Banana by Product

J Food Sci Technol (December 2014) 51(12):3527–3545
DOI 10.1007/s13197-012-0861-2
REVIEW
Banana by-products: an under-utilized renewable food biomass

with great potential
Birdie Scott Padam & Hoe Seng Tin & Fook Yee Chye &
Mohd Ismail Abdullah
Revised: 13 September 2012 / Accepted: 18 September 2012 / Published online: 3 October 2012
# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2012
Abstract Banana (Musaceae) is one of the world’s most Introduction

important fruit crops that is widely cultivated in tropical
countries for its valuable applications in food industry. Its Banana is one of the earliest crops cultivated in the history
enormous by-products are an excellent source of highly of human agriculture. The origin of this particular plant
valuable raw materials for other industries by recycling family stretches from India to Papua New Guinea which
agricultural waste. This prevents an ultimate loss of huge includes the Southeast Asian region (Arvanitoyannis and
amount of untapped biomass and environmental issues. This Mavromatis 2009; De Lange et al. 2009). Its mass cultiva-
review discusses extensively the breakthrough in the utili- tion and consumption in the recent decades made it the
zation of banana by-products such as peels, leaves, pseu- world second largest fruit crop with an estimated gross
dostem, stalk and inflorescence in various food and non- production exceeds 139 million tones (FAO 2010a). World
food applications serving as thickening agent, coloring and leading banana and plantain producers are India, China,
flavor, alternative source for macro and micronutrients, Uganda, Ecuador, Philippines, and Nigeria. Most of the
nutraceuticals, livestock feed, natural fibers, and sources of edible bananas are cultivated mainly for their fruits, thus
natural bioactive compounds and bio-fertilizers. Future banana farms could generate several tons of underused by-
prospects and challenges are the important key factors dis- products and wastes. Therefore, without proper agricultural
cussed in association to the sustainability and feasibility of waste management practice, huge amount of valuable un-
utilizing these by-products. It is important that all available tapped commodity will be lost and causing serious ecolog-
by-products be turned into highly commercial outputs in ical damages (Essien et al. 2005; Shah et al. 2005; Yabaya and
order to sustain this renewable resource and provide addi- Ado 2008). The native people have been utilizing these plants
tional income to small scale farming industries without more than just for food purposes but have begun to explore the
compromising its quality and safety in competing with other possibilities of utilizing banana plants in their daily life.
commercial products. Banana by-products have been used for wrappings foods,
clothes and used in various ceremonial occasions and the
Keywords Banana . Plantain . By-products processing . usage expands through cultural diversification (Kennedy
Agricultural waste . Value added products . Food and non- 2009). Modern agriculture generally groups banana into fruit
food application crop or cash crop commodities alongside with several other
crops such as oil palm, sugarcane, pineapple, mangoes and
rice. Similarly, some of these commodities do produce huge
amount of cellulostic waste termed as agricultural waste or
B. S. Padam : H. S. Tin : F. Y. Chye (*) : M. I. Abdullah
biomass. Innovation in managing such a vast amount of
School of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, agricultural waste or biomass is a continuous challenge and
Jalan UMS, recent trends favor the utilization of this biomass for value
88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia added purposes to fulfill the need in the areas such as renew-
e-mail: [email protected] able energy, fiber composites and textiles, food alternatives
F. Y. Chye and livestock feed (Rosentrater et al. 2009). Studies on the
e-mail: [email protected] cellulostic fibers from other agricultural wastes such as from
3528 J Food Sci Technol (December 2014) 51(12):3527–3545
the oil palm industries indicated the great potential of these can range from triploid (AAA, BBB, AAB, ABB) to a diverse
by-products to become a commercial raw material in making tetraploid blends. As such, they are grouped based on their
highly demanded products such as paper and fiber composites ‘ploidy’ as Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana or Musa acumi-
(Bakar et al. 2007; Wan Rosli et al. 2007). nata x balbisiana, which is synonymous to the previous classi-
Numerous studies have been done to improve the usage fication called Musa x paradisiaca that represents hybrids
of banana by-products to meet the escalating demand of raw (Nelson et al. 2006). Hundreds of years of natural and selective
materials supply in various industries (Clarke et al. 2008; cultivation made it possible to transform edible bananas into
Doran et al. 2005; Emaga et al. 2008a; Kuo et al. 2006). several hundred varieties with a number of improvements such
These researches paved new and alternative ways in creating as the reduction in their seed size, sterility, oversized pulp, and
new products and applications with value added approach at spontaneous development of fruit without the need for fertiliza-
the cost of recycling banana agricultural wastes. There is a tion (Arvanitoyannis and Mavromatis 2009; Ploetz et al. 2007).
continuous need to create and invent new products with There are approximately 1200 seedless fleshy fruits varieties
value-added applications from alternative bio-resources as and cultivars of banana and plantain in the world and mainly
means to develop a sustainable civilization. Due to the high planted for food purposes (Aurore et al. 2009).
demand for food products, energy, and other essential needs, The advancement in the genomic identification of banana
gradual improvement in the current technological develop- varieties using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technol-
ment towards utilizing alternative resources in many indus- ogy and genetic based markers makes it possible for the
tries is necessary to cater the needs of the ever-increasing accurate identification of banana within similar species
world population (Mohammadi 2006). Therefore, this paper (Brown et al. 2009; El-Khishin et al. 2009; Teo et al.
aims to review the recent advances in the exploitation of 2005). However, morphological identification is still widely
banana by-products and wastes, the challenges in making used to determine the variety of the cultivated banana al-
these by-products a valuable commodity of the future. though there are some difficulties associated with the used
of whole-plant or floral morphology especially dealing with
somaclonal variation and identifying clones (Brown et al.
Banana as an agricultural commodity 2009). Agricultural bodies around the world especially in
the banana producing countries do keep a live specimen and
Classification and taxonomy in vitro culture of banana plant varieties in case where
genomic identification is required and for further improve-
Banana is actually one of the largest herb groups in the world ment of banana cultivation and research (Mattos et al. 2010;
(Ploetz et al. 2007). The plant can grows up to 5–7 m consisting Panis 2009).
of a fleshy rhizome (corm), pseudostem (leaf petioles) and
spirally arranged oblong leaves. The long oval shaped inflores- Production and global market
cence, supported by a stalk, protrudes out from the tip of the
pseudostem consisting of deep purple waxy bracts which Banana is grown in almost every country in the world
enclosed the female (occupies the lower 5–15 rows) and male especially in the tropical and subtropical countries where it
flowers (upper rows). The female flowers will eventually devel- has been sustainably cultivated and thus contributed to the
oped into “berry” fruits (hand) which will mature to be horned country’s economy (Zhang et al. 2005). India remains the
shaped with white or yellow flesh. Seeds are common in wild largest banana producing country in the world, which pro-
types but the cultivated varieties are generally seedless with duce more than 25 % of the world’s banana production
almost invisible dots of ovules at the center (Arvanitoyannis (Table 1) (FAO 2010a). Despite being the top ranked
and Mavromatis 2009). The term banana is commonly used to world’s banana producers, most of the banana produced in
represent the dessert cultivar while the cooking cultivar is gen- India are used for its domestic market and only about 0.04 %
erally referred as plantain. They belong to the family Musaceae is exported. Thus, total exports of banana from India are
and various species of the genus Musa have been cultivated dreadfully low as compared to other leading global banana
since time immemorial, and used as a source of fiber, foods, and exporting countries such as Ecuador, Costa Rica, Philip-
ornaments (Kennedy 2009; Subbaraya 2006). pines, and Colombia, which accounts for more than 60 %
Today’s production and domestication of edible desert ba- of the world’s exports. The top importers of banana are the
nanas and plantains involved a complex hybridization and United States and the European Union. The largest plantain
polyploidy between two diploid species. Musa acuminata pro- producing countries are mostly African countries where
vides the “AA genome” while Musa balbisiana provides the plantain is one of the staple foods in the region. According
“BB genome” (Heslop-Harrisons and Swarzacher 2007). The to FAO (2010a), Uganda is the largest plantain producer
edible banana (eaten as dessert) and plantain (banana for with an estimated production of 9.6 million tonnes, followed
cooking) may have combinations of these sets of genome which by Ghana and Rwanda.
J Food Sci Technol (December 2014) 51(12):3527–3545 3529
Table 1 Top ten major world producers of banana and plantain by rachis), rhizome and peels. Most of these by-products may serve
country
as an undervalued commodity with a limited commercial value,
Rank Banana Plaintain application and in some cases, it is considered as an agricultural
waste. The pseudostem and leaves are commonly left to rot in
Country Productiona Country Productiona farms to replenish some of the nutrients in the soil. Young
shoots, pseudostem piths and inflorescence, although be con-
1 India 31,897,900 Uganda 9,550,000
sumed as vegetables by the indigenous people in parts of
2 China 9,848,895 Ghana 3,537,730
Southeast Asia and Indo-Malesian Region (Kennedy 2009),
3 Philippines 1,101,340 Rwanda 2,749,150
they may not be able to compete with the common leafy
4 Equador 7,931,060 Nigeria 2,733,300
vegetables due to its undesirable taste. The values of the banana
5 Brazil 6,978,310 Cameroon 2,604,100
inflorescences were quite low because of the inconsistent de-
6 Indonesia 5,814,580 Colombia 2,815,050
mand and limited acceptance. Banana leaves are still used as
7 Tanzania 2,924,700 Peru 2,007,280
wrapping materials for traditional foods in Southeast Asia but its
8 Guatemala 2,621,500 Cote d’Ivoire 1,600,000
application only limited to some ethnic foods. A slightly better
9 Mexico 2,103,360 Congo 1,250,690
application of the banana waste was its utilization as an animal
10 Colombia 2,034,340 Kenya 791,579
feed to minimize the cost of production (Akinyele and Agbro
FAO 2010a 2007), but additional processing is required due to its high water
a
Values are expressed in metric tonne content that greatly reduces its nutritional density. Low cost
agricultural wastes are generally poor in essential nutrient but
Banana production is generally grouped into two different at the same time high in fiber content (Ulloa et al. 2004).
categories; the vast majorities being the small scale farmers that In some places where “open fire burning” is still practiced,
produce banana mainly for self-consumption and for the do- the burning of banana wastes may contribute to serious envi-
mestic market while the other group involves large plantations ronmental issues. In addition, the piling up of banana waste in
and companies that supplies both domestic as well as interna- plantations is an eyesore, which will eventually obstruct farmers
tional markets. Based on the statistics by FAO (2010b), there on their process to harvest mature and ripe fruits. Banana floral
are 93.3 million tonnes of dessert bananas and 34.3 million stalk and peels are not directly available at the farming site but
tonnes of plantains were produced in 2010 ahead of apple (70 may be available at the processing sites where the fruit is
million tonnes), orange (69 million tonnes) as well as grape (68 packaged or the fleshy pulp of the fruit is separated from its
million tonnes). However, in the previous year’s statistics, less peels. Collectively, the waste that a single banana plant produ-
than 20 % of the total production is traded internationally, which ces can make up to 80 % of the total plant mass. It is estimated
valued around 7 billion Euros (Aurore et al. 2009). The com- that 220 tonnes of by-products are produced per hectare annu-
mon internationally traded dessert bananas are mostly from the ally (Shah et al. 2005) indeed requires an innovative idea to turn
cultivated AAA group varieties such as “Cavendish”, “Gros these readily available resource into a value added products.
Michel”, and “Grande Naine”. Other well-known varieties
which are endemic to a certain region includes “Yangambi Banana by-products as potential renewable resource
Km5, AAA” found mostly in eastern Africa, “Red banana, in promoting “green” technology
AAA” and “Mysore AAB” found in southeast Asia as well as
“Silk AAB” and “Bluggoe ABB” which are found across the Renewable resource or biomass, are a naturally abundant
tropical region (Ploetz et al. 2007). resource, which may include any materials obtained from
biological origin such as plants and animal materials, agricul-
tural crops and biological residues or wastes (Xu et al. 2008).
Banana by-products These resources can be turned into raw materials or products
having the potential capacity of being recyclable and easily
Conventional uses of banana by-products and waste biodegradable which in turn having positive environmental
acceptability or ‘green label’ attributes plus commercial via-
Banana is a unique perennial single harvest plant. Its visible part, bility (Mohanty et al. 2002). Renewable resources have paved
the pseudostem and leaves dies after it bears fruit to make way way to the industry and have been used in decades to replace
for the young budding plant (suckers) to rejuvenate from the non-renewable resources especially petroleum and gas prod-
rhizome. The harvesting of the fruit in plantation requires the ucts, precious metals and minerals. It is important that the
decapitation of the whole plant so that the young suckers can utilization of low cost agricultural by-products and biological
replace the mother plant and these cycles can continue for wastes could be expanded to all possible industries in order to
unlimited generations. Generally, banana by-products include achieve a sustainable development of technology. This could
the pseudostem, leaves, inflorescence, fruit stalk (floral stalk/ contribute to an additional source of revenue to farmers and
processing industries without adversely affecting soil fertility citrus peels such as pomelo and lime (Madhav and Pushpalatha
and reduce the depletion of the non-renewable resources 2002). Pectin could be produced from discarded banana peels
(Reddy and Yang 2005). Additional valuable outputs from via acid extraction and precipitation by using alcohols or am-
the existing farmland might save our precious forest from monium salts. A study by Emaga et al. (2008a) revealed that
being destroyed to produce similar materials. pectin content in banana peels was higher than plantain peels
Green technology signifies an application, which is environ- and both of these fruit peels provide a similar or slightly higher
mental friendly emphasizing on conserving the natural environ- amount of extractable dietary fibers compared to other fruit
ment and resource as well as posing a minimal threat to the peels implying a potential cheaper alternative source of pectins
existing species on earth including humans. The technology for banana producing countries, reducing their dependence on
should be independent from the existing agro-food commodity imported pectins. Emaga et al. (2008b) have successfully iso-
market, as the utilization of agro-food based products such as lated and characterized pectins (87–248 kDa) from the banana
corn to drive green technology will eventually create food peels bearing variable compositions of neutral sugars (galac-
insecurity; ethical issues and unsustainable energy return tose, arabinose and rhamnose), galacturonic acid and different
(Pimentel and Patzek 2005). As an abundant biomass, banana degrees of esterification and the quality of pectin extracted
by-products are readily available to be used as a source of raw could be improved by manipulating the extraction parameters
materials for the green technology industry. The long history of as well as looking into the ripening stage of the fruit. The
human consumption of banana without any serious side effects synthesis of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) utilizing
reported provides somewhat a safety assurance in which these banana pseudostem was made possible through the work by
by-products do not contain hazardous phytochemicals. By- Adinugraha et al. (2005). However, the technical grade CMC
product harvesting, handling and storing perhaps require less obtained (98.63 %), may not be directly suitable yet for food
precaution as compared to other plants with potent and hazard- application. Thus, further purification process is needed to
ous chemical constituents. The utilization of banana by- obtain a food grade CMC (99.5 %) from banana pseudostem
products for the industrial application could promote “green that will meet the specification requirement of the Food Chem-
technology” in which may not pose any food security and ical Codex (1996). Microcrystalline cellulose was also obtained
ethical issues as it is independent from the existing agro-food from banana waste fibers through acid hydrolysis (Elanthikkal
based market. Moreover, it does not require extra planting area et al. 2010). However, it is indicated that banana by-products
apart from the current banana plantation for fruit. such as green culled banana, peels and pseudostem could be a
potential low cost source and raw material of high quality
starch, pectin and cellulose for the food industry (Table 2).
Potential food and nutraceutical from banana
by-products Natural bio-colorant
Source of starch, pectin, and cellulose The anthocyanins, a subclass of flavonoids are an important
pigment group that is responsible for the red, purple, and
Starch, pectin, and cellulose are used in the food industry as violet colors of the banana inflorescence (Kitdamrongsont et
gelling agent, thickening agent and stabilizers. Starch, a group al. 2008). Anthocyanins are considered to be a good bio-
of carbohydrates, is commercially available and produced from colorant due to its attractive colors, moderately stable in food
plants such as corn, potato, rice, wheat, and cassava. Banana systems, water-soluble (Ozela et al. 2007; Torslangerpoll and
by-products that can be processed into edible starches includes Andersen 2005), and proven to be beneficial to health
the pith of pseudostem and the green culled banana which are (Bagchi et al. 2004; Konzack and Zhang 2004). Previous
removed during fruit selection and processing (Abdul Aziz et studies showed that anthocyanins could be extracted from
al. 2011; Da Mota et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2005). Banana other plants including purple sweet potato (Fan et al. 2007),
starches which are relatively low in amylase content, have high black chokeberry, strawberry, bilberry fruits (Pliszka et al.
resistance to heating and amylase attack, low swelling proper- 2008) and some tropical fruits (Einbond et al. 2004). The
ties, low solubility in water and low retrogradation, been proved abundance of anthocyanins reported in the banana inflores-
slightly superior to modified and unmodified corn starch giving cence bracts (Musa acuminata and, Musa acuminata x bal-
it a potentially higher market value (Zhang et al. 2005). Com- bisiana), ranging from 14–32 mg anthocyanin/100 g bracts,
mercial pectin, a structural heteropolysaccharide classified un- mainly comprising of cyanidin-3-rutinoside compound, could
der soluble dietary fiber, was produced mainly from fruits potentially be exploited as a cheap source of natural food
extract such as citrus peels, oranges, apples, and carrots. Com- colorant. The content is slightly higher than the commercially
paring the quality of pectins isolated from various fruit wastes available anthocyanins from red cabbage and by looking into
revealed that the pectin’s methoxyl composition and gelling the abundance of bracts produced (mass per hectare of land), it
quality of banana is slightly lower than the pectin isolated from may provide sufficient and sustainable market outlook (Jenshi
Table 2 Starches, pectins and cellulose from banana by-products for food application
Banana by-products (Species/variety) Potential food application References
Starches Green culled banana (variety not specified) Food thickeners, gelling agent, Zhang et al. (2005)
reinforcing agent in tablets, fillers
Banana pith and pseudstem (Musa acuminata x Abdul Aziz et al. (2011)
balbisiana Colla cv. Awak)
Unripe fruit (Plantain bananas Viscosity and swelling properties Pelissari et al. (2012)
of the variety “Terra” (Musa paradisiaca)
Green banana (Musa AAA Cavendish) Substitution of cassava starch for textural Wang et al (2012)
properties of snacks (crackers)
Green banana plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.) Production of starch based edible films Zamudio-Flores et al
(2006)
Pectin Banana peels (Musa acuminata AAA, Musa Food thickeners, gelling agent Emaga et al. (2008a),
acuminata x balbisiana AAB Emaga et al. (2008b)
Cellulose
Carboxymethyl Banana pseudostem Food thickeners, gelling agent Adinugraha et al. (2005)
cellulose (Musa acuminata cv Cavendish
Microcrystalline Not specified (variety not specified) Water retainer, reinforcing agent in tablets Elanthikkal et al. (2010)
cellulose
et al. 2011; Pazmino Duran et al. 2001). Natural bio-colorant 2010). Banana pith from the pseudostem has long been eaten
such as the anthocyanins remains in demand not only due to as vegetables in some parts of the world such as India, Sri
its health promoting properties but also the increase in demand Lanka, and Malaysia (Kennedy 2009; Subbaraya 2006). It
on natural foods (Rymbai et al. 2011). contains considerable amount of starch, sugars, and minerals
(Mohapatra et al. 2010). In most of the Southeast Asian
Biogeneration of flavor countries, banana inflorescence is consumed as vegetables
and salad for a very long time. Emaga et al. (2007) reported
Flavor plays a very important aspect in the food industry. that banana peels from three different genetic makeups name-
They are formed through various chemical reactions during ly AAA, AAB, ABB, and AAAB were rich in total dietary
food processing and mostly through the reduction of carbon, fibre (40–50 %), protein, and amino acids (8–11 %), lipids and
nitrogen, and/or sulphur compounds along with the genera- fatty acids (2.2 % to 10.9 %). The dietary fibre content was
tion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as alde- slightly higher compared to wheat, barley, oats and rice brans
hydes (Rappert and Muller 2005). Biogeneration of (Sudha et al. 2007). The peels were reported to contain sig-
aldehydes and alcohols used in the flavor industry can be nificant amount of potassium. An incorporation of banana
carried out naturally through enzymatic pathways utilizing peels at a ratio of 10 % into biscuits did not show significant
enzymes such as lipase, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), differences in the overall color, aroma, and taste, which make
lipooxygenase (LOX), hydroperoxide lyase (HPLS) (Gigot it suitable for the production of low calorie food products with
et al. 2010). Kuo et al. (2006) reported that banana leaves high dietary fiber content (Joshi 2007).
(Musa cv. Cavendish) contains a membrane-bound enzyme
of 9-LOX, which is able to produce oolong tea-like, melon- Source of nutraceutical and bioactive compounds
like, and fruity cucumber-like flavor upon pickling or when
treated with soybean oil, linoleic acid, linolenic acid and The term “nutraceutical”, was first coined in 1989 by Ste-
respectively; the kinetic properties were comparable to LOX phen DeFelice and the original term was defined as “A food
obtained from canola seed and English pea. Thus, banana or parts of food that provide medical or health benefits,
leaves could be used as a potential target for continuously including the prevention and/or treatment of disease" in
generating natural flavors to be utilized in the food industry. which until now, the definition has not been regulated under
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Ameye and
Source of dietary nutrients Chee 2006). Currently, the definition of nutraceutical is only
regulated through the Dietary Supplement Health and Edu-
There have been a few studies done on the by-products of cation Act of 1994 (DSHEA) in United States, which allows
banana and plantain in order to evaluate its nutrient content substantial flexibility between the definition of foods and
as a potential source of dietary food components such as medicines (Gulati and Ottaway 2006). The research and
carbohydrate, proteins, dietary fibers, and minerals for hu- development on nutraceutical and bioactive compounds
man consumption (Emaga et al. 2007; Mohapatra et al. from plant sources often require laborious efforts and must
undergo several stages before it can be safely marketed steryl esters were found abundantly in banana (Musa cv.
(Fig. 1). Banana by-products have been reported to contain Dwarf Cavendish) indicate its potential application as a source
compounds with nutraceutical properties that can potentially of functional food products (Oliveira et al. 2008). A separate
be commercialized in the pharmaceutical industry. Recently, study done by Singh et al. (2007) revealed that oral adminis-
Tin et al. (2010) have identified the presence of epigallocate- tration of banana pseudostem juice (Musa paradisiaca) to the
chin and its derivatives form banana male flowers while in normal and hyperdiabetic (high glucose level in blood) rats
another study, Saravanan and Aradhya (2011) successfully shows a significant increase of blood glucose level, signify a
isolated entisic acid, (+)-catechin, protocatechuic acid, caffeic possible treatment hypoglycemic patients due to low insulin
acid, ferulic acid, and cinnamic acid from banana pseudostem. level or hypoglycemic drugs.
It has been accepted that polyphenolic compounds such as Anthocyanins from fruits and vegetables are regarded as
gallocatechin, caffeic acid, cinnamic acid and catechin posed important components in human nutrition due to their antiox-
antimicrobial activity (Chanwitheesuk et al. 2005; Shan et al. idative capacities (Mertens-Talcott et al. 2008; Zheng et al.
2008), antioxidative (Chye and Sim 2009, Wong and Chye 2011). Besides, anthocyanins also possessed anti-inflammatory
2009), neuroprotective (Lu et al. 2005; Mandel et al. 2008), (Bowen-Forbes et al. 2010; Karlsen et al. 2007), antiviral (Wang
chemopreventive (Raina et al. 2008; Artali et al. 2009), anti- et al. 2006), anticarcinogenic (Kulma and Szopa 2007), antipro-
cancer (Faried et al. 2007; Shankar and Mulimani 2007) and liferative effect (Mokbel and Hashinaga 2005), and cancer
antiproliferative capacities (Jagan et al. 2008). chemoprevention properties (Bowen-Forbes et al. 2010; Wang
Phytosterols are naturally occurring plant sterols that have et al. 2011). Banana inflorescence from either cultivated and
been studied extensively. Several reports show their wide wild varieties are rich in anthocyanins (Jenshi Roobha et al.
variety of positive health promoting effects including lower- 2011; Kitdamrongsont et al. 2008) suggest it could potentially
ing of blood cholesterol (Moruisi et al. 2006; Racette et al. serves as a source of functional food components which are
2010; Weingärtner et al. 2008) and reducing the risk of coro- beneficial to health.
nary heart diseases (Miller and Nichols 2008). Several bioac- Dopamine, one of the catecholamines, was found at high
tive steryl glucosides, namely campesteryl 3-β-d- concentration in the pulp of yellow banana (Musa acumi-
glucopyranoside, stigmasteryl 3-β-d-glucopyranoside and nata), red banana (Musa sapientum var. baracoa) and peels
sitosteryl 3-β-d-glucopyranoside were identified from the of Cavendish banana (Adao and Gloria 2005; Kulma and
dichloromethane extracts of Musa acuminata Colla cv. Cav- Szopa 2007; Mokbel and Hashinaga 2005). These com-
endish (Oliveira et al. 2005). Sterols, steryl glucosides and pounds were found to be free radical scavenger as well as
Fig. 1 Research and
development of nutraceutical/
bioactive components from
banana/plantain by-products
posses strong antimicrobial activity against Salmonella (Musa paradisiaca) shown to be a good suppressor of food-
enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacil- borne pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
lus cereus and Bacillus subtilis. Dopamine also displays cereus, Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli (Mokbel
anti-inflammatory activity when administered to brain- and Hashinaga 2005) and could potentially be applied into
dead rats with a significant improvement of the rat’s blood food systems in the future. Devatkal et al. (2011) also added
system regulation and kidney function (Hoeger et al. 2007). that the preservative capability of banana peel water extract
Table 3 summarizes the known bioactive compounds that from similar banana variety in reducing lipid oxidation process
isolated from banana by-products with their respective nu- in raw meat was comparable to synthetic antioxidant such as
traceutical properties. butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT). This result was well antic-
ipated due to the fact of the existence of known antioxidative
Natural food preservative substance in banana peels as reported by Mokbel and
Hashinaga (2005) as well as González-Montelongo et al.
Applications of bioactive constituents from banana by-product (2010). Extracts from the male flowers of banana (Musa para-
are not limited to nutraceuticals for direct human consumption, disiaca) were also demonstrated to contain antibacterial prop-
but should be further exploited as natural preservatives for erties, which able to decontaminate and suppress the growth of
foods. Food preservation plays a vital role in driving the food Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in chicken
industry by extending the shelf life of foods. Current trends of breast meat comparable to the commercial potassium sorbate
industry show increase awareness towards the drawbacks of (Tin et al. 2010; Padam et al. 2012b).
synthetic chemical preservatives and opt for minimally pro-
cessed food or employing natural techniques in food preserva- Animal feeds
tion (Tiwari et al. 2009). Natural antimicrobials from numerous
plant sources including spices and herbs have been well docu- The demand for food from animal sources has been escalating
mented in suppressing food spoilage microbes and foodborne along with the increase of the world’s population, which will
pathogens (Kumar and Tanwar 2011; Kumudavally et al. 2011; bring a few immediate consequences; there is a need to
Pillay and Ramaswamy 2012; Padam et al. 2012a) further increase the productivity of domestic animals utilizing feed
strengthens the concept of natural ingredients for food preser- with higher nutritive value to overcome the limited and ex-
vation. Antibacterial compounds such as ß-sitosterol, 12- pensive source of raw materials for animal feed production.
hydroxystrearic acid and malic acid isolated from banana peels Therefore, it is important to utilize inexpensive materials not
Table 3 Important bioactive compounds as potential nutraceuticals from banana/plantain by-products
Bioactive compounds Banana by-products Bioactivity References

(Species/variety)
Cyanidin-3-rutinoside Bracts (Musa paradisiaca) Antioxidant, Jenshi Roobha et al.

Anticancer (2011)
Epigallocatechin and derivatives Male flower (Musa paradisiaca) Antibacterial, Tin et al. (2008); Tin et al.
Antioxidant (2010)
ß-sitosterol, malic acid, succinic acid, Peels (Musa acuminata cv. Cavendish) Anti-inflamatory, Mokbel and Hashinaga
palmatic acid, 12-hydroxystrearic acid, Anti-cholesterol (2005)
glycoside Antioxidants,
Antibacterials
Campesteryl 3-β-d-glucopyranoside, Petioles, leaves, floral stalk Anti-inflamatory, Oliveira et al. (2005)
stigmasteryl 3-β-d-glucopyranoside (Musa acuminata cv. Cavendish) Anti-cholesterol
and sitosteryl 3-β-d-glucopyranoside
Sterols, steryl glucosides, steril esters, Peels and pulp (Musa acuminata cv. Anti-inflamatory, Oliveira et al. (2008)
tocopherols, phenolic compounds Dwarf Cavendish) Anti-cholesterol,
Antioxidants
Putrescine, spermidine, serotonin, Pulp (Musa acuminata x Musa balbisiana) Stimulants Adao and Gloria (2005);
dopamine, tyramine, spermine Lima et al. (2008)
Entisic acid, (+)-catechin, Pseudostem (Musa acuminata x balbisiana Antioxidants Saravanan and
protocatechuic acid, cv. Nanjanagudu Rasabale) Aradhya (2011)
caffeic acid, ferulic acid,
and cinnamic acid
Anthocyanins, catecholamines, tocopherols, Peel (Musa acuminata Colla AAA) Antioxidants González-Montelongo
phytosterols, ascorbic acid et al. (2010)
only to sustain the market of animal products but also an effort Non-food usage of banana by-products
to search for new sources of animal feed by recycling underu-
tilized wastes (Ulloa et al. 2004). Agricultural and food pro- Natural fibers
cessing wastes such as rice bran, corncobs, pineapple waste
and sugarcane bagasse have been utilized as an alternative Fiber industries have been eyeing on an alternative sustain-
source of animal feed production which are mostly able material that would eventually replace the usage of
dependent on grains and legumes (Sruamsiri 2007). wood and pulp from the trees to make timbers, boards,
The utilization of available raw material such as agri- textiles, and papers. Agricultural by-products from various
cultural waste reduces the dependence on the costly sources are the main candidates because of its availability
imported feed and banana by-products could be one of and mass production all year round (Reddy and Yang 2005).
the potential raw materials for feedstock production for Fibers can be obtained from numerous sources of agricul-
most of the banana producing countries (Ulloa et al. tural commodity and its by-products such as jute, cotton,
2004). Several notable studies in the current literature rami, kenaf, sisal, palm oil, banana, sugar cane, corn and
show promising results on the potential of converting wheat. Fibers from the banana plant are comparable in
banana by-products into livestock feed. physical strength and cellulose content to fibers obtained
Banana peels are known to contain a substantial from other fibrous commodities by-products (Uma et al.
amount of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, fiber and a 2005) and have been extensively characterized from their
number of essential minerals such as potassium, sodi- fruit stalk (Oliveira et al. 2006; Zuluaga et al. 2009), pseu-
um, calcium, iron and manganese, which serves as a dostem (Cherian et al. 2008) and leaves (Oliveira et al.
promising raw material for feed production (Ahnwange 2007). A few studies have been published emphasizing the
2008). It was reported earlier by Essien et al. (2005) potential of banana fibers as the raw materials in making
that banana peels could be processed as a mycological composite boards (Chattopadhyay et al. 2010; Ibrahim et al.
medium for growing valuable micro-fungal biomass, 2010; Idicula et al. 2005; Sapuan et al. 2007; Savastano et
enriching the protein and fatty acids content of the al. 2009). Maleque et al. (2005) demonstrated the usage of
solid mixture. Protein content of banana peels increased banana fibers from the pseudostem to reinforce epoxy com-
up to 34 % through solid-state fermentation (SSF) by posites. Their findings conclude that the banana fibers sub-
Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Pennicilium stantially increased the tensile strength of the virgin epoxy
sp. while the tremendous increase of sugar content material by 40 %. The sturdiness of the banana fiber com-
(142 %) is possible through fermentation by Aspergillus posites can also be enhanced by surface modification
flavus (Akinyele and Agbro 2007; Yabaya and Ado through acid treatment (Jannah et al. 2008) or the addition
2008). Enhancement of nutritional value of banana of adhesive (El-Meligy et al. 2004), which reduces their
waste through microbial fermentation is an important water absorption capacity. Quintana et al. (2008) made
step in order to create high nutritional quality feedstock another innovative improvement in the banana fiberboard
from low quality materials; protein and sugar content research without incorporating any adhesive or binding
can be increased comparable to the soybean meal, materials. Their technology comprised of utilizing steam
which is a common ingredient in most animal feeds explosion at high temperature and pressure that redistributes
(Hong et al. 2004). the lignin within the plant material itself and act as a binding
Direct substitution of banana leaves and pseudostem agent into the structure. The fiberboard developed satisfied
(Musa paradisiaca) as forage in the diet of Ovin Mar- the minimal standard for high-density fiberboard (HDF)
tinik sheep shows no significant difference in carcasses (ICONTEC, Columbia) although it was inferior in quality
quality compared to sheep feeding on normal hay forage compared to the commercial fiberboard made from conifers.
diet (Marie-Magdeleine et al. 2009). The sheep carcass Banana fibers obtained from the pseudostem have been
did not differ in terms of overall weight and chemical used for decades as raw materials for textiles in the produc-
composition of the meat. In addition, it was reported tion of traditional handicrafts and clothes by several groups
that banana leaves are the best fodder because of its of people in the world (Kennedy 2009). Currently, the
low partition factor, high ATP and high microbial bio- global textile and clothing industry is estimated to generate
mass in a feeding experiment of pseudostem and leaves as much as USD395 billion export values (Chen et al. 2007),
of banana (Musa paradisiaca) for ruminants (Amarnath which signifies a great demand in fiber materials for textile
and Balakrishnan 2007). Banana roots (rhizome) have purposes. Enzymatic degumming of raw plant fibers using
been noted to treat rabbits with coccidiosis where the microbial strains is a promising way to process textile fibers
oral administration of crushed Musa paradisiaca roots from natural plant sources including banana. Jacob and
significantly reduces the fecal worm egg count in just Prema (2008) employed polygalacturonase producing Strep-
over 2 weeks of treatment (Matekaire et al. 2005). tomyces lydicus in a solid-state fermentation, which
successfully converted raw fibers into processed banana methods are based on enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial
fibers for textile purposes in a short period. They were able fermentation of solid matters (Saxena et al. 2009). A few
to extract polygalacturonase enzyme produced by Strepto- notable current researches are discussed in the later section.
myces lydicus in the solid mixture while at the same time Ethanol is highly used in the industry not only as renewable
obtaining processed banana fibers. John and Anandjiwala fuel but also as a solvent. Natural bio-ethanol is produced
(2009) reviewed several methods on the surface modifica- generally from a fermentation process using either bacteria or
tion of a wide range of natural fibers including banana fibers yeast in which sugar derived from cellulosic sources is metab-
for textile purposes, which involved wet chemical process- olized and converted into ethanol (Raposo et al. 2009). In order
ing and ionized gas treatments. to make these natural sugars available for fermentation, break-
Paper production is one of the commercial applications of down of the macromolecules (polysaccharides and cellulose)
banana by-products. The initiative in utilizing available non- through enzymatic or chemical reaction plays important roles
woody agricultural waste as raw materials for paper produc- (Doran-Peterson et al. 2008; Hahn-Hägerdal et al. 2006). Ba-
tion offers a great potential in reducing the dependence on nana peels are noted to be a good substrate in producing ethanol
natural timbers, which is becoming more expensive due to the and the contributing factors such as substrate concentration,
limited availability (Bastianello et al. 2009). It was found that fermentation parameters, and the type of fermenting organism
pseudostem from Musa acuminata Colla, cv. Cavendish could do affect significantly the overall yield of ethanol (Manikandan
be used for pulp and paper processing, where the fibres et al. 2008). Banana pseudostem and leaves are also potential
showed interesting potentialities in terms of burst index and substrate for ethanol production through the utilization of cel-
breaking length either alone or in combination with other lulolytic thermophilic Clostridium thermocellum CT2 co-
common pulps (Cordeiro et al. 2005). Banana pseudostem cultured with Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum HG8 (Reddy
pulp from Musa paradisiaca L. shows increased burst index, et al. 2009). The utilization of agricultural waste such as the
tensile index, tear index and oil resistibility when combined banana by-products as raw materials for ethanol production
with bamboo pulp in making greaseproof paper (Goswami et could potentially reduce the cost of using staple food crops such
al. 2005). Ogunsile et al. (2006) compared the quality and as corn and wheat in conventional natural ethanol production.
yield of the pulp processed from different types of banana by- Methane is an important fuel that powers many industries as
products. They found that the leaves (midrib part), pseudos- well as household kitchen. It exists as gas and it is highly
tem, and fruit stalk produced 34–49 % of pulp and the yield combustible compared to ethanol. Industrial methane is pro-
was heavily influenced by the pulping parameters such as pH, duced through extraction from natural gas fields and fermenta-
temperature, and pulping time. Pulping banana pseudostem tion of organic matters such as sewage sludge, agricultural
(Musa acuminata cv. Cavendish) at low cooking temperature biomass and manure (Paepatung et al. 2009; Vijay et al.
of 105 °C utilizing formic acid and acetic acid also yields 2006). The conversion of banana waste cellular material into
better quality pulp for papermaking (Mire et al. 2005). Papers methane requires an anaerobic digestion of the plant matter in
made from banana were reported to have a very low water an airtight reactor with specific digestion parameter control. No
absorption capacity making it more water resistant and stron- special microbial inoculum is required as the digestion was
ger than wood-pulp paper (Jacob and Prema 2008). done by the natural flora that exists within the plant material
itself. Methane gas is produced generally starting on day 30 for
Renewable fuel 30–100 days (Chanakya et al. 2009; Clarke et al. 2008). The
developed method in producing methane from banana waste is
The demand of hydrocarbon fuel as energy has been increasing considered clean and safe, as it does not require addition of
rapidly throughout the years. Although the demand for energy sewage sludge or manure.
is booming exponentially, the production and the discovery of Briquettes are made from a densification process that
new reserves of natural fossil fuels did not increase comple- improves the handling properties of raw material and enhancing
mentary fitting with the high demand. Moreover, the environ- the energy content of the biomass. Most cellular plant waste
mental effects of burning fossil fuels have been extensively including banana cannot be converted directly into energy
debated around the world and the idea of using greener and through combustion because of their low density, high volume,
more sustainable fuel to gradually reduce and replace fossil high moisture content, and a very low energy density. This
fuels were greatly considered (Hill et al. 2006). Other aspects shortcoming directly affects the transportation and storage of
such as food security issues, efficient agricultural land utiliza- these solid matters (Mani et al. 2006). Without proper process-
tion and the usage of non-edible sugars as fermenting substrate ing, it is bulky and creates an incomplete combustion that may
further strengthens this concept (Corma et al. 2011). Biochem- pollute the environment as well as may not be a viable source of
ical conversion of biomass such as agricultural waste into energy. Conventional briquettes were made using sawdust with
renewable fuel is one of the preferred conversion pathways that the addition of coal cake and in recent years, low cost agricul-
provide environmental friendly approach and the common tural by-products appeared in overcoming the shortage of
wood-based products (Chou et al. 2009; Sotannde et al. 2009; They are income generating, high in nutritional and pharma-
Wilaipon 2007). Wilaipon (2009) reported that low cost banana ceutical values (Wong and Chye 2009, Yim et al. 2011) as
peels bound with molasses under high press pressure are a well as can grow rapidly on suitable substrates. Thus, they are
potential raw material for making banana briquettes. These considered as high value food products, which are capable for
briquettes were made as an attempt to utilize agricultural waste fast return of investments (Ukoima et al. 2009).
such as the banana peel as a substitute for solid fossil fuels such
as coals. Comparing to other agricultural waste briquettes such Heavy metals and dye absorbers
as sawdust, rice husk, peanut shell, coconut fibre and palm fibre
in an earlier study by Ooi and Siddiqui (2000), briquettes made Heavy metals are regarded as a threat to the environment and the
from banana peels had an outstandingly lower burning rate with availability of these hazardous metals in wastewater such lead,
equivalent briquette strength even when similar densification chromium, cadmium, mercury and zinc pose a great health
pressure is applied during processing. threat to humans as it might contaminate the drinking water
system. Heavy metals are hardly biodegradable and can easily
accumulate in living tissues making it concentrated as it goes up
Potential substrate for the production of non-food the food chain (Metcheva et al. 2010). Numerous agricultural
cellulose, cellulolytic enzymes, organic acids wastes were explored and most are found to have the potential
and edible mushrooms as low-cost heavy metal absorbers (Kumar 2006). Cleaning the
environment from the contamination of heavy metals is very
Cellulose is considered the most abundant organic substrate on costly and thus cheaper alternative absorbers from agricultural
earth and the main building blocks of plants. Before natural waste particularly from banana are highly considered. Noeline et
cellulose can be utilized as raw materials to produce sugars, fuel al. (2005) showed the formaldehyde polymerized banana pseu-
and animal feed, it is necessary for it to be hydrolyzed either via dostem is an effective absorbent in cleaning lead (II) in batch
acid hydrolysis or by enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulolytic reactors. Removal of lead (II) up to 99.0 % and above is
enzymes such as cellulases. Commercial cellulases are produced achievable when all the required absorptive conditions are
by microorganism typically by bacteria and fungi. They are met. Banana pseudostem processed into carboxylated function-
important group of enzymes that are required for the industrial alized banana pseudostem (CBS), was also being reported to be
scale cellulose processing (Shafique et al. 2004). Banana by- a good mercury (II) absorber even in the presence of other ions
products have been identified to be a potential economical and comparable in absorption capacity and binding energy to
substrate for cellulolytic enzyme production and have been the commercially available carboxylic acid functionalized cation
proven to support the growth of several microorganisms used exchanger Amberlite IRC-50 (Anirudhan et al. 2007). Other
in the production of cellulase in a solid-state fermentation sys- notable innovations include the reported heavy metals sorption
tem (SSF). Fungi are known organic waste decomposers and capacity of banana peels in removing cromium (III) (Memon et
capable of hydrolyzing complex organic compounds as a major al. 2008) and cromium (IV) (Park et al. 2008; Memon et al.
source of energy (Dinishi Jayasinghe and Parkinson 2008). 2009a). Banana fruit stalk was also discovered to be potential
Among various groups of microorganisms used in solid-state cobalt (II) and cadmium (II) remover (Anirudhan and Shibi
fermentation, the filamentous fungi are the most exploited due 2007; Memon et al. 2009b).
to their ability to grow on complete solid substrates and produc- Synthetic dyes are commonly used in some chemical
tion of wide range of valuable extracellular enzymes (Boberga et assays, textile industry, and commercial products. A number
al. 2008). The utilization of banana by-products for the produc- of commercially used synthetic dyes have been reported
tion of cellulolytic enzymes is summarized in Table 4. contributing to health problems, which justified the need
Apart from being used as a substrate for cellulase and to remove these dyes from wastewaters. Mas Harris
cellulolyic enzyme production, by-products such as leaves and Sathasivam (2009) demonstrated the capacity of
and pseudostem of the banana were also noted to be a poten- banana pseudostem (Musa paradisiaca cv. ‘Pisang
tial substrate for the cultivation of edible mushrooms (Table 5). Awak’ ABB) as a potential absorber of methyl red in
Agricultural and wood industrial waste have been used tre- aqueous solutions. This recent finding further compli-
mendously as mushroom substrates because of its abundance, ments earlier studies that show the capability of banana
cheap and contains a high amount of cellulose materials in stalk waste as an absorbent to remove methylene blue
which are the keys in sustaining the cultivated mushroom from aqueous solutions (Hameed et al. 2008). Natural
industry (Mane et al. 2007). It is vital that available wastes heavy metal and dye absorbers made from renewable
are used and managed properly to ensure the efficient of low-cost banana by-products are relatively cheaper com-
recycling farm waste for environmental safety as well as to pared to synthetic and inorganic absorbers but may not
generate income for the country. Edible mushrooms are work well in extreme conditions (high pH and high
known to be a good agent in the degradation of cellulose. temperature) (Mas Harris and Sathasivam 2009).
Table 4 Utilization of banana/plantain by-products as substrates for the production of non-food cellulose, cellulolytic enzymes, and organic acids
Products Banana by-products Microorganism and macroorganism used References

used as substrate
Non-food cellulose Pseudostem Mix cultures from banana plantation soil Zainol and Abdul
Rahman (2008)
Cellulolytic enzymes
Crude Cellulases Pseudostem Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus Mena-Espino et al.
(2011)
Exoglucanase Floral stalk Bacillus subtilis Shafique et al.
(2004)
a-amylase Banana peels Helminthosporium oxysporium, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus Adeniran and Abiose
fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, and Penicillium frequestans. (2009)
Floral stalk Aspergillus oryzae Ragunathan and
Swaminathan
(2005)
Mix enzymes (Not Leaves and Trichoderma lignorum Baig (2005)
specified) pseudostem
Not specified Banana floral stalk Neurospora sitophila Asad et al. (2006)
Laccase Banana peels Trametes pubescens Osma et al. (2007)
laccase, lignin Leaves and Phylosticta spp. MPS-001 Aspergillus spp. MPS-002 Shah et al. (2005)
peroxidase, xylanase, pseudostem
endo-1,
4-_-d-glucanase and
exo-1,4-_-nglucanase
Levansucrase Not specified Bacillus megaterium Ahmed (2008)
Polygalacturonase Leaf parts Streptomyces lindicus Jacob and Prema
(2008)
Xylanase Banana peels Trichoderma harzianum 1073 Seyis and Aksoz
(2005)
Organic Acid
Citric Acid Banana peels Aspergillus niger Vidhya and Neethu
(2009)
Source of bioactive compounds for non-food purposes products, were reported to have antiprotozoan, antifungal,
and antiviral activity (Table 6).
A few literatures emphasize on the existence of bioactive
compounds, which may not be directly applicable for hu- Organic fertilizers and bio-fertilizers
man consumption readily available or available through
induction from the banana by-products (Luque-Ortega et The usage of organic fertilizers and bio-fertilizers have
al. 2004; Otalvaro et al. 2007). These bioactive components gained momentum as a substitute to chemically synthesized
are potential substitutes for industrial chemicals and func- fertilizers due to its reported effectiveness, the increasing
tional compounds in pharmaceuticals as well as could be cost of some chemical fertilizers and the awareness towards
further exploited into numerous applications. These isolated the hazardous effects of chemical fertilizers to human and
bioactive compounds, which are generally secondary metab- the environment (Aseri et al. 2008; Doran et al. 2005). The
olites (produced naturally or induced) of the banana by- technology in developing organic fertilizers also aims to
Table 5 Banana/plantain by-products used as substrates for the cultivation of edible mushroom
Banana/plantain by-products Mushroom species References
Leaves (Musa sapientum) Straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) Belewu and Belewu (2005)
Leaves and pseudostems Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) Bonatti et al. (2004); Silveira et al. (2008)
(variety not specified)
Banana peels (variety not specified) Shelf mushroom (Lentinus squarrosulus) Adejoye and Masewonrun (2009)
Leaves (variety not specified) Agaric mushroom (Psathyrella atroumbonata Pegler) Ayodele and Okhuoya (2007)
Table 6 Other bioactive compounds found in banana/plantain by-product either exists naturally or obtained through artificial induction
Bioactive compounds Banana by-products Bioactivity Potential References

reported application
Anigorufone, 2-hydroxy-9-phenyl-phenalen-1-one, Rhizomes infected with Antileishmanial Antiprotozoan Luque-Ortega

2-hydroxy-9-(p-methoxyphenyl)-phenalen-1-one, 2,3-ep- fungus Fusarium agent et al. (2004)
oxy-9-(p-methoxyphenyl)phenalen-1-one, 2,3-epoxy9- oxysporum
phenyl-phenalen-1-one (Musa acuminata)
2-hydroxy-1H-phenalen-1-one and 2-methoxy-1H- Rhizomes (Musa acuminata Antifungal Antifungal Otalvaro et al.
phenalen-1-one var. “Yangambi km 5”, agent (2007)
Thaumatin-like protein (TLP) Ripe fruits (Musa basjoo cv. Antifungal Antifungal Ho et al.
Emperor banana) agent (2007)
31-norcyclolaudenone Rhizome (Musa acuminata Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Ragasa et al.
var. errans) agent (2007)
manage, recycle and convert biodegradable solid waste into a sustainable agricultural commodity. The focus on the
nutrient rich plant growth medium or soil amender (Sim and utilization of any by-products or waste should always be
Wu 2010). Bio-fertilizers are often distinguished from normal transformed into high valued processed raw materials or
organic fertilizers by its capacity to deliver and retain a high products that meet market demands and creating substantial
number of beneficial soil enhancing microorganisms to the soil economic impacts (Jayathilakan et al. 2012). This is also the
instead of just having processed fertile organic biomass (Phirke most important key aspects in the management of agricul-
and Kothari 2005). Organic fertilizers and bio-fertilizers from tural waste, as it will greatly determine the sustainability and
plant and animal materials are generally processed through viability of the by-product itself as a future commodity
composting and solid state fermentation (SSF). A microbial (Adinugraha et al. 2005; Uyen and Schnitzer 2009). In other
starter consists of mixture of decomposing microorganisms words, the market value of the newly developed products
and soil enhancing bacteria or selected worm species is gener- must be able to cover internal and external expenses of its
ally added to initiate the composting process. Traditional meth- production. The quality of the product and processed raw
od allows banana waste to decompose naturally in the farm to materials from banana by-products must be comparable or
replenish soil nutrients or to act as an organic fertilizer. Recent- better than its counterparts to ensure market competitive-
ly, the utilization of banana waste as organic fertilizers and bio- ness. The technology and innovation through creative im-
fertilizers have been greatly improved by incorporating biotech- provement of the existing processes may also be a key to
nological methods (Doran et al. 2005). guarantee the survival of the by-products (Lew et al. 2011).
Phirke and Kothari (2005) discovered that turning banana Figure 2 provides an overview of the potential utilization of
waste into growth stimulating soil conditioner through banana by-products with the developed processing technol-
solid-state fermentation and recycling it as fertilizers for ogy towards creating products for the food and non-food
banana farming greatly reduced the planted suckers’ mor- industries.
tality, improving plant biomass and increasing fruit yield. It Developed products, purified raw materials and biochem-
has been confirmed by Doran et al. (2005) that organic icals or any research outcomes from the banana by-products
fertilizer prepared from composting banana waste also stand which may adhere to regulations or applied for human
out to be a cheaper and economical fertilizer with a signif- consumption and usage requires immediate assessment for
icant effect on growth and yield of banana crop compared to their toxicity or any negative environmental impacts. The
chemical fertilizers and poultry manure. Banana waste was purity of food additives and components derived from ba-
also reported to be a suitable carrier of Azospirillum, Azoto- nana by-products should be conformed to the regulations
bacter and phosphate-solubilizer bacteria to the soil culti- and standards stipulated by international bodies such as
vated with banana gave positive effects towards the Codex. Toxicological assessment and clinical trials are man-
availability of soil and banana foliar phosphorus content datory for medicinal foods and food designated for health
(Rivera-Cruz et al. 2008). promotion and disease prevention, following their govern-
ing bodies around the world. Scientific advances, awareness
of personal health deterioration, increasing healthcare costs,
Challenges and future prospects busy lifestyle, and technical advances in the food industry
have stimulated the field of designer foods. Today, foods are
As a newly emerging candidate for industry-driven applica- not intended to only satisfy hunger and provide sufficient
tion, a number of challenges have been identified prompting nutrients for human, but also to prevent degenerative disor-
immediate attention before banana by-products can become ders, which is a significant public health issue worldwide.
Fig. 2 Schematic illustrating

the utilization of banana/
plantain by-product processing
for food and non-food
High value nutraceuticals and processed functional prod- areas such as the cost of technology in converting these wastes
ucts are greatly influence by the quality of the raw materials. into valuable products are still less studied; an important
Producing high quality banana by-products as raw material aspect in order to evaluate its sustainability and feasibility.
is another challenge to be looked into. Uma et al. (2005) There are also limitations that need to be resolved at the
reported that there are significance differences in the quality plantation level especially in establishing a proper collecting
of fibers obtained from banana by-products across different facility for these by-products to be kept and sorted according
varieties and cultivars, which prompt their study to look into to the types and quality and a handling system that would
these issues. Moreover, the enormous varieties and cultivars prevent the degradation of the biomass and valuable com-
within the banana (Musaceae) family itself is a potential area ponents. Lignocellulosic materials, for instance, bio-fibrous
to be explored in order to obtain better-quality by-products from agricultural waste degrade after a storage time reduc-
as raw material for the food and non-food applications. ing the quality of the bio-fibers (Adinugraha et al. 2005).
There are limited reports on the effects of geographical Standardized storage and handling procedures of the by-
location, climate, and the level of plant maturity on the products are needed in order to ensure the quality of the
quality of banana by-products. For instance, it has been by-products remain stable prior to further processing. More-
documented that some bioactive constituents in a similar over, the numerous banana varieties that exist in the world
plant can vary significantly due to seasonal changes (Shah et today may not be easily identified due to the almost identical
al. 2010) and geographical location (Baraldi et al. 2008; morphologies between species and cultivars. Thus, the de-
Dinchev et al. 2008) as well as different stages of growth velopment of molecular markers for the identification of
(Baima 2005). The previous studies on banana by-product banana varieties to aid in the verification process could
focused on a limited number of commercial varieties and potentially be expanded further encompassing lesser-
cultivars create substantial uncertainties in the potential of less known varieties, intra and inter species. Using marker assis-
studied by-products from other varieties. Other important ted breeding and the application of genetic engineering, new
products with potentially better characteristics and opti- the common varieties to some extent are potential raw
mized benefits to human and animal health can be devel- materials in areas of food and non-food industries, providing
oped over relatively short periods of time (Jing et al. 2010; each different application. Banana by-products which have
Laroche 2007). Training and education needed to be given been assessed and found to have potential application for
to farmers and plantation administrators on the varieties of food additives, nutraceuticals, food supplements, feeds, re-
banana, which its by-products have been proven to be of newable fuel, fibers, source of bioactive and other organic
potentially valuable. Some technologies require large initial chemicals, fertilizers as well as contaminant absorbers
setup, which may not be sustainable for under developed should be further addressed for its safety aspects to meet
and developing countries may prompt the translocation of the market requirement. Standardized collection procedure
raw materials from one place to another. and processing of banana by-products needed to be resolved
In the future, natural biomasses such as the banana by- in order to create a viable setting for these unprocessed raw
products are potential substitutes for our depleting nonre- materials to be available for industrial scale processing. The
newable resources such hydrocarbon fuel and plastics (Jing exponential increase of world’s population and the trend
et al. 2010). Currently, there is an ongoing trend in utilizing towards the utilization of eco-friendly and viable agricultur-
low cost renewable agricultural waste as a raw material in al by-products creates a steady platform for the continuation
making value added products to curb land degradation, of innovation on development of products from the banana
increasing agricultural productivity, and reducing waste by-products and waste, thus, making it a sustainable income
(Mohammadi 2006). Banana by-products, which are avail- generating commodity. Generating wealth from waste such
able abundantly around the world, are renewable and sus- as from the banana by-products should be regarded as one of
tainable as long as the global banana industry maintains its the ways to create an eco-friendly environment for the future
momentum. Shifting towards the utilization of agricultural generations.
wastes such as the banana by-products is also seen as an
environmental friendly approach to reduce environmental
problems due to the improper management of the wastes. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the fi-
nancial support by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innova-
Its versatility and usefulness as raw materials in many food tion, Malaysia for the Science Fund (02-01-10-SF0061). The technical
and non-food industries provides good and solid prospects support given by the Agriculture Department of Sabah is greatly
as the potential income generating commodity of the future. appreciated.
As a commodity, not only it will benefit both banana farm-
ers and the industry but also provide alternatives in terms of
generated products to consumers.
References
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Recycling and the utilization of agricultural by-products and pseudostem tender core flours. Food Chem 128:748–753
waste for the creation of commercially viable and income Adao RC, Gloria MBA (2005) Bioactive amines and carbohydrate
generating products is not a new topic, however, the need to shanges during ripening of ‘Prata’ banana (Musa acuminata x
utilize available and abundant resources to the fullest such Musa balbisiana). Food Chem 90:705–711
Adejoye OD, Masewonrun O (2009) Growth and yield of Lentinus
as the banana by-products is deemed important as to reduce squarrosulus (M.) Singer a Nigerian edible mushroom as affected
the emission of solid waste and loss of valuable untapped by supplements. The Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness 8(2)
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Banana by Product

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J Food Sci Technol (December 2014) 51(12):3527–3545

Banana by-products: an under-utilized renewable food biomass

Abstract Banana (Musaceae) is one of the world’s most Introduction

Banana by-products (Species/variety) Potential food application References

Table 3 Important bioactive compounds as potential nutraceuticals from banana/plantain by-products

Bioactive compounds Banana by-products Bioactivity References

Cyanidin-3-rutinoside Bracts (Musa paradisiaca) Antioxidant, Jenshi Roobha et al.

Products Banana by-products Microorganism and macroorganism used References

Banana/plantain by-products Mushroom species References

Bioactive compounds Banana by-products Bioactivity Potential References

Anigorufone, 2-hydroxy-9-phenyl-phenalen-1-one, Rhizomes infected with Antileishmanial Antiprotozoan Luque-Ortega

Fig. 2 Schematic illustrating

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