partition Narratives.” Economic and

Political Weekly, vol. 41, no. 4, 2006, pp. 308–310. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4417725.

Tiwari, Sudha. “Memories of Partition: Revisiting Saadat Hasan Manto.” Economic and Political

Weekly, vol. 48, no. 25, 2013, pp. 50–58. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23527974.

Anjum, Naila. “Questioning Partition's Rationale: Qurratulain Hyder's ‘My Temples,

Too.’” Indian Literature, vol. 60, no. 3 (293), 2016, pp. 138–153. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/44479013.
Kumar, Sukrita Paul. “Beyond Partition: Turns of Centuries in Aag Ka Darya.” India

International Centre Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, pp. 87–94. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/23005781.

Auden, Wystan Hugh. WH Auden’s unsparing poem on the partition on India.

https://www.scroll.in/article/674238/wh-auden-s-unsparing-poem-on-the-partition-of-india

Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. Pdf file

Singh, Khushwant. Train to Pakistan. Orient Longman Private Limited, 2005. Pdf file.

Pritam, Amrita. Amrita Pritam -Poems -. Poemhunter.com- The World’s Poetry Archive. 2012.

Pdf file.

Menon, Ritu and Kamla Bhasin. Borders and Boundaries: Women in India’s Partition. Kali for

Women, New Delhi 1998

Singh,Khushwant.The Riot. The collected Short stories of Khushwant Singh .Ravi Dayal

Publisher (Pdf file)