Renewable Energy: The Clean Facts

Wind and solar are powering a clean energy revolution. Here’s what you need to know

about renewables and how you can help make an impact at home.

Renewable power is booming, as innovation brings down costs and starts to deliver on the

promise of a clean energy future. American solar and wind generation are breaking

records and being integrated into the national electricity grid without compromising

reliability.

This means that renewables are increasingly displacing “dirty” fossil fuels in the power

sector, offering the benefit of lower emissions of carbon and other types of pollution. But

not all sources of energy marketed as “renewable” are beneficial to the

environment. Biomass and large hydroelectric dams create difficult tradeoffs when

considering the impact on wildlife, climate change, and other issues. Here’s what you

should know about the different types of renewable energy sources—and how you can use

these emerging technologies at your own home.

What Is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or

processes that are constantly replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep shining and

blowing, even if their availability depends on time and weather.

While renewable energy is often thought of as a new technology, harnessing nature’s

power has long been used for heating, transportation, lighting, and more. Wind has

powered boats to sail the seas and windmills to grind grain. The sun has provided warmth

during the day and helped kindle fires to last into the evening. But over the past 500 years

or so, humans increasingly turned to cheaper, dirtier energy sources such as coal and

fracked gas.

Now that we have increasingly innovative and less-expensive ways to capture and retain

wind and solar energy, renewables are becoming a more important power source,

accounting for more than one-eighth of U.S. generation. The expansion in renewables is

also happening at scales large and small, from rooftop solar panels on homes that can sell

power back to the grid to giant offshore wind farms. Even some entire rural

communities rely on renewable energy for heating and lighting.

As renewable use continues to grow, a key goal will be to modernize America’s electricity

grid, making it smarter, more secure, and better integrated across regions.
Dirty energy

Nonrenewable, or “dirty,” energy includes fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and

coal. Nonrenewable sources of energy are only available in limited amounts and take a

long time to replenish. When we pump gas at the station, we’re using a finite resource

refined from crude oil that’s been around since prehistoric times.

Nonrenewable energy sources are also typically found in specific parts of the world,

making them more plentiful in some nations than others. By contrast, every country has

access to sunshine and wind. Prioritizing nonrenewable energy can also improve national

security by reducing a country’s reliance on exports from fossil fuel–rich nations.

Many nonrenewable energy sources can endanger the environment or human health. For

example, oil drilling might require strip-mining Canada’s boreal forest, the technology

associated with fracking can cause earthquakes and water pollution, and coal power

plants foul the air. To top it off, all these activities contribute to global warming.

Types of Renewable Energy Sources

Solar Energy

Humans have been harnessing solar energy for thousands of years—to grow crops, stay

warm, and dry foods. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “more

energy from the sun falls on the earth in one hour than is used by everyone in the world in
one year.” Today, we use the sun’s rays in many ways—to heat homes and businesses, to

warm water, or power devices.

Solar, or photovoltaic (PV), cells are made from silicon or other materials that transform

sunlight directly into electricity. Distributed solar systems generate electricity locally for

homes and businesses, either through rooftop panels or community projects that power

entire neighborhoods. Solar farms can generate power for thousands of homes, using

mirrors to concentrate sunlight across acres of solar cells. Floating solar farms—or

“floatovoltaics”—can be an effective use of wastewater facilities and bodies of water

that aren’t ecologically sensitive.  

Solar supplies a little more than 1 percent of U.S. electricity generation. But nearly a third

of all new generating capacity came from solar in 2017, second only to natural gas.

Solar energy systems don’t produce air pollutants or greenhouse gases, and as long as they

are responsibly sited, most solar panels have few environmental impacts beyond the

manufacturing process.

Wind Energy

We’ve come a long way from old-fashioned wind mills. Today, turbines as tall as

skyscrapers—with turbines nearly as wide in diameter—stand at attention around the

world. Wind energy turns a turbine’s blades, which feeds an electric generator and

produces electricity.

Wind, which accounts for a little more than 6 percent of U.S. generation, has become

the cheapest energy source in many parts of the country. Top wind power states include

California, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Iowa, though turbines can be placed anywhere

with high wind speeds—such as hilltops and open plains—or even offshore in open water.

Other Alternative Energy Sources

Hydroelectric Power

Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source for electricity in the United States,

though wind energy is soon expected to take over the lead. Hydropower relies on water—

typically fast-moving water in a large river or rapidly descending water from a high point—

and converts the force of that water into electricity by spinning a generator’s turbine

blades.

Nationally and internationally, large hydroelectric plants—or mega-dams—are

often considered to be nonrenewable energy. Mega-dams divert and reduce natural flows,

restricting access for animal and human populations that rely on rivers. Small hydroelectric

plants (an installed capacity below about 40 megawatts), carefully managed, do not tend

to cause as much environmental damage, as they divert only a fraction of flow.

Biomass Energy 

Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and includes crops, waste

wood, and trees. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy is released as heat and can

generate electricity with a steam turbine. 

Biomass is often mistakenly described as a clean, renewable fuel and a greener alternative

to coal and other fossil fuels for producing electricity. However, recent science shows that

many forms of biomass—especially from forests—produce higher carbon emissions than

fossil fuels. There are also negative consequences for biodiversity. Still, some forms of

biomass energy could serve as a low-carbon option under the right circumstances. For

example, sawdust and chips from sawmills that would otherwise quickly decompose and

release carbon can be a low-carbon energy source.

If you’ve ever relaxed in a hot spring, you’ve used geothermal energy. The earth’s core is

about as hot as the sun’s surface, due to the slow decay of radioactive particles in rocks at

the center of the planet. Drilling deep wells brings very hot underground water to the

surface as a hydrothermal resource, which is then pumped through a turbine to create

electricity. Geothermal plants typically have low emissions if they pump the steam and

water they use back into the reservoir. There are ways to create geothermal plants where

there are not underground reservoirs, but there are concerns that they may increase the

risk of an earthquake in areas already considered geological hot spots.

Ocean

Tidal and wave energy is still in a developmental phase, but the ocean will always be ruled

by the moon’s gravity, which makes harnessing its power an attractive option. Some tidal

energy approaches may harm wildlife, such as tidal barrages, which work much like dams

and are located in an ocean bay or lagoon. Like tidal power, wave power relies on dam-like

structures or ocean floor–anchored devices on or just below the water’s surface.

Renewable Energy in the Home

Solar Power

At a smaller scale, we can harness the sun’s rays to power the whole house—whether

through PV cell panels or passive solar home design. Passive solar homes are designed to

welcome in the sun through south-facing windows and then retain the warmth through

concrete, bricks, tiles, and other materials that store heat. 

Some solar-powered homes generate more than enough electricity, allowing the

homeowner to sell excess power back to the grid. Batteries are also an economically

attractive way to store excess solar energy so that it can be used at night. Scientists are

hard at work on new advances that blend form and function, such as solar skylights and

roof shingles.
Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal technology is a new take on a recognizable process—the coils at the back of

your fridge are a mini heat pump, removing heat from the interior to keep foods fresh and

cool. In a home, geothermal or geoexchange pumps use the constant temperature of the

earth (a few feet below the surface) to cool homes in summer and warm houses in winter

—and even to heat water.

Geothermal systems can be initially expensive to install but typically pay off within 10

years. They are also quieter, have fewer maintenance issues, and last longer than

traditional air conditioners.

Small Wind Systems

A backyard wind farm? Boats, ranchers, and even cell phone companies use small wind

turbines regularly. Dealers now help site, install, and maintain wind turbines for

homeowners, too—although some DIY enthusiasts are installing turbines themselves.

Depending on your electricity needs, wind speeds, and zoning rules in your area, a wind

turbine may reduce your reliance on the electrical grid.

Selling the Energy You Collect

Wind- and solar energy–powered homes can either stand alone or get connected to the

larger electrical grid, as supplied by their power provider. Electric utilities in most

states allow homeowners to only pay the difference between the grid-supplied electricity

consumed and what they have produced—a process called net metering. If you make more

electricity than you use, your provider may pay you retail price for that power.

Renewable Energy and You

Advocating for renewables, or using them in your home, can accelerate the transition

toward a clean energy future. Even if you’re not yet able to install solar panels, you may be

able to opt for electricity from a clean energy source. (Contact your power company to ask

if it offers that choice.) If renewable energy isn’t available through your utility, you can

purchase renewable energy certificates to offset your use.

Benefits of Renewable Energy

Environmental and economic benefits of using renewable energy include:

 Generating energy that produces no greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels and

reduces some types of air pollution

 Diversifying energy supply and reducing dependence on imported fuels

 Creating economic development and jobs in manufacturing, installation, and more

Wind, geothermal, solar, hydro, and other renewable technologies are a widely popular

source of energy throughout the world today. Countries, corporations, and individuals are

adopting renewables for a number of great benefits. In this article, we’ll dive into some of

the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy.

Advantages of renewable energy

Using renewable energy over fossil fuels has a number of advantages. Here are some of

the top benefits of going green:

1. Renewable energy won’t run out

Renewable energy technologies use resources straight from the environment to generate

power. These energy sources include sunshine, wind, tides, and biomass, to name some of

the more popular options. Renewable resources won’t run out, which cannot be said for

many types of fossil fuels – as we use fossil fuel resources, they will be increasingly difficult

to obtain, likely driving up both the cost and environmental impact of extraction.

2. Maintenance requirements are lower

In most cases, renewable energy technologies require less overall maintenance than

generators that use traditional fuel sources. This is because generating technology like

solar panels and wind turbines either have few or no moving parts and don’t rely on

flammable, combustible fuel sources to operate. Fewer maintenance requirements

translate to more time and money saved.

3. Renewables save money

Using renewable energy can help you save money long term. Not only will you save on

maintenance costs, but on operating costs as well. When you’re using a technology that

generates power from the sun, wind, steam, or natural processes, you don’t have to pay to

refuel. The amount of money you will save using renewable energy can vary depending on

a number of factors, including the technology itself. In most cases, transitioning to

renewable energy means anywhere from hundreds to thousands of dollars in savings.

4. Renewable energy has numerous health and environmental benefits

Renewable energy generation sources emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into

the air. This means a smaller carbon footprint and an overall positive impact on the natural

environment. During the combustion process, fossil fuels emit high amounts of

greenhouse gases, which have been proven to exacerbate the rise of global temperatures

and frequency of extreme weather events.

The use of fossil fuels not only emits greenhouse gases but other harmful pollutants as

well that lead to respiratory and cardiac health issues. With renewable energy, you’re

helping decrease the prevalence of these pollutants and contributing to an overall

healthier atmosphere.

5. Renewables lower reliance on foreign energy sources

With renewable energy technologies, you can produce energy locally. The more renewable

energy you’re using for your power needs, the less you’ll rely on imported energy, and the

more you’ll contribute to U.S. energy independence as a whole.

Disadvantages of renewable energy

Renewable energy has many benefits, but it’s not always sunny when it comes to

renewable energy. Here are some disadvantages to using renewables over traditional fuel

sources.

1. Higher upfront cost

While you can save money by using renewable energy, the technologies are typically more

expensive upfront than traditional energy generators. To combat this, there are
often financial incentives, such as tax credits and rebates, available to help alleviate your

initial costs of renewable technology.

2. Intermittency

Though renewable energy resources are available around the world, many of these

resources aren’t available 24/7, year-round. Some days may be windier than others, the sun

doesn’t shine at night, and droughts may occur for periods of time. There can be

unpredictable weather events that disrupt these technologies. Fossil fuels are not

intermittent and can be turned on or off at any given time.

3. Storage capabilities

Because of the intermittency of some renewable energy sources, there’s a high need for

energy storage. While there are storage technologies available today, they can be

expensive, especially for large-scale renewable energy plants. It’s worth noting that

energy storage capacity is growing as the technology progresses, and batteries are

becoming more affordable as time goes on.

4. Geographic limitations

The United States has a diverse geography with varying climates, topographies,

vegetation, and more. This creates a beautiful melting pot of landscapes but also means

that there are some geographies that are more suitable for renewable technologies than

others. For example, a large farm with open space may be a great place for a residential

wind turbine or a solar energy system, while a townhome in a city covered in shade from

taller buildings wouldn’t be able to reap the benefits of either technology on their

property. If your property isn’t suitable for a personal renewable energy technology, there
are other options. If you’re interested in solar but don’t have a sunny property, you can

often still benefit from renewable energy by purchasing green power or enrolling in

a community solar option.

Renewable energy has more benefits than drawbacks

When it comes to renewable energy, the positives outweigh the negatives. Transitioning

to renewables on a personal, corporate, or governmental level will not only help you save

money but also promote a cleaner, healthier environment for the future.

Installing solar panels is one of the easiest ways to go green. By signing up on

the EnergySage Solar Marketplace, you can compare multiple quotes from local, pre-

screened installers to see what solar costs and savings for your property. The quotes will

also include estimates of the amount of carbon dioxide emissions you will offset over 20

years, and what this equates to in both trees planted and gallons of gasoline burned.

What is Urban Ecology?

The international scientific journal,  Urban Ecology, defines its eponymous

discipline as

"…the study of ecosystems that include humans living in cities and urbanizing landscapes. It is

an emerging, interdisciplinary field that aims to understand how human and ecological

processes can coexist in human-dominated systems and help societies with their efforts to

become more sustainable. … Because of its interdisciplinary nature and unique focus on

humans and natural systems, the term "urban ecology" has been used variously to describe the

study of humans in cities, of nature in cities, and of the coupled relationships between humans
and nature. Each of these research areas is contributing to our understanding of urban

ecosystems and each must be understood to fully grasp the science of Urban Ecology."

Why is this important?

A single generation from today, by 2030, the population of the world's cities will grow by 2

billion more people. At present, about half of the humans on earth live in urban areas. In

2030, according to The CIA World Factbook, 60 per cent, or almost two-thirds of people will

live in cities. In addition to space in which to live, all of these people will need breathable air,

drinkable water, and food, which will mostly be grown outside of cities and transported into

them.

In short, the entire planet is becoming more urbanized, a phenomenon which is already

having a profound effect on the natural systems that maintain breathable air, drinkable

water, and fertile soil for agriculture.

But large areas of green spaces exist within cities. Lawns, parks, golf courses, and nature

preserves created decades ago and now surrounded by development help filter  pollution in

air and water, produce oxygen, mitigate heat absorption by asphalt and concrete, and

provide habitat for songbirds and other wildlife.

In the past quarter century, scientists have recognized that understanding the interactions

of the living and nonliving components of these urban ecosystems is vital to the future of all

life on earth, including ourselves.

Definition of the Subject

Within the science of ecology, urban ecology is defined as the study of structure,

dynamics, and processes in urban ecological systems. Urban ecology is the study of

the relationships of human and nonhuman organisms in urban areas, the

interactions of these organisms with the native and built physical environment, and

the effects of these relationships on the fluxes of energy, materials, and

information within individual urban systems and between urban and nonurban

systems. Urban ecology applies the methods and concepts of the biological science

of ecology to urban areas, but requires and integrates with the concerns, concepts,

and approaches of social sciences to produce a hybrid discipline. Urban ecological

systems include individual organisms, populations, communities, and landscapes, as

well as buildings and infrastructure. Urban ecology further recognizes specific

urban ecosystems as a part of the global biogeochemical, economic, and human

demographic system.

Importance of Urban Ecology

Urban ecology is important because it brings the insights and knowledge from

contemporary biological ecology to bear on urban areas [1]. It replaces the earlier

and superseded versions of ecological science that had been used by social

scientists, geographers, and urban planners in justifying and predicting urban

dynamics in the second half of the twentieth century. Urban ecology as a branch of

contemporary ecological science now emphasizes spatial heterogeneity, feedbacks

between natural and human system components, probabilistic system change, and

the integration between human perceptions and environmental processes.

Urban ecology is also important because urban habitats are increasing worldwide.

The United Nations estimates that more than 50% of the global population now

resides in urban areas, as defined by the various member nations. In addition, the

next three billion people to be added to the world population are expected to live

in urban areas. Hence, urban systems are becoming the predominant habitat of

humanity, and are an increasingly widespread land cover type worldwide. In the

USA, constructed surfaces now cover an area equivalent to that of the state of Ohio

[2].

If the disciplines and practices of urban planning and design, ecological restoration,

and ecosystem management are to draw more effectively upon ecological

knowledge and data, then the science of urban ecology will become an increasingly

key resource for these pursuits.

Brief History

Urban ecology has emerged as a subdiscipline of biological ecology only in the last

30 years [3]. It began as an ecological science in the study of the species and biotic
communities of conspicuously green patches in cities and metropolises. Parks,

vacant lots, disturbed, and derelict lands were the first focal areas of the discipline

[4]. More recently, ecologists began to examine areas actively inhabited and

managed by people, including lawns and streetscapes [5]. Another contrasting

tradition in urban ecology focuses on the coarser scale, to quantify energy and

material budgets of cities. This focus, sometimes called urban metabolism , deals

with the energy, matter, and information that flow through and are transformed by

cities. In all cases, how the biological components and fluxes affect the well-being

of people in the city is a concern. However, the contemporary approach to urban

ecology differs from the past traditions. First, all areas in the city are now subject to

ecological analysis, not just the conspicuous green areas. Second, even in the

budgetary approach, the internal spatial configuration of different components of

the urban area is recognized as potentially influencing the fluxes and

transformations within the larger metropolis. Finally, the fully hybrid nature of the

systems is acknowledged, so that cities are seen as neither fully human nor fully

natural entities. Rather, they are inextricably both human constructions and

biophysical features [6, 7]. Urban ecology was once a study of green spaces in the

city. Now it is the study of the ecology of the entire urban area, including biological,

built, social, and physical components.

 Other scholarly disciplines beyond biology have used the term “urban ecology.”

Principal among these has been sociology. This use originated in the 1920s at the

University of Chicago under the leadership of Robert Park and Ernest Burgess, who

brought concepts of community, competition, and succession that were then

current in biological ecology into their new discipline of sociology. Human ecology,

which has roots in geography, anthropology, and other social sciences, is closely

related to urban ecology when the study subject is urban populations and their

interactions. However, other disciplines tend to neglect the physical and biological

components of the environment when they address urban ecology.

Introduction

Urban ecology has been used by several disciplines which have different foci and

concerns. These contrast or complement the conceptions of urban ecology as a

biological science, which is the approach emphasized here.

History

Urban ecology has a long history. The first flowering of urban ecology was a

sociological phase established by Park and Burgess at the University of Chicago in

the 1920s. Although this was a sociological pursuit, it was centrally informed by

analogies from the biological science of ecology, for which the University of

Chicago was one of the founding schools. Park, Burgess, and their students
explained the unprecedented growth and social change in Chicago in terms of

invasion of new human communities, competition among communities, and spatial

isolation between different communities and functions in the city. These scholars

were disturbed by the doubling of the population of Chicago at the time, and the

role of new migrants from the American South or from eastern and southern

Europe. The racial, ethnic, and class novelty in the city begged explanation and

incited the Chicagoans to seek explanatory and predictive models to serve in the

face of such unprecedented changes. This approach to urban ecology was informed

by a tacit antiurbanism, as the Chicago sociologists held village and agricultural

communities as the paragons of human societies. One of the central tenets of the

Chicago school was that cities had a life cycle, analogous to the expected, but

incorrect, prediction that ecological communities had predictable life cycles starting

from invasion, extending through competition and sorting, and ending in a mature

state. This phase of urban ecology ended when social science critics prompted a

move toward more individual behavioral explanations of urban change, as opposed

to community-based models. A similar, but independent shift occurred in

mainstream ecology at about the same time. Even though the academic community

moved beyond the deterministic, life-cycle approach to cities, urban policy in the

USA continued to assume life-cycle patterns through the 1960s, basing urban

conservation and urban renewal policies on this flawed assumption.

Oddly, during the early twentieth century, while their major ideas were informing

the birth of sociology and being widely applied in urban systems, most biological

ecologists heartily ignored cities and urban systems. European and Japanese

ecologists began to explore ecology in urban contexts after World War II. The

manifest destruction in the cities in which they lived invited their interest as

biologists. What would be the patterns and mechanisms of plant establishment in

derelict sites? How would the newly established biotic communities change over

time? What benefit might they provide the cities in which they occurred? The

questions of the immediate postwar researchers in Europe and Japan were

standard ecological questions, but asked in a novel location. This tradition became

linked with urban planning in Europe and has remained active in that form [8].

The second wave of urban ecology rose in the 1970s in the USA. Associated with the

birth of environmentalism and its concern with the Earth’s exponential human

population growth, the urban ecology of this era tended to assume that humans

were a negative influence on ecosystems, and urban areas provided an extreme

case of the human impact that was beginning to worry scientists and the public. A

key document from this era is the volume by Stearns and Montag [9]. In it, the

problems of urban areas are outlined, and the nature of potential ecologically

informed solutions is suggested. However, the ecology of the time was rather

coarse-scaled, and assumed equilibrium tendencies of systems, rather than

recognizing fine-scale heterogeneity as a causal feature of systems [10].

Furthermore, although failure of the old ecological ideas that had informed the

Chicago School was evident, no clear replacement had emerged. Urban ecology in

this era concentrated on investigations of conspicuously green patches in the city.

Hence, this approach can be characterized as ecology in the city [3]. Parks,

cemeteries, gardens, and abandoned lots exemplify this literature.

Another feature of this second wave of urban ecology was a budgetary, systems

approach. Epitomized by work in Hong Kong [11], this approach to urban ecology

addressed energy and material budgets of cities, and detailed the human costs of

pollution and crowding. This approach is characterized as a budgetary feature of

ecology of the city. It shares with the early Chicago School an assumption of the

importance of urban “pathologies” in the human population. Industrial ecology and

urban metabolism are branches from this tradition. Both of these schools of

thought analyze the material and energetic inputs, efficiencies, and outputs of

urban systems and their components. Life-cycle analysis of materials is a strategy

that aims to reduce the use of resources and the generation of wastes associated

with contemporary material use. This era of urban ecology did not persist in the

USA as a comprehensive field.

A new wave of urban ecology is currently on the rise. It is characterized by several

features that differentiate it from prior instances of urban ecology, and make it
more comprehensive than earlier approaches. First, it attempts to unify social and

biological knowledge, concerns, and approaches [12]. Second, it acknowledges and

exploits spatial heterogeneity and fine-scale dynamics as a feature and cause of

urban change. Third, it seeks to understand the controls of biogeochemical

processes throughout urban systems, including retention, fluxes, and leakage of

limiting nutrients and pollutants. Contemporary urban ecology brings the three

previously separate goals together for the first time.

Will this current interest in urban ecology wane, as did the previous ones in the

USA? One difference between the current manifestation of urban ecology and the

previous ones is institutional support. The pioneers of urban ecology in Europe,

Japan, and the USA did not have long-lasting research support. As a result, their

pioneering efforts were sometimes short-lived. Now there are two urban Long-

Term Ecological Research (LTER) sites in the USA, and International Long-Term

Ecological Research programs and Zones Ateliers are including urban areas among

their rosters. Already the US LTER urban sites are 13 years old. Such longevity

promotes interdisciplinary collaboration, continued use of research areas,

developing ongoing relationships with communities and decision-makers, and

accumulation of lengthy data runs which can expose causal links and the role of

pulse events [13]. Acknowledging that urban areas both contribute to and are
vulnerable to global changes [13] will tend to keep them in focus in ecological

science.

Examples

Urban ecology is such a diverse science that examples are required to give a sense

of its breadth.

Patterns of diversity and abundance associated with urbanization are complex and

competing explanations exist. Tests of island biogeography theory in urban areas

find that species–area relationships are preserved in urban patches [14]. However,

in some studies, patch size influenced species composition rather than species

richness as a result of organisms at higher trophic levels being preferentially lost

from smaller patches [15]. Attempts to directly quantify the extinction and

colonization processes that island biogeography relies on have shown that

immigration and extinction characterize different kinds of patches [16, 17]. The

species composition in a patch is the result of species colonizing the novel habitats

formed by urbanization along with those remaining after local extinctions due to

isolation or habitat alteration. One prediction of the view of complex causes of

urban biodiversity is that urban habitats are not always less diverse than rural

patches. Rather, diversity depends on the sum of extinction and colonization rates,
which differ regionally and taxonomically. At moderate levels of urbanization,

species richness may actually be higher than in nearby wild lands.

A second example is the disconnection between riparian zones of urban streams

and the water table [18]. This disconnection limits the capacity of urban riparian

zones to convert nitrate, a pollutant in groundwater derived from fertilizer and

sewage, to gaseous forms that do not pollute streams. Research in agricultural

landscapes has suggested that riparian restoration, inserting woody and grass

vegetation between crops and stream banks, is an effective strategy to mitigate

nitrate pollution in streams. When the capacity of urban riparian zones to

accomplish such mitigation was examined in Baltimore, MD, USA, it was discovered

that riparian zones had become disconnected from the groundwater sources that

control their ability to convert nitrate to nitrogen gas. With reduced infiltration of

stormwater into the ground due to impervious surfaces, and with high incision

leaving stranded droughty floodplains in cities, urban riparian zones no longer

support the anaerobic conditions and high organic matter required to fuel

denitrifying bacteria. Hence, the expected denitrification in urban riparian zones

may not always occur [19]. This example demonstrates that knowledge obtained in

nonurban environments may not apply to urban situations.

Abstract

Ecosystems and landscapes around the world have become increasingly

domesticated through urbanization. Cities have been the engines of

socioeconomic development but also the centers of major environmental

problems since the industrial revolution. Numerous studies have shown that our

urban ecosystems and landscapes are on an unsustainable trajectory. Global

sustainability depends critically on cities, and urban ecology can – and needs to –

play a key role in the transition toward sustainability. In this paper, I review

different definitions and perspectives of urban ecology, discuss major advances

and key issues, and propose a framework to help move the field forward. After

almost 90 years of development, urban ecology has evolved into a truly

transdisciplinary enterprise that integrates ecological, geographical, planning, and

social sciences. The most salient thrust of current research activities in the field is

the emerging urban sustainability paradigm which focuses on urban ecosystem

services and their relations to human well-being. While urbanization is complex in

many ways, we do know a lot about its patterns, processes, and effects. More

specifically, we know a great deal about urban growth patterns in space and time,

the underlying drivers and mechanisms, and myriad effects of urbanization on

biodiversity, ecological processes, and ecosystem services. Compared to their

ancient counterparts, contemporary cities tend to be bigger in physical size and

ecological footprint, faster in growth rate in terms of both population and

urbanized land, and more irregular in landscape composition and configuration.

As coevolving human-environment systems, cities are spatially heterogeneous,

complex adaptive systems. As such, the dynamic trajectory of cities can never be

fully predicted or controlled, but can and should be influenced or guided in more

desirable directions through planning and design activities that are based on

urban ecological knowledge and sustainability principles.

Graphical abstract

A conceptual diagram illustrating the relationships among biodiversity, ecosystem

processes (or ecosystem functions), ecosystem services, and human well-being in

an urban landscape. All the components and their relationships are influenced

profoundly by the speed and spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization that is driven

primarily by socioeconomic processes. Thus, understanding and improving the

ecology and sustainability of urban landscapes and regions should not only

consider how urbanization affects these key components but also how their

relationships change in time. Human well-being is the primary focus for urban

sustainability projects, whereas urban ecological studies often focus on

biodiversity, ecological processes, and ecosystem services. In either case, the

connections among the key components and their linkages across spatial
(landscape–region–globe) and temporal (year–decade–century) scales should be

taken into account.

What are GIS and remote sensing?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing

feature events on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations, such as

query and statistical analysis, with maps. GIS manages location-based information and

provides tools for display and analysis of various statistics, including population

characteristics, economic development opportunities, and vegetation types. GIS allows you

to link databases and maps to create dynamic displays. Additionally, it provides tools to

visualize, query, and overlay those databases in ways not possible with traditional

spreadsheets. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems, and make it

valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting

outcomes, and planning strategies. For more, see GIS.com.

Remote sensing is the art and science of making measurements of the earth using sensors

on airplanes or satellites. These sensors collect data in the form of images and provide

specialized capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images. Remote
sensed imagery is integrated within a GIS. For more, see the Principles in Remote

Sensing tutorials from the Satellite Observations in Science Education site.

THE FUNCTIONING AND USES OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

6.1 Introduction

Referring back to Figure 1.3 (p.6) it can be seen that we are now at the stage where the data

streams, in their various forms, converge into the “box” labelled GIS. Entering this box are “flows”

of data - both directly relevant and proxy, as well as the three map “flows” - it is these streams which

collectively combine to form the inputs to GIS. In this chapter we intend to show how GISs have

evolved, what the major processes are that make up the system, and then to examine something of

the technology necessary for making the system function. We also intend to look at benefits and

problems of GIS and then to give some guidance on system selection, including the support facilities

available. We will conclude by attempting, in this complex and fast changing field, to examine some

likely future trends in GIS. A varied selection of functional GISs, as applied to aquaculture, inland

fisheries or related topics, are exemplified in Chapter 7.

6.2 Defining GIS

GIS is a branch of science, or a field of learning, which has evolved, and is very much still evolving, at

such a rapid pace that a definition of what it is or what it does, has changed and expanded so much
that the only thing that we can be certain of is that any definition we give now would not describe

what is being done in perhaps 5 or 10 years time! This rapid evolution, which is described in more

detail in section 6.3, has meant that there is much controversy over not only a definition of GIS, but

also where GIS lies in a hierarchy of similar fields and on what basis a typology of GIS should be

determined.

Though it would appear that the nomenclature of “Geographic(al) Information System(s)” is coming

to the fore and is becoming universally accepted as pivotal or central to those processes which we

describe in this chapter (Clarke, 1986), there is still a body of opinion which considers GIS to be a

“narrow term”, only one strand of several systems which, although similar, should retain their

separate identities (Shand and Moore, 1989). Other names synonymous with GIS include:

“Geog-based information systems”,

“Natural resource information systems”,

“Geo-data systems”,

“Spatial information systems”,

“Geographic data systems”,

“Digital mapping systems”,

“Land information systems”(LIS).

It is likely that most of these names will give way in favour of GIS, though LIS is likely to hold its

ground for a while, along with other associated or specific application areas such as “Computer

Aided Drawing” (CAD) and “Automated Mapping/Facilities Management” (AM/FM).

Actual definitions of GIS will be variable and range from the very simple: “A computer system

capable of holding and using data describing places on the Earth's surface”, through the rather
limited: “A GIS then is a software package,.....” (Butler, 1988, p.31) and through the novel: “GIS are

simultaneously the telescope, the microscope, the computer and the xerox machine of regional

analysis and synthesis.” (Abler, 1988, p.137), eventually to extremely “wordy” definitions. We would

suggest that an actual definition is not as important as the basic ideas which GISs convey, e.g. the

essence of GIS must involve:

i. That being “geographical” it contains data and concepts which are concerned with spatial

distributions.

ii. That “information” implies some notion of conveying data, ideas or analyses, usually as an

aid to decision-making.

iii. That being a “system” it involves the sequence of inputs, processes and outputs.

iv. That the three strands mentioned above are given functionality within a recent technological

scenario based on “Hi-tech” capabilities.

In very practical terms GIS comprise a collection of integrated computer hardware and software

which together are used for inputting, storing, manipulating and presenting geographical data

(Figure 6.1). The data may be in any textual, map or numeric form which are capable of being

integrated within a single system. GIS exist in a variety of forms and embody the potential for an

enormous range of applications. No single typology for GISs has yet emerged and clearly a number

of categorizations are possible. For those interested we recommend Clarke (1986) and Bracken and

Webster (1989).
6.3 The Evolution of GIS

The rapid evolution of GIS, especially over the last decade, has been caused by a complex amalgam

of major factors, plus a number of minor ones. Here we identify the major factors before briefly

examining the historical sequence of GIS development. For those interested further in these areas,

details are given in Burrough (1986), Jackson and Mason (1986), Dept. of Environment (1987),

Smith et al (1987), Crosswell and Clark (1988), Goodchild (1988), Tomlinson (1989) and Star and Estes

(1990).

6.3.1 Factors Causing the Recent Expansion of GIS

6.3.1.1 The proliferation of data

Over the last two decades there has been a surge in data volume, much of which has been available

in digital format, e.g. from RS sources, from censuses and from the major mapping agencies. This

surge was in response to the perceived need to have banks of information, in an easily manipulated

form, so as to maximize the use of expensively procured data. Much of this data has been accessible

using various on-line facilities associated with computer networking and communications.

6.3.1.2 The reduction in computing costs

Technological advances in computer hardware have enabled a dramatic increase in the

performance/cost ratio of computer processors. Dept. of Environment (1987) estimates that

processing costs have fallen by a factor of 100 in the past decade, and that this is likely to continue.

Figure 6.2 illustrates how processor performance has also increased in terms of speed obtained

relative to investment made. Performance increases are now tending to blur the traditional

distinction between the hierarchy of “mainframe”, “minicomputer” and “microcomputer” - a

minicomputer does today what only a mainframe could do five years ago. Actual hardware size

reduction has allowed for significant office space saving costs.

6.3.1.3 The integration of parallel developments

Advancing on the tide of the explosion in computing power and capability have been a number of

parallel developments. These include: computer aided design (CAD), remote sensing (RS), spatial

analysis, digital cartography, surveying and geodesy, etc. All these fields have a spatial perspective

and can be inter-related, though other fields such as IT, image processing, computer graphics and

photogrammetry have also contributed. GIS has emerged as a core methodology allowing for

integration to occur if desirable, or allowing for each of the separate fields to greatly enhance their

own efficiency. Thus GIS is “…the result of linking parallel developments in many separate spatial

data processing disciplines.” (Burrough, 1986. p.6), and it allows for some considerable

developmental effort and costs to cease being duplicated.

6.3.1.4 Increased opportunities for GIS

Paper maps have traditionally formed the basis of spatial enquiry and these were needed at a large

range of scales. Paper maps occupy much space, are easily damaged, they date quickly, they are

expensive to produce and data cannot be rapidly extracted from them. The inception of GIS has

changed much of this. Both private and governmental organizations have quickly realized the

tremendous social, environmental and commercial value of GIS for a range of applications - the main

fields are in market location analysis, property management, social resource allocation, resource

exploitation, inventory location and environmental analyses.

A consequence of this application and commercialization of GIS has been a proliferation in research

and development. GIS has allowed decision makers, in all organizations, to explore a range of

possibilities or scenarios before large investments are made or before plans and actions are

implemented.

6.3.2 The Historical Development of GIS

Though there have been claims for very early GISs, e.g. the British Domesday Book of the late 11th

century, GIS as we recognize it had its origins in the Canadian GIS of 1964. This embodied the early

recognition of what might be possible in terms of using computers for handling numerical data and

with out-putting useful and timely information. GIS development was limited in the 1960s and early

1970s because of cost and technical limitations, though during this period the development of the

minicomputer was important as was the creation of some original mapping packages, e.g. SYMAP,

GRID, IMERID and GEOMAP.

During the 1970s there was a rapid rise in the related, parallel fields (section 6.3.1.3). Advantages

were seen in linking data sets, utilizing spatial data in more ways and GIS associated equipment was

beginning to be acquired by universities, research organizations and small private companies. By the

late 1970s computer mapping had made rapid advances. There were hundreds of computer systems

for many applications. Interactive capability was achieved and there were great advances in output

devices capable of generating high resolution displays and hard copy graphic products. There were

also many computer literate students emerging from universities.

In the 1980s GIS had really taken off, especially during the latter part of the decade, and it is now a

growth industry of major proportions. We list some of the developments which have occurred

recently - further details will occur throughout this chapter:

 a. Advances in interactive query and graphics processing.

b. Proliferation of low-cost software, much of it suitable for personal computers (PCs).

Improved instructions, menus, manuals, etc. have made GIS accessible to non-GIS specialists.

c. Distributed computing via networks for the sharing of resources and data.

d. The availability of “off-the-shelf” or “turn-key” GIS systems, sometimes comprising complete

hardware and software packages.

e. Significant microprocessor developments have allowed for cost reductions and for huge

amounts of memory concentration into very small “chips”.

f. A trend from the use of, or digitizing of, specific maps towards having archives of digitized

data in a cartographic data bank which can be manipulated, analyzed and displayed in any

desirable form.

g. A proliferation in the support side of GIS - journals, courses, education, symposia, etc.

h. Governments, utilities and other enterprises seeking increased efficiency in data handling.

During the whole recent developmental period there has been a “leap-frogging” of developments

within specific areas of GIS in terms of them being applications-driven or technology-driven. Most of

the developments have been occurring in North America though some have come from Europe. In

most countries the government has played a large part in GIS progress since it has been the

generator of large volumes of data, since it created needs in departments such as forestry, land use

planning and natural resource development and since it is being increasingly called upon to take a

leading role with environmental concerns. The global market for GIS systems and data is currently
(1990) estimated at $4 billion, and is growing at 20% per annum (Tomlinson, 1989), and Figure 6.3

exemplifies a breakdown of the likely U.K. GIS market till 1999 (Rowley

6.4 The Functioning of GIS

Figure 6.1 showed the overall functioning of GISs in a simplified form. In this section we describe the

elements displayed within the GIS “box”, and show how they are integrated for the successful

functioning of the system. There are a great number of functions which a GIS might be required to

perform and the most important of these are set out in Table 6.1. The list is compiled from a variety

of sources and the interested reader should consult the following: Knapp and Rider (1979), Rhind

(1981), Dangermond (1983), Burrough (1986), Smith et al (1987) and Rhind and Green (1988).

Throughout this section we will briefly discuss those peripheral hardware items which are directly

related to GIS. Space prohibits a review of general computing hardware, e.g. processors, disk drives,

alphanumeric terminals, tape drives, V.D.Us and other monitors, even though they may be essential

to GIS. In section 6.7 we do look at ways of optimizing hardware systems configurations. Further

details on GIS hardware can be obtained from Letcher (1985), Megarry (1985), Walsh (1985), Croswell

and Clark (1988), Kadmon (1988) and Dangermond and Morehouse (1989).

6.4.1 Data Input and Encoding

All data being input to a GIS must be in digital format, in either numeric or alphanumeric form. Data

may be input via a variety of mediums including computer compatible tapes (CCTs), floppy disks,

Compact Disc-Read Only Memory optical discs (CR-ROMs), etc. It is obvious that if the data is

originating from multifarious sources, then each data set may differ structurally. Given that “The

creation of a clean, digital database is a most important and complex task upon which the usefulness
of the GIS depends.” (Burrough, 1986. p.57), then, from a GIS viewpoint, it would be ideal and far

more efficient if data could be:

i. Compatible, i.e. various sets were able to be linked or moved around.

ii. Disaggregated, i.e. so that users could select their own units (or areas) to manipulate or

analyze.

iii. Location referenced, i.e. to a National Grid or latitudes and longitudes or to any kind of

reference system or to some standard basic spatial unit (BSU) of area.

iv. Accurate - and therefore able to be referenced to the smallest aerial unit possible.

In the absence of this ideal, GIS systems software must either ignore these factors, compensate for

them or make do with sub-optimal input levels.

6.4.1.1 Data capture methods and hardware used

The input sources from where the data for GIS may originate have been discussed in Chapters 2 to 5

and are shown in Figure 6.1. In this section we need not discuss inputs from digital archives or inputs

from other GISs, since these will both be already available (captured), frequently in a format suitable

for immediate use. The choice of other capture methods will be governed largely by the available

budget and the type of data being input. The methods of capture for data sources are:

A) For Tabular and Field Surveys

Capture may be by using manual methods, aided by a keyboard and VDU, to interactively create data

bases or files, i.e. for entering the results of field work or questionnaire surveys. Data might be filed

in either a standard spreadsheet package or in any of the many specialist data entry modules

associated with particular computer packages or programs, e.g. statistical packages such as SPSS or
Minitab, computer cartography packages such as MICROMAP or survey analysis packages such as

SNAP. These programs or packages require that data is entered in a structured format - the data can

then be edited and corrected and any numerical manipulations can be performed.

Data loggers can be used. These are specialist devices that automate the process of collecting and

recording data in the field. They may be automatic or semiautomatic. They carry out a limited range

of functions recording data on variables such as soil moisture content, water flow, sediment particle

size, climatic variables, etc. For analogue data loggers, the data will need to be digitized. Specialist

data entry devices are available which semi-automate the field collection of live questionnaire data,

i.e. answers are fed directly into a pre-programmed memory within a battery operated, hand held

portable terminal. There are a variety of other microcomputers which are now becoming available as

a result of microprocessor advances and subsequent price reductions. Maguire (1989) provides

further useful information on many field data capture methods.

B) For Map Data

Maps may be captured by the use of digitizers or various types of scanners, e.g.:

i. Electromechanical digitizing involves using a tiltable table, or tablet, on which the map is

positioned (Figure 6.4), with an in-built Cartesian surface (grid), having energized

intersections typically resolving to 0.01mm. Attached to the table is a pen or tracking cross

(cursor or puck) which can be moved along lines or to points, and can detect the signal at any

intersection of the grid. Cursors can be equipped with up to 16 buttons which are used for

additional program control, e.g. to move from point to line or for adding identifier labels. The

analogue signal detected is coded by the computer into a digital x,y co-ordinate, measured

from a user-defined origin. These digitizers may work in either point or line/stream mode. In
 the former points are recorded at a signal from the operator; in the latter mode the digitizer

records co-ordinates at fixed time or distance intervals. Some digitizers can operate in all

three modes. Digitizers are increasingly linked directly to VDUs for monitoring purposes,

and/or linked to the host computer for direct input of data and to allow the computer to set

up the digitizing operating parameters.

C) For the Integration of Remote Sensing into GIS

Space precludes much discussion of the procedures necessary for the integration of RS imagery into

GIS - Jensen (1986) and Goodenough (1988) provide more detail on this. Here we will mostly

concentrate on some precautionary advice.

We have shown, in section 4.6, that RS imagery is preprocessed to a variety of user-defined levels,

and then filed on CCTs. This data can then be integrated into the GIS, perhaps via external packages

such as ERDAS or GEMS, which have been used to perform additional processing. Some GIS software

contains its own RS processing programs. The most important task in integration is ensuring that RS-

derived data is referenced to exact ground co-ordinates so that registration with other GIS data is

possible.

Before integrating the RS data (being held on a CCT) it is important to know the levels of pre-

processing which may have been performed. If only crude radiometric and geometric corrections

have been done then any of the further pre-processing levels described in section 4.6 might be

necessary. Actual integration may give rise to a number of problems. The RS data may only be

classified into 256 class levels, whereas GIS are capable of handling far larger arrays. This may make it

difficult to assign detectable RS image features to classes in the GIS. There is inevitably difficulty in

matching RS images to other thematic data which has been derived from topographic map sources
or elsewhere - this is especially true in areas having varied relief. Goodenough (1988) found that it

was not uncommon to have displacements of 200 meters at the 1:50 000 scale. Other problems

include differences in land area shapes and sizes as well as the image interpretation problems

described in Chapter 4.

Some authors argue that there has been very little success in integrating RS into GIS. Young and

Green (1987) say generally that this is because of differences between the potential and the

operational realization of this potential, and more specifically Wilkinson and Fisher (1987) note that

too much RS data is available at a resolution which is not reliable for realistic GIS. Robinson Barker

(1988) puts the lack of success down to a cooling off from an initial period of great interest in the

mid-1970s and to government indecision and inaction. There was also “too much technology and

data” and very sophisticated techniques were needed so that even now low cost interactive RS data

does not exist. Finally, RS data is in gridded (raster) format whilst the majority of GIS work in vector

format. It is important to bring attention to these limitations, not only to warn the potential user, but

also to show that there is still a huge amount of research necessary to ensure reliable integration,

and it could well be that the future of RS depends upon its ability to integrate successfully with GIS.

6.4.1.2 The structure of spatial data

A bird's eye view of the world, as depicted on a mapped surface, reveals that the surface consists of

either points, lines or 2D areas which are cartographically called polygons. Thus in Figure 6.7 (a)

roads would be lines, houses are usually points and gardens or fields are polygons. All information

captured by any method shown in section 6.4.1.1 must be capable of being displayed, and therefore

must be appropriately encoded to show any of these three forms. There are two basic organizational

modes which the computer may work in to display spatial forms, i.e. vector or raster mode

(respectively (b) and (c) in Figure 6.7).

A. Vector Mode. Here a map will consist of points whose positions are defined by geographic x,y

co-ordinates. A point may be defined in isolation to represent a single relatively small

mapped object such as a telephone box, a building or a settlement, i.e. depending on the

scale of the map. A series of points can be defined and joined to show a line - this might

represent a field boundary, road, river, etc. Lines too can be defined and joined so as to

enclose an area (a polygon) which might represent any 2D feature such as a field, lake or a

country or any thematic area such as an individual soil zone.

Digitizing in the vector mode can be extremely accurate, e.g. in representing non-straight

lines additional accuracy is obtained by registering (digitizing) a larger number of points

around a curve. The vector mode is usually employed where it is necessary to integrate

manual and computer graphics techniques and where annotations are frequently required.

Because vector modes use quite complex data structures, the technology is expensive as is

display and plotting, particularly for high quality colour products.

B. Raster Mode. Here the whole mapped surface is composed of a grid of cells which form a

matrix of rows and columns. The size of each cell determines the resolution (or detail) of the

mapped surface. Very small cells are referred to as pixels (as in RS imaging), and each cell or

pixel is a data element showing, by digital encoding or by colour coding of the final map, the

occurrence of different features at different cell locations.

Raster graphics are usually used where it is necessary to integrate topographical and

thematic map data, either together or with RS data. The main problem of this mode is that

the use of cells means that recognizable structures can be lost and there can be a serious loss

of information. However, each of the two modes will have several advantages over the other

(Table 6.2) and this means that they are best seen as complementary rather than
 competitive. Though in some ways the issue of structure mode is critical, because once

established it is difficult to change it, GIS are increasingly able to handle data in both vector

and raster structure since conversion programmes are now available.

Remote sensing provides us with a continuous and constant source of

information about the Earth, and  geographic information systems (GIS) are a

methodology for handling all of this geographic data. The marriage of the two

disciplines has allowed us to carry out large scale analyses of the Earth's surface

and, at the same time, provide increasingly detailed knowledge on many planetary

variables and improve our understanding of its functioning.  These analyses are

essential for decision-making on the sustainable management of natural

resources, designing networks of protected areas, and addressing the threats of

global change.

Broadly speaking, geographical information would not be so useful without

validation and knowledge about measurement accuracies, documentation of its

quality, and a capacity to deal with any errors that arise. It is in this particular area,

within the research line of GIS and remote sensing methods and applications, that

CREAF has the highest degree of expertise. This work is carried out by the

Research Group on Methods and Applications in Remote Sensing and Geographic

Information Systems (GRUMETS).

The use and applicability of spatial data in Africa has grown by leaps and bounds during the past few years.

Spatial technologies are these days being used for several purposes which include mapping the spread of

diseases, discovery of natural resources, monitoring of natural disasters, monitoring of soil and vegetation

conditions etc. All this has helped a great deal towards enhancing and accomplishing the Millennium

Development Goals in Africa

In the past two or three decades our capacity to survey and map the global environment has seen a

“makeover” through the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and Global

Positioning System (GPS). While GIS application enables the storage, management and analysis of large

quantities of spatially distributed data which are associated with their respective geographic features;

Remote Sensing is used to gather information about the surface of the earth from a distant platform,

usually a satellite or airborne sensor. The two merge when the remotely sensed data used for mapping

and spatial analysis is collected as reflected electromagnetic radiation, which is processed into a digital

image that can be overlaid with other spatial GIS data of the same geographic site. With their continuous

technological development and improvement, Remote Sensing information is increasingly being utilised

in undertaking socio-economic developments and technological uplifting of the country, in the federal

ministries and provincial departments, public sector organisations, international agencies and private

sectors.

GIS and Remote Sensing, either individually or in combination, spans a wide range of applications with

degree of complexity. More complex applications take advantage of the analytical capabilities of GIS and

RS software. These complex applications might include classification of vegetation for predicting crop

yield or environmental impacts and modelling of surface water drainage patterns etc of which some are

already being used in Africa. These software are of great use in geological and mineral exploration, hazard

assessment, oceanography, agriculture and forestry, land degradation and environmental monitoring

around the world. Each sensor in Remote Sensing devices was designed with a specific purpose. The
design for optical sensors focuses on the spectral bands to be collected while in Radar imaging, the

incidence angle and microwave band used to play an important role in defining which applications the

sensor is best suited to.

Example of the areas in which satellite remote sensing technology has been broadly applied in Pakistan,

with varying degree of success is as below:

 Agriculture

 Disaster monitoring and mitigation

 Survey and urban planning

 Water resource management

 Environmental monitoring

 National spatial data infrastructure

 Infrastructure development planning and monitoring

 Mineral exploration

 Telecommunication

 Coastal eco-system monitoring

Some of the above projects like Agriculture in Crop Monitoring have been undertaken by Space Upper

Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) in the recent past. It is a good example to African

countries to maximise the use of spatial technologies.

During the recent years, more than eight African countries have embraced the idea of spatial technology

and even more countries are joining due to its numerous benefits in today’s ever growing population in

Africa. Examples of some of the African countries that have already implemented GIS and RS are as

below.
Remote Sensing and GIS in Different African Countries

Generally in Africa, GIS and RS have been used in different fields. For weather monitoring, a software

package is used to generate daily weather data for Latin America and Africa with the use of Decision

Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer DSSAT crop Model. On the health care front, which is an

important field today, Africa and other continents like Asia and America monitor vector arthropod

surveillance in order to control the anopheles mosquitoes. Communications through television and radio

systems also depends mostly on RS and GIS to communicate information from one part of the world to

another. RS and GIS also boost communication through mobile devices like telephones. Here are some of

the applications of GIS and Remote Sensing in some of the African countries.

What Is Bioremediation?

Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that employs the use of living

organisms, like microbes and bacteria, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants,

and toxins from soil, water, and other environments. Bioremediation may be used to

clean up contaminated groundwater or environmental problems, such as oil

How Bioremediation Works

Bioremediation relies on stimulating the growth of certain microbes that utilize

contaminants like oil, solvents, and pesticides for sources of food and energy. These
microbes convert contaminants into small amounts of water, as well as harmless

gases like carbon dioxide.

Bioremediation requires a combination of the right temperature, nutrients, and

foods. The absence of these elements may prolong the cleanup of contaminants.

Conditions that are unfavorable for bioremediation may be improved by adding

“amendments” to the environment, such as molasses, vegetable oil, or simple air.

These amendments optimize conditions for microbes to flourish, thereby

accelerating the completion of the bioremediation process.

Bioremediation can either be done "in situ", which is at the site of the contamination

itself, or "ex situ," which is a location away from the site. Ex situ bioremediation may

be necessary if the climate is too cold to sustain microbe activity, or if the soil is too

dense for nutrients to distribute evenly. Ex situ bioremediation may require

excavating and cleaning the soil above ground, which may add significant costs to

the process.

The bioremediation process may take anywhere from several months to several years

to complete, depending on variables such as the size of the contaminated area, the

concentration of contaminants, temperature, soil density, and whether

bioremediation will occur in situ or ex situ.

Advantages of Bioremediation

Bioremediation offers numerous advantages over other cleanup methods. By relying

solely on natural processes, it minimizes damage to ecosystems. Bioremediation

often takes place underground, where amendments and microbes can be pumped in

order to clean up contaminants in groundwater and soil. Consequently,

bioremediation does not disrupt nearby communities as much as other cleanup

methodologies.

The bioremediation process creates relatively few harmful byproducts (mainly due to

the fact that contaminants and pollutants are converted into water and harmless

gases like carbon dioxide). Finally, bioremediation is cheaper than most cleanup

methods because it does not require substantial equipment or labor. By the end of

2018, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had brought

bioremediation activities to a total of 1,507 sites.

Example of Bioremediation

In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground off the coast of Alaska; the tanker

ended up spilling approximately 11 million gallons of oil. Around this same time,

bioremediation was gaining traction as a viable option for oil cleanups. The EPA and

Exxon Mobil Corporation (XOM) both began testing different compounds. Initial

tests regarding the effectiveness of bioremediation looked promising.

Between 1989 and 1990, more than 100,000 pounds of fertilizer was applied over

more than 2000 applications to the affected areas. By mid-1992, the cleanup was

considered complete, and the fertilizer had degraded nearly all the oil compounds.

Bioremediation is not without any limitations. Common disadvantages or

limitations to bioremediation technologies are (1) some highly chlorinated

contaminants and high molecular weight PAHs are not readily amenable

to microbial degradation, and (2) microbial degradation of some

chemicals may lead to the production of more toxic and mobile

intermediates than the parent compound. For example,

reductive dehalogenation of TCE can result in accumulation of vinyl

chloride, a toxic product and a carcinogen. Thus, bioremediation is a

research-intensive technology that requires a prior thorough

understanding of microbial processes. Otherwise, the consequences

could be more serious than the original contaminant to the ecosystem.

Bioremediation is an emerging technology which can be simultaneously

used with other physical and chemical treatment methods for complete

management of diverse group of environmental pollutants. It seems as a

sustainable approach for the environmental pollution management, and

hence, there is a need for more research in this area. Efforts need to be

made to generate a synergistic interaction between the environmental

impact on fate and behavior of environmental contaminants and

assortment and performance of the most suitable bioremediation

technique and another relevant technique that can sustain the effective

and successful operation and monitoring of a bioremediation process.

Vermi-biofiltration and genetic engineering technology can be promoted

and adapted at larger scales for sustainable waste recycling, polluted soil

treatment, management of solid wastes, etc., with certain optimized

conditions. The continuous efforts of research and development will

direct future regulations, dealing with bioremediation targets,

contaminant availability, and their potential threat on natural ecosystem

and human health. Moreover, the availability and biodegradation of

contaminants in any natural or man-made system and degree of threat to

human health caused by various environmental pollutants would be more

easily forecasted by using multidisciplinary technologies.

BIOREMEDIATION: THE POLLUTION

SOLUTION?

Posted on December 8, 2015   by Rebecca Philp

Over the past few months, Rebecca Philp, a PhD student from the Pirbright Institute, has been

working at the Microbiology Society as our Public Affairs intern. While researching for a policy

briefing, Rebecca learnt a lot about bioremediation. She explains a little about it in this blog.

Our Pollution Problem

The global population continues to rise at an astonishing rate, with estimates suggesting it will

be in excess of 9 billion in 2050. The intensive agricultural and industrial systems needed to

support such a large number of people will inevitably cause an accumulation of soil, water and

air pollution. Estimates have attributed pollution to 62 million deaths each year, 40% of the

global total, while the World Health Organization (WHO) have reported that around 7 million

people are killed each year from the air they breathe. Water systems fare little better, with an

estimated 70% of industrial waste dumped into surrounding water courses. The world generates

1.3 billion tonnes of rubbish every year, the majority of which is stored in landfill sites or dumped

into the oceans.

We need to control our pollution; thankfully, microbes might be the answer.

Micro-organisms are well known for their ability to break down a huge range of organic

compounds and absorb inorganic substances. Currently, microbes are used to clean up pollution

treatment in processes known as ‘bioremediation’.

The Invisible Workforce

Bioremediation uses micro-organisms to reduce pollution through the biological degradation of

pollutants into non-toxic substances. This can involve either aerobic or anaerobic micro-

organisms that often use this breakdown as an energy source. There are three categories of

bioremediation techniques: in situ land treatment for soil and groundwater; biofiltration of the

air; and bioreactors, predominantly involved in water treatment.

Soil

Industrial soils can be polluted by a variety of sources, such as chemical spillages, or the

accumulation of heavy metals from industrial emissions. Agricultural soils can become

contaminated due to pesticide use or via the heavy metals contained within agricultural

products.

A visible example of where bioremediation has been used to good effect can be found in

London’s Olympic Park. The grounds that held the 2012 Olympics had previously been heavily

polluted, after hundreds of years of industrial activity. Bioremediation cleaned 1.7 million cubic

metres of heavily polluted soil to turn this brownfield site into one containing sports facilities

surrounded by 45 hectares of wildlife habitats. Groundwater polluted with ammonia was

cleaned using a new bioremediation technique that saw archaeal microbes breaking down the
ammonia into harmless nitrogen gas. The converted park marked the London 2012 Olympic and

Paralympic Games as the “greenest” and most sustainable games ever held, only possible

with bioremediation techniques.

While some soil cleaning techniques require the introduction of new microbes, ‘biostimulation’

techniques increase natural degradation processes by stimulating the growth of microbes

already present. Natural biodegradation processes can be limited by many factors, including

nutrient availability, temperature, or moisture content in the soil. Biostimulation techniques

overcome these limitations, providing microbes with the resources they need, which increases

their proliferation and leads to an increased rate of degradation.

Cleaning up oil-polluted soil is an example of where stimulating microbial growth can be used to

good effect. Research has shown that poultry droppings can be used as a biostimulating agent,

providing nitrogen and phosphorous to the system, which stimulates the natural growth rate of

oil-degrading bacteria. Systems like these may prove cheaper and more environmentally friendly

than current chemical treatment options.

Air

Air is polluted by a variety of volatile organic compounds created by a range of industrial

processes. While chemical scrubbing has been used to clean gases emitted from chimneys, the

newer technique of ‘biofiltration’ is helping to clean industrial gases. This method involves

passing polluted air over a replaceable culture medium containing micro-organisms that degrade

contaminates into products such as carbon dioxide, water or salts. Biofiltration is the only

biological technique currently available to remediate airborne pollutants.

Water

In the UK, access to clean, potable water and modern sanitation is something we take for

granted. However, there are billions of people on Earth for which this is a luxury. The WHO

estimate that each year 842,000 people die as a result of diarrhoeal diseases, many of which

could be prevented if they had access to clean water and proper sanitation. Around 2.6 billion

people lack any sanitation, with over 200 million tons of human waste untreated every year.

Sewage treatment plants are the largest and most important bioremediation enterprise in the

world. In the UK, 11 billion litres of wastewater are collected and treated everyday. Major

components of raw sewage are suspended solids, organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Wastewater entering a treatment plant is aerated to provide oxygen to bacteria that degrade

organic material and pollutants. Microbes consume the organic contaminants and bind the less

soluble fractions, which can then be filtered off. Toxic ammonia is reduced to nitrogen gas and

released into the atmosphere.

The Future

Bioremediation is not a new technique, but as our knowledge of the underlying microbial

reactions grow, our ability to use them to our advantage increases. Frequently, bioremediation

requires fewer resources and less energy than conventional technology, and doesn’t accumulate

hazardous by-products as waste. Bioremediation has technical and cost advantages, although it

can often take more time to carry out than traditional methods.
Bioremediation can be tailored to the needs of the polluted site in question and the specific

microbes needed to break down the pollutant are encouraged by selecting the limiting factor

needed to promote their growth. This tailoring may be further improved by using synthetic

biology tools to pre-adapt microbes to the pollution in the environment to which they are to be

added.

Pollution is a threat to our health and damages the environment, affecting wildlife and the

sustainability of our planet. Damage to our soils affects our ability to grow food, summarised

in our policy briefing on Food Security. Bioremediation can help to reduce and remove the

pollution we produce, to provide clean water, air and healthy soils for future generations.

Principles of Bioremediation

The key players in bioremediation are bacteria—microscopic organisms that live

virtually everywhere. Microorganisms are ideally suited to the task of contaminant

destruction because they possess enzymes that allow them to use environmental

contaminants as food and because they are so small that they are able to contact

contaminants easily. In situ bioremediation can be regarded as an extension of the

purpose that microorganisms have served in nature for billions of years: the

breakdown of complex human, animal, and plant wastes so that life can continue

from one generation to the next. Without the activity of microorganisms, the earth

would literally be buried in wastes, and the nutrients necessary for the continuation

of life would be locked up in detritus.

Whether microorganisms will be successful in destroying man-made contaminants in

the subsurface depends on three factors: the type of organisms, the type of

contaminant, and the geological and chemical conditions at the contaminated site.

This chapter explains how these three factors influence the outcome of a subsurface

bioremediation project. It reviews how microorganisms destroy contaminants and

what types of organisms play a role in in situ bioremediation. Then, it evaluates which

contaminants are most susceptible to bioremediation in the subsurface and describes

the types of sites where bioremediation is most likely to succeed.

THE ROLE OF MICROBES IN BIOREMEDIATION

The goal in bioremediation is to stimulate microorganisms with nutrients and other

chemicals that will enable them to destroy the contaminants. The bioremediation

systems in operation today rely on microorganisms native to the contaminated sites,

encouraging them to work by supplying them with the optimum levels of nutrients

and other chemicals essential for their metabolism. Thus, today's bioremediation

systems are limited by the capabilities of the native microbes. However, researchers

are currently investigating ways to augment contaminated sites with nonnative

microbes—including genetically engineered microorganisms—specially suited to

degrading the contaminants of concern at particular sites. It is possible that this

process, known as bioaugmentation, could expand the range of possibilities for

future bioremediation systems.

Regardless of whether the microbes are native or newly introduced to the site, an

understanding of how they destroy contaminants is critical to understanding

bioremediation. The types of microbial processes that will be employed in the

cleanup dictate what nutritional supplements the bioremediation system must

supply. Furthermore, the byproducts of microbial processes can provide indicators

that the bioremediation is successful.

Human activities produce a tremendous variety of byproducts. Agriculture, mining, manufacturing and

other industrial processes leave organic and inorganic residual compounds behind. Some are inert and

harmless, but many are toxic and highly destructive to the environment, particularly the soil and

groundwater. Fortunately, our planet has built-in environmental remediation systems.

Unfortunately, natural groundwater and soil remediation take a long time.

Bioremediation technology is invaluable for reclaiming polluted soil and water. In the simplest terms,

bioremediation is a waste management process using live organisms to neutralize or remove harmful

pollutants from contaminated areas.

Bioremediation is an environmental science that amplifies natural biological actions to remedy or

remediate polluted groundwater and contaminated soil. Rather than using expensive environmental

remediation equipment to remove untreated toxic materials and dispose of them elsewhere,

bioremediation techniques use biological microbes to do the cleanup work.

Microbes are tiny organisms naturally found in the environment. These bacterial microorganisms are

nature’s helpers in decomposing, recycling and rectifying imbalanced chemical conditions in soil and

water. For countless years, nature has been correcting itself, while humans continue to display a

profound ability to make a mess and ignore their damage. But now, science has found an effective way to
remediate bad soil and groundwater conditions by applying natural organic substances and using their

inherent properties.

According to the Environmental Protection Agency, bioremediation is a water and soil treatment

technique using naturally occurring organisms to attack hazardous materials and change them into less

toxic substances. Often, highly contaminated sites can become toxin-free using proper bioremediation

steps and specialized equipment.

The Biological Remediation Process- How

Bioremediation Works

The bioremediation process is a biological process that stimulates helpful microbes to use harmful

contaminants as their source of food and energy. Certain microorganisms eat toxic chemicals and

pathogens, digesting them and eliminating through changing their composition into harmless gases like

ethane and carbon dioxide. Some contaminated soil and water conditions already have the right counter-

microbes. Here, human intervention can speed up the natural remediation by boosting microbial action.

In other cases where the right microbes are low in numbers or entirely absent, bioremediation is

introduced by adding amendments — microbial actors like fungi and aerobic bacteria that are mixed into

the soil or water. This simple process is called bioaugmentation, and it’s highly effective to correct

conditions quickly, as long as the right environmental conditions are present. Critical conditions for

bioremediation include:

 Host microbial contaminants that provide fuel and energy to parasitical microbes

  Parasitical microbes that feed off their harmful hosts and destroy them

 Oxygen in sufficient amounts to support aerobic biodegradation

 Water, either in liquid form or in soil moisture content

 Carbon is the foundation of microbial life and its energy source

 Temperature, not too cold or hot for microbial life to flourish

 Nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and sulfur to support microbe growth

 Acid and alkaline proportions or pH ratio in the range of 6.5 to 7.5

When all these conditions are in the right proportions, microbes grow at enormous rates. If the optimum

conditions are off-balance, microbial action is too slow or can die off altogether, and the contaminants

remain until nature eventually restores a balance. Re-balancing can take a long time in highly polluted

conditions. But proper bioremediation processes rectify most situations in relatively short time. That can

be anywhere from a few years to several decades.

Oxygen has a strong effect on bioremediation. Some microbes thrive on air, while others are hindered

when exposed to excessive oxygen. This effect depends entirely on what particular toxin is being

remediated and what type of microbe is being encouraged. There are two groups or processes of oxygen

levels in soil and water:

 Aerobic is the presence of oxygen needed for microbial development. In contaminated soil

conditions, regularly tilling the soil is one aerobic enhancement method. This technique is also

a main activity in composting to oxygenate helpful fungi. Aerobic action is also introduced

mechanically through passive bioventing or by forcing compressed air into soil or under the

water table with biosparging.

 Anaerobic is the absence or reduction of oxygen in water or soil. This bioremediation form is

uncommon, except in heavy metal conditions such as mitigating sites polluted by

 polychlorinated biphenyls or trichloroethylene. Anaerobic remediation is a specialized form

requiring advanced techniques and precise monitoring.

Bioremediation Classes

There are two main classifications of bioremediation. This refers to where remediation is carried out, not

the actual bioremediation technique classes. Bioremediation is done either:

 In situ, where all bioremediation work is done right at the contamination site. This can be polluted

soil that’s treated without unnecessary and expensive removal, or it can be contaminated

groundwater that’s remediated at its point of origin. In situ is the preferred bioremediation

method, as it requires far less physical work and eliminates spreading contaminants through

trucking or pumping away to other treatment locations. Bioventing, biosparging and

bioaugmentation are the main technique classes.

 Ex situ means removing contaminated material to a remote treatment location. This classification

is less desirable. It involves the big job of excavating polluted soil and trucking it offsite. In the

case of contaminated water, ex situ is rare, except for pumping groundwater to the surface

and biologically treating it in an enclosed reservoir. Ex situ bioremediation poses a hazard to

spreading contamination or risking an accidental spill during transport. Once at an ex situ

treatment site, three technique classes can be applied. One is landfarming, where soil is spread

and biologically decontaminated. Another is composting, which is an age-old process. The third

class involves biopiles: a hybrid of stacking material in silos, then composting as a biological

treatment.
Bioremediation technique classes are the prescribed physical activities or strategies used in microbial

remedies. The overall process starts with isolating contaminated site conditions and characterizing what

resident microbes exist. Scientists watch how these microbes already interact with the pollutants, then

conduct lab testing to map out colonization requirements. Catabolic activity is studied in the lab, from

which a field plan is developed. Once that’s implemented, the bioremediation process is monitored, and

adjustments are made as necessary.

Bioremediation Strategies

Bioremediation strategies plan how the field work is done. There are different technique applications that

depend on the site’s saturation degree and what contaminants need removal. They also depend on site

conditions such as soil composition, compaction and groundwater tables, as well as runoff characteristics

and whether in situ work is possible, or if the contaminated material requires ex situ removal.

Thanks to today’s advanced technology, most polluted properties can be treated onsite. There are three

main bioremediation strategies, each with individually designed equipment. The three applications are:

 Bioventing is the most common approach. This process involves drilling small-diameter wells into

the soil that allows air ingress and passive ventilation where ground gases produced by

microbial action are released. This approach can be used for both soil and groundwater

problems, as it lets oxygen and nutrient rates be controlled by adjusting the vent rate.

 Biosparging involves high-pressure air injection forced into the soil or under the groundwater

table. This process increases oxygen concentration and enhances biological Air sparging is

highly effective and affordable, compared to excavating and tilling contaminated soil or

circulating polluted water through pumps and filter tanks.

 Bioaugmentation is often used to add extra indigenous microbes or to implant exogenous

species to the site. Augmentation works in conjunction with both bioventing and biosparging
 applications, but has limitations. Non-indigenous microbes are not usually compatible with

indigenous bacteria, so much of the bioaugmentation additives are additional microbes to

those already at work.

There are other bioremediation strategies for contaminated soil and groundwater sites. Oil and

petroleum waste is a big problem in many spots. So is gassing off from methane produced by biological

action. Most regulatory bodies are strict about adding other pollutants into the environment, which is a

side problem for the bioremediation process.

Oil is lighter than water and notoriously floats on the surface, creating a hazard for runoff and secondary

pollution. Methane gas is smelly and highly offensive when released in large quantities. This frequently

happens when contaminated soil is stirred, but passively occurs through bioventing and biosparging.

Three techniques are available to control bioremediation side effects:

 Oil/water separators skim surface petroleum pollutants and separate them for

containment and recycling. Decontaminated water is then recirculated back on the

site.

 Air strippers work to pull air from soil and clean it before releasing it back into the atmosphere.

This remediation assistance prevents polluted air from escaping the soil and getting out where

it can’t be contained.

 Soil vapor extraction is a process where contaminated gases are collected from the soil and

dissipated through mechanical devices. This technique is often used alongside biosparging.

Like oil water separators and air strippers, soil vapor extractors are specialized pieces and

require experienced operators.

 
Bioremediation Uses

Bioremediation has become the main choice for contaminated site recovery in America. It’s commonly

used around the world for all sorts of situations where previous human activity has left the location

damaged and unusable without remediation. As the country’s population grows, there are less available

landfills to relocate polluted material. This makes bioremediation very attractive. Thanks to advancing

science, bioremediation is also economical.

Contaminants in polluted soil and water cover a broad range of organic and inorganic compounds. They

also cover bacteriological and even radioactive parameters. Some of the uses for bioremediation

intervention include these site types:

 Petroleum stations can have corroded underground tanks. Gasoline and diesel fuel

leach into the ground and remain long after the station’s service life expired.

Petroleum products are particularly receptive to bioremediation.

 Industrial sites where chemicals used in production are spilled or discharged in

effluent. Heavy metals like lead and chromium are tough to remediate, but many

lesser pollutants are biologically neutralized.

 Landfills that overfill and leach or are decommissioned are well-suited to

bioremediation. Methane gas is a common byproduct, but can be controlled

through air stripping and scrubbing.

 Farms where over-fertilizing occurs are excellent candidates for bioremediation.

This includes chemical fertilizers and animal waste products.

 Lumber processing yards are often polluted from wood preservatives. They

commonly leach into the soil and groundwater, but can be cleaned up through

bioremediation efforts.
  Onsite sanitation systems contaminate soil and groundwater when septic tanks and disposal

fields fail. These sanitary system overflows are highly responsive to biological treatment.

 Mine site tailings can be extremely toxic. Bioremediation efforts have proved very successful in

detoxifying old mine quarries and pits.

 Accidental chemical spills alongside transportation routes have been remediated through

biological treatment. This includes petroleum discharges and even road salts.

Benefits of Bioremediation

The biggest benefit from using bioremediation processes is its contribution to the environment.

Bioremediation uses nature to fix nature. Properly applied by knowledgeable people using specialized

equipment designed for bioremediation, this is the safest and least invasive soil and groundwater cleanup

available.

Bioremediation works for organic pathogens, arsenic, fluoride, nitrate, volatile organic compounds,

metals and many other pollutants like ammonia and phosphates. It’s effective for cleaning insecticides

and herbicides, as well as saltwater intrusion into aquifers.

The major benefits of bioremediation are:

 Completely natural process with almost no harmful side effects

 Carried out in situ for most applications with no dangerous transport

 Quick turnaround time to make soil and water useful

  Minimal equipment needed except for specialized pieces

 Positive public acceptance due to organic process and little disturbance

 Cost effective to maintain and economical to input

 Lowers liability, as contaminants are less likely escape

 Little energy consumed compared to incineration and landfilling

 High acceptance from regulatory authorities

Specialized Bioremediation Equipment

There are certain specialized pieces of bioremediation equipment available. Some of it takes

knowledgeable operation by trained and skilled people, but much bioremediation equipment is

relatively easy to use. Training and maintenance service is easily available from the right

supplier and manufacturer of bioremediation equipment.

This specialized equipment is also relatively inexpensive when compared to heavy machinery

and trucks required excavating and hauling off polluted soil. There is also no need for

complicated pumps and reservoirs needed for decontaminating groundwater. Here are

examples of some specialized bioremediation equipment:

 Soil and groundwater remediation systems offer fully integrated, pre-wired and

pre-piped turnkey operations that are factory tested and ready to use in the field.

They’re available with air sparging, biosparging and soil vapor extraction systems.

These systems also handle air stripping and oil-water Complete systems are

mounted on exposed or enclosed trailers and can be custom-designed to specific

needs. They’re the latest in bioremediation technology.

 Fully integrated custom environmental remediation systems go a step beyond.

They set the standard for the entire industry. These complete custom-built systems

include standard air sparging and soil vapor extraction. There are dual-phase

extraction systems with thermal catalytic oxidizers, along with liquid and vapor-

phase carbon adsorption.

 Dual-phase recovery systems fill the gap. They do two jobs in one by using a vacuum

blower and a moisture separator. Gauges, NEMA IV control panels and lever

controls can be custom-designed to exacting specifications. Options include filter

vessels, oxidizers and manifolds with flow indicators. These can be conveniently

trailer-mounted.

 Soil vapor extraction systems include a blower and vacuum pump. All components

are fully integrated with marine-grade aluminum skids. They can also be mounted on

an enclosed trailer to protect the investment.

 Air sparging systems have both a compressor and blower. Heat exchangers are

available if required. All controls, gauges and indicators can be custom-ordered and

designed to individual needs.

 Low-profile air strippers have a turbo tray design. They’re high-performance and

low-maintenance.

 Air/water separators are structurally sound to withstand full vacuum applications.

They’re corrosion-free and can be used in any site condition.

 Enhanced oil/water separators are used above the ground for surface spill cleanup.

 Mobile dewatering aerators efficiently remove hydrocarbons at flow rates up to

500 GPM.
Noise pollution, unwanted or excessive sound that can

have deleterious effects on human health, wildlife, and environmental

quality. Noise pollution is commonly generated inside many industrial

facilities and some other workplaces, but it also comes from highway,

railway, and airplane traffic and from outdoor construction activities.

Measuring And Perceiving Loudness

Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules carried from a noise source

to the ear. Sound is typically described in terms of the loudness

(amplitude) and the pitch (frequency) of the wave. Loudness (also called

sound pressure level, or SPL) is measured in logarithmic units

called decibels (dB). The normal human ear can detect sounds that range

between 0 dB (hearing threshold) and about 140 dB, with sounds

between 120dB and 140 dB causing pain (pain threshold). The ambient

SPL in a library is about 35 dB, while that inside a moving bus or subway

train is roughly 85 dB; building construction activities can generate SPLs

as high as 105 dB at the source. SPLs decrease with distance from the

source.

The rate at which sound energy is transmitted, called sound intensity, is

proportional to the square of the SPL. Because of the logarithmic nature

of the decibel scale, an increase of 10 dB represents a 10-fold increase in

sound intensity, an increase of 20 dB represents a 100-fold increase in

intensity, a 30-dB increase represents a 1,000-fold increase in intensity,

and so on. When sound intensity is doubled, on the other hand, the SPL

increases by only 3 dB. For example, if a construction drill causes a noise

level of about 90 dB, then two identical drills operating side by side will

cause a noise level of 93 dB. On the other hand, when two sounds that

differ by more than 15 dB in SPL are combined, the weaker sound is

masked (or drowned out) by the louder sound. For example, if an 80-dB

drill is operating next to a 95-dB dozer at a construction site, the

combined SPL of those two sources will be measured as 95 dB; the less

intense sound from the compressor will not be noticeable.

Frequency of a sound wave is expressed in cycles per second (cps),

but hertz (Hz) is more commonly used (1 cps = 1 Hz). The human eardrum

is a very sensitive organ with a large dynamic range, being able to detect

sounds at frequencies as low as 20 Hz (a very low pitch) up to about

20,000 Hz (a very high pitch). The pitch of a human voice in normal

conversation occurs at frequencies between 250 Hz and 2,000 Hz.

Precise measurement and scientific description of sound levels differ from

most subjective human perceptions and opinions about sound. Subjective

human responses to noise depend on both pitch and loudness. People

with normal hearing generally perceive high-frequency sounds to be

louder than low-frequency sounds of the same amplitude. For this reason,

electronic sound-level meters used to measure noise levels take into

account the variations of perceived loudness with pitch. Frequency filters

in the meters serve to match meter readings with the sensitivity of the

human ear and the relative loudness of various sounds. The so-called A-

weighted filter, for example, is commonly used for measuring

ambient community noise. SPL measurements made with this filter are

expressed as A-weighted decibels, or dBA. Most people perceive and

describe a 6- to 10-dBA increase in an SPL reading to be a doubling of

“loudness.” Another system, the C-weighted (dBC) scale, is sometimes

used for impact noise levels, such as gunfire, and tends to be more

accurate than dBA for the perceived loudness of sounds with low

frequency components.

Noise levels generally vary with time, so noise measurement data are

reported as time-averaged values to express overall noise levels. There

are several ways to do this. For example, the results of a set of repeated

sound-level measurements may be reported as L90 = 75 dBA, meaning that

the levels were equal to or higher than 75 dBA for 90 percent of the time.

Another unit, called equivalent sound levels (Leq), can be used to express

an average SPL over any period of interest, such as an eight-hour

workday. (Leq is a logarithmic average rather than an arithmetic average,

so loud events prevail in the overall result.) A unit called day-night sound

level (DNL or Ldn) accounts for the fact that people are more sensitive to

noise during the night, so a 10-dBA penalty is added to SPL values that are
measured between 10 PM and 7 AM. DNL measurements are very useful for

describing overall community exposure to aircraft noise, for example.

Effects On Humans And Wildlife

Noise is more than a mere nuisance. At certain levels and durations of

exposure, it can cause physical damage to the eardrum and the sensitive

hair cells of the inner ear and result in temporary or permanent hearing

loss, known as noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing loss does not usually

occur at SPLs below 80 dBA (eight-hour exposure levels are best kept

below 85 dBA), but most people repeatedly exposed to more than 105

dBA will have permanent hearing loss to some extent. In addition to

causing hearing loss, excessive noise exposure can raise blood

pressure and pulse rates, cause irritability, anxiety, and mental fatigue,

and interfere with sleep, recreation, and personal communication.

Children living in areas with high levels of noise pollution may suffer

from stress and other problems, such as impairments in memory and

attention span. Noise pollution control is therefore important in the

workplace and in the community.

Noise pollution also impacts wildlife. A wide range of animals,

including insects, frogs, birds, and bats, rely on sound for a variety of

reasons. Noise pollution can interfere with an animal’s ability to attract a

mate, communicate, navigate, find food, or avoid predators and thus can

even be an existential threat to vulnerable organisms. The problem of

noise pollution is especially serious for marine animals, particularly those

that rely on echolocation, such as certain whales and dolphins, and much

of the world’s oceans are polluted with chaotic sounds from ships, seismic

tests, and oil drills. Some of the loudest and most detrimental sounds in

the sea are from naval sonar devices, whose noise can travel hundreds of

miles through the water and is associated with mass strandings of whales

and dolphins.

Noise Regulation And Mitigation

Noise-control ordinances and laws enacted at the local, regional, and

national levels can be effective in mitigating the adverse effects

of noise pollution. Environmental and industrial noise is regulated in the

United States under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 and

the Noise Control Act of 1972. Under these acts, the Occupational Safety

and Health Administration set up industrial noise criteria in order to

provide limits on the intensity of sound exposure and on the time

duration for which that intensity may be allowed.

If an individual is exposed to various levels of noise for different time

intervals during the day, the total exposure or dose (D) of noise is

obtained from the relationD = (C1/T1) + (C2/T2) + (C3/T3) +…,where C is the

actual time of exposure and T is the allowable time of exposure at any

level. Using this formula, the maximum allowable daily noise dose will be

1, and any daily exposure over 1 is unacceptable.

Criteria for indoor noise are summarized in three sets of specifications

that have been derived by collecting subjective judgments from a large

sampling of people in a variety of specific situations. These have

developed into the noise criteria (NC) and preferred noise criteria (PNC)

curves, which provide limits on the level of noise introduced into

the environment. The NC curves, developed in 1957, aim to provide a

comfortable working or living environment by specifying the maximum

allowable level of noise in octave bands over the entire audio spectrum.

The complete set of 11 curves specifies noise criteria for a broad range of

situations. The PNC curves, developed in 1971, add limits on low-frequency

rumble and high-frequency hiss; hence, they are preferred over the older

NC standard. Summarized in the curves, these criteria provide design

goals for noise levels for a variety of different purposes. Part of the

specification of a work or living environment is the appropriate PNC

curve; in the event that the sound level exceeds PNC limits, sound-

absorptive materials can be introduced into the environment as necessary

to meet the appropriate standards.

Low levels of noise may be overcome using additional absorbing material,

such as heavy drapery or sound-absorbent tiles in enclosed rooms. Where

low levels of identifiable noise may be distracting or where privacy of

conversations in adjacent offices and reception areas may be important,

the undesirable sounds may be masked. A small white-noise source such

as static or rushing air, placed in the room, can mask the sounds of

conversation from adjacent rooms without being offensive or dangerous

to the ears of people working nearby. This type of device is often used in

offices of doctors and other professionals. Another technique for

reducing personal noise levels is through the use of hearing protectors,

which are held over the ears in the same manner as an earmuff. By using

commercially available earmuff-type hearing protectors, a decrease in

sound level can be attained ranging typically from about 10 dB at 100 Hz

to more than 30 dB for frequencies above 1,000 Hz.

Outdoor noise limits are also important for human comfort.

Standard house construction will provide some shielding from external

sounds if the house meets minimum standards of construction and if the

outside noise level falls within acceptable limits. These limits are generally

specified for particular periods of the day—for example, during daylight

hours, during evening hours, and at night during sleeping hours. Because
of refraction in the atmosphere owing to the nighttime temperature

inversion, relatively loud sounds can be introduced into an area from a

rather distant highway, airport, or railroad. One interesting technique for

control of highway noise is the erection of noise barriers alongside the

highway, separating the highway from adjacent residential areas. The

effectiveness of such barriers is limited by the diffraction of sound, which

is greater at the lower frequencies that often predominate in road noise,

especially from large vehicles. In order to be effective, they must be as

close as possible to either the source or the observer of the noise

(preferably to the source), thus maximizing the diffraction that would be

necessary for the sound to reach the observer. Another requirement for

this type of barrier is that it must also limit the amount of transmitted

sound in order to bring about significant noise reduction.

Atmospheric pollution is not the only type of contamination that is

harming living beings on the planet. According to the World Health

Organization (WHO), it is one of the most dangerous environmental

threats to health. And according to the European Environment Agency

(EEA), noise is responsible for 16,600 premature deaths and more than

72,000 hospitalisations every year in Europe alone.

Drivers honking the horn, groups of workers drilling the road surface, aircraft flying over us

in the sky... Noise, noise and more noise. Cities have become the epicentre of a type of

pollution, acoustics, which, although its invisibility and the fact that coronavirus crisis

reduced it until almost yearn it, is severely damaging to human beings. So much so that the

European Environment Agency estimates that noise is responsible for 72,000 hospital

admissions and 16,600 premature deaths every year in Europe alone.

Not only does it hurt humans, it is bad for animals, too. According to the National Park

Service (NPS) in the United States, noise pollution has an enormous environmental impact

and does serious damage to wildlife. Experts say noise pollution can interfere with breeding

cycles and rearing and is even hastening the extinction of some species.

WHAT IS NOISE POLLUTION?

Not all sound is considered noise pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines

noise above 65 decibels (dB) as noise pollution. To be precise, noise becomes harmful when

it exceeds 75 decibels (dB) and is painful above 120 dB. As a consequence, it is

recommended noise levels be kept below 65 dB during the day and indicates that restful

sleep is impossible with nighttime ambient noise levels in excess of 30 dB.

CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

There are many sources of noise pollution, but here are some of the main ones:

   Traffic noise

Traffic noise accounts for most polluting noise in cities. For example, a car horn produces 90

dB and a bus produces 100 dB.

   Air traffic noise

There are fewer aircraft flying over cities than there are cars on the roads, but the impact is

greater: a single aircraft produces 130 dB.

   Construction sites

Building and car park construction and road and pavement resurfacing works are very noisy.

For example, a pneumatic drill produces 110 dB.

   Catering and night life

Bars, restaurants and terraces that spill outside when the weather is good can produce more

than 100 dB. This includes noise from pubs and clubs.
    Animals

Noise made by animals can go unnoticed, but a howling or barking dog, for example, can

produce around 60-80 dB.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

As well as damaging our hearing by causing — tinnitus or deafness —, constant loud noise

can damage human health in many ways, particularly in the very young and the very old.

Here are some of the main ones:

   Physical

Respiratory agitation, racing pulse, high blood pressure, headaches and, in case of extremely

loud, constant noise, gastritis, colitis and even heart attacks.

   Psychological

Noise can cause attacks of stress, fatigue, depression, anxiety and hysteria in both humans

and animals.
    Sleep and behavioural disorders

Noise above 45 dB stops you from falling asleep or sleeping properly. Remember that

according to the World Health Organization it should be no more than 30 dB. Loud noise can

have latent effects on our behaviour, causing aggressive behaviour and irritability.

   Memory and concentration

Noise may affect people's ability to focus, which can lead to low performance over time. It is

also bad for the memory, making it hard to study.

Interestingly, our ears need more than 16 hours' rest to make up for two hours of exposure

to 100 dB.

SOLUTIONS TO REDUCE NOISE POLLUTION

International bodies like the WHO agree that awareness of noise pollution is essential to

beat this invisible enemy. For example: avoid very noisy leisure activities, opt for

alternatives means of transport such as bicycles or electric vehicles over taking the car, do

your housework at recommended times, insulate homes with noise-absorbing materials, etc.

Educating the younger generation is also an essential aspect of environmental education.

Governments can also take measures to ensure correct noise management and

reduce noise pollution. For example: protecting certain areas — parts of the countryside,

areas of natural interest, city parks, etc. — from noise, establishing regulations that include

preventive and corrective measures — mandatory separation between residential zones and

sources of noise like airports, fines for exceeding noise limits, etc. —, installing noise

insulation in new buildings, creating pedestrian areas where traffic is only allowed to enter

to offload goods at certain times, replacing traditional asphalt with more efficient options

that can reduce traffic noise by up to 3 dB, among others.

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution can cause health problems for people and wildlife, both on land and in the

sea. From traffic noise to rock concerts, loud or inescapable sounds can cause hearing loss,

stress, and high blood pressure. Noise from ships and human activities in the ocean is

harmful to whales and dolphins that depend on echolocation to survive.

Noise pollution is an invisible danger. It cannot be seen, but it is present nonetheless, both

on land and under the sea. Noise pollution is considered to be any unwanted or disturbing

sound that affects the health and well-being of humans and other organisms.                        

Sound is measured in decibels. There are many sounds in the environment, from rustling

leaves (20 to 30 decibels) to a thunderclap (120 decibels) to the wail of a siren (120 to 140

decibels). Sounds that reach 85 decibels or higher can harm a person’s ears. Sound sources

that exceed this threshold include familiar things, such as power lawn mowers (90 decibels),

subway trains (90 to 115 decibels), and loud rock concerts (110 to 120 decibels).
Noise pollution impacts millions of people on a daily basis. The most common health

problem it causes is Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL). Exposure to loud noise can also

cause high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances, and stress. These health

problems can affect all age groups, especially children. Many children who live near noisy

airports or streets have been found to suffer from stress and other problems, such as

impairments in memory, attention level, and reading skill.

Noise pollution also impacts the health and well-being of wildlife. Studies have shown that

loud noises cause caterpillars’ hearts to beat faster and bluebirds to have fewer chicks.

Animals use sound for a variety of reasons, including to navigate, find food, attract mates,

and avoid predators. Noise pollution makes it difficult for them to accomplish these tasks,

which affects their ability survive.

Increasing noise is not only affecting animals on land, it is also a growing problem for those

that live in the ocean. Ships, oil drills, sonar devices, and seismic tests have made the once

tranquil marine environment loud and chaotic. Whales and dolphins are particularly

impacted by noise pollution. These marine mammals rely on echolocation to communicate,

navigate, feed, and find mates, and excess noise interferes with their ability to effectively

echolocate.

Some of the loudest underwater noise comes from naval sonar devices. Sonar, like

echolocation, works by sending pulses of sound down into the depths of the ocean to

bounce off an object and return an echo to the ship, which indicates a location for object.

Sonar sounds can be as loud as 235 decibels and travel hundreds of miles under water,
interfering with whales’ ability to use echolocation. Research has shown that sonar can

cause mass strandings of whales on beaches and alter the feeding behavior of endangered

blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus). Environmental groups are urging the U.S. Navy to stop

or reduce using sonar for military training.

Seismic surveys also produce loud blasts of sound within the ocean. Ships looking for deep-

sea oil or gas deposits tow devices called air guns and shoot pulses of sound down to the

ocean floor. The sound blasts can damage the ears of marine animals and cause serious

injury. Scientists believe this noise may also be contributing to the altered behavior of

whales. 

Among those researching the effects of noise pollution is Michel Andre, a bioacoustics

researcher in Spain who is recording ocean sounds using instruments called hydrophones.

His project, LIDO (Listening to the Deep Ocean Environment), collects data at 22 different

locations. Back in the lab, computers identify the sounds of human activities as well as 26

species of whales and dolphins. The analysis aims to determine the effects that underwater

noise is having on these animals. Andre hopes his project will find ways to protect marine

animals from the dangers of ocean noise.

Limnology is the study of inland waters - lakes (both freshwater and saline), reservoirs, rivers,

streams, wetlands, and groundwater - as ecological systems interacting with their drainage

basins and the atmosphere. The limnological discipline integrates the functional relationships of
growth, adaptation, nutrient cycles, and biological productivity with species composition, and

describes and evaluates how physical, chemical, and biological environments regulate these

relationships.

The word limnology is derived from the Greek limne - marsh, pond and Latin limnaea - thing

pertaining to a marsh. Stated simply, limnology is the study of the structural and functional

interrelationships of organisms of inland waters as their dynamic physical, chemical, and biotic

environments affect them.

Freshwater ecology is the study of the structure, function, and change of organisms in fresh

waters as affected by their dynamic physical, chemical, and biotic environments. Saline waters (>

0.3% or 3 g per liter) are excluded from this definition.

Freshwater biology is the study of the biological characteristics and interactions of organisms of

fresh waters. This study is largely restricted to the organisms themselves, such as their biology,

life histories, populations, or communities.

Limnology encompasses an integration of physical, chemical, and biological components of

inland aquatic ecosystems with the drainage basin, movements of water through the drainage

basin, and biogeochemical changes that occur en route, and within standing (lentic) waters and

exchanges with the atmosphere. The lake ecosystem is intimately coupled with its drainage area

and atmosphere, and with its running (lotic) waters and ground waters that flow, and

metabolize en route, components of the land being transported to the lake.

Understanding of the causal mechanisms operating in and controlling our natural world is a

primary objective of limnology because of the premier importance of fresh water for the well

being of humankind. The greater our understanding, the higher the probability to predict

accurately patterns of events within aquatic ecosystems in response to human manipulations

and disturbances. A combination of analytical techniques is used to acquire that understanding:

1. Descriptive observations of patterns of biological processes and communities in

relation to dynamic patterns of environmental properties. Such descriptive

empirical analyses allow the generation of hypotheses, that is, conceptual

predictive "models" of relationships among observed patterns.

2. Experimental examination and evaluation of quantitative responses to selected

disturbances imposed on the system. By imposing quantitatively known

disturbances on specific parts of the community or ecosystem, much insight can

be gained on controlling factors governing their operation. In some cases, entire

lakes or streams are experimentally manipulated.

3. Application of quantitative predictive models based on experimentally

established, not random, governing variables. Models allow expansion of

experimentally understood quantitative relationships, that is, hypothetical data

can be inserted allowing a theoretical estimate of system responses to these

variables.
Definition

Our inland waters are vital and important resources. They provide us with drinking water,

recreation, bird and wildlife viewing, fishing, land protection, and so much

more. Limnology is the study of inland waters and their many different aspects. The word

comes from the Greek limne, which means marsh or pond. But limnology is so much more

than that. Limnology covers all inland waters, which may be lakes, rivers, and streams, but

also reservoirs, groundwater, and wetlands. These are often freshwater systems, but

limnology also includes inland salt and brackish, or slightly salty, waters.

Inland waters are diverse and fascinating places. Limnologists, or those who study

limnology, need to be familiar with many different aspects of inland waters and their

relationships with other water systems, including our atmosphere. For example, limnologists

may study:

 Water flow

 Oxygen in the water

 Food web dynamics

 Animal movement patterns

 Minerals and other water chemicals

 Pollution

 Ecosystem structure

 The economics of water

 Light influences
  Nutrient cycles

 Plants that live on, in, or near inland waters

 Sediments

 Bacteria

 Human influences

 Ecosystems

 Animal communities

 And so much more

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Disciplines and Uses

Limnology incorporates many scientific disciplines into one, including physics, chemistry, and

biology. While the main thread of limnology is water, these water systems are

interconnected, host plant and animal life, and both influence and interact with weather

patterns.

Limnologists often create models to help predict how certain water systems will function

under given conditions. They may also interact with politicians to help guide policy, and they

may be utilized during times of crisis, such as after a pollution event or catastrophic storm.

We interact with inland waters on a daily basis through our drinking water, weather, and

other means, so despite the oceans making up a whopping 96.5% of the water on Earth,

clearly, inland waters hold significant importance to our lives!

Because limnology covers so many different disciplines, it may be helpful to think of it as an

umbrella. It is broad and far-reaching, encompassing underneath it many different aspects of

other sciences and studies. One major branch of limnology is freshwater ecology. This
section specifically studies ecological systems and processes in freshwater environments, so

any waters that are less than 3 ppm (parts per million). Limnologists in this branch study

things such as nutrient cycling, structure of the ecosystem, the physical and chemical

properties of the system, and other biotic and abiotic influences.

Another large branch of limnology is freshwater biology. Limnologists in this branch study

the organisms in freshwater environments, specifically their interactions and characteristics.

This is different from freshwater ecology because freshwater biology focuses on the

organisms themselves, not their entire environment.

Limnology: Definition, History &

Development and Its Importance

The word Limnology comes from two Greek words. Greek ‘Limnos’ means lake or

submerged body of water and Greek ‘Logos; means knowledge. Therefore, the

search for knowledge on the lake is the main topic of limnology. From the origin

of this branch to the present day, various scientists have defined limnology in

different ways.
Below are some definitions:

Limnology is a branch of science that deals with the study of the biological,

physical, chemical, geological, biological, aquatic, and aquatic ecosystems

(freshwater or saltwater, natural or artificial), especially of lakes, reservoirs,

ponds, rivers, wetlands, and groundwater, ecological and hydrological aspects.  

In a broad sense, limnology is the science of research /discussion on all aspects of

all types of aquatic ecosystems and biology (Brezonik, 1996; Wetzel, 2003).

Limnology is a relatively new science.  In the modern definition, limnology is

considered to be synonymous with freshwater biology. According to Wetzel

(2003), in the broadest sense, limnology is the acquisition of knowledge about the

functional relationship between freshwater organisms and their productivity,

which is affected by the movement of various physicochemical and biological

regulators in the environment.

Limonology is the scientific study of the world's inland water bodies such as lakes,

artificial reservoirs, rivers, ponds, wetlands, saline lakes, and coastal bays and

wetlands.

According to F A Forell (1892), the theory of the ocean of lakes is called limnology.

Lind (1989) defined the limnology as marine aquatic ecology, is called limnology.
According to Margallef (1983), the ecology of non-marine water is called

limnology.

Baldy (Idhasfar, 1949) defined limnology. According to him, limnology is the

scientific discussion of the process and conversion of energy and matter in a lake.

According to Welch (1952), Limnology is that branch of science which deals with

biological productivity of inland waters and with all the causal influences which

determine it.

This definition includes biological productivity, quality and quantitative

characteristics, and its actual and potential aspects of limnology. Inland water

refers to all types of groundwater, such as flowing or stagnant, salty or other

physical, chemical elements. Various regulators such as physical and chemical,

biological, climatic influences that determine the nature and extent of biological

production. Due to the different inland water bodies, the quality and quantity of

the organisms vary.

According to Hutchinson (Hutchinson, 1957), limnology is the study of the

interconnected geological, physical, and biological activities in a lake collectively.

According to Odum (Odum, 1971), Limonology discusses various aspects of

freshwater, such as physical, chemical, and biological aspects.

According to Professor Nurul Islam (1993), the subject that deals with the biology

and composition of aquaculture is called limnology.

Limnology is basically a synthetic science. Limnology provides solutions to various

problems of biological nature through the proper application and coordination of

certain facts, basic principles, chemistry, physics, geology, hydrology,

meteorology, and other sciences. It is basically an ecological issue.

Historically, the term limnology has been associated with lakes, and the term

rheology has been applied to the science of flowing water. Currently, the term

rheology has been dropped from the term limnological. The term rheology is an

established name for a completely different branch. In this branch, research is

done on water flow and water-soluble components like oil, pigment, etc.

Limnology and oceanography discuss similar problems and processes. Oceans,

lakes, and rivers have some properties as a liquid medium. However, the sea is

wider in size and older than the inland water. The spread of inland water bodies is

inconsistent and relatively polymorphic (based on geological time) and is

irregularly spread throughout the continental interior. As a result of this continuity

of the sea, a wide range of plant and animal species exist.

Depending on the more diverse processes of inland water colonization, the

diversity and expansion of plants and animals become more limited and

diminished. In addition, seawater, especially ocean water, contains 35-39 grams of

salt per liter of water, the main ingredient of which is sodium chloride (Nacl).

Inland freshwater, on the other hand, contains at least 0.01 g of salt per liter of

water. The composition of the salt varies significantly in the water.

In many cases, inland saltwater lakes have a higher salt-to-salt ratio than

seawater. Such an ecosystem is of an unusual type and thus becomes the focus of

its limnological study. In the case of flowing reservoirs, the chemical processes

and techniques of inland reservoirs depend in no small extent on the geochemical

condition of the soil. Aquatic ecosystems interact with flowing reservoirs of

various subsystems and elements.

The extent and definition of any science cannot be determined without

considering the history of its evolution and the subject matter, institutions, and

development groups discussed. Knowledge of some of the major theories and

theoretical concepts can be gained through historical discussions. Elster (1964)

and Uno (196) describe the early history of limnology. Talling (2005) recently

added these ideas. 

Aquatic life attracted scientists and naturalists in the 18th, 18th, and 19th

centuries, including Leeuwenhock, Muller, Schaffers, Trembley, Eichhorn, Bonner,

and George. They have seen in research work. These research activities shed light

on aquatic organisms and their behavior and their reproduction in water.

The discovery and initial discussion of marine plankton by Muller in 1845 aroused

interest in studying freshwater organisms, especially lake plankton. Duviller

describes and measures internal waves. J. Leslie (J. Leslie, 1838) was the first to

examine the thermal structure of deep lakes, the action of air, and the

penetration of light, which served as important milestones in advancing limnology

(Goldman and Horne, 1983). Moreover, Morren and Morren (Morren and Morren,

1841) focus on increasing and decreasing the activity of daily photosynthesis.

Junge and Forbes were the first to call the lake a microcosm. In particular, the

research paper entitled "Lakes" refers to lakes as microcosms and describes the

interrelationships between the fundamental forces of life and organisms (Forbes,

18).

The results of Forbes' research make a significant contribution to limnology.

However, the F.A. Farrell's (F.A. Forel, 1901) research work is the first book on

limnology. Liman researched the biology, physics, and chemistry of lake through

his extensive monograms on lakes.   The development of limnology as an

organized science continued to grow towards the end of the nineteenth century.

In the early twentieth century, many limnological field stations and laboratories

were established near the lake. For example, the Auto Zacharias Limnological

Research Institute, Germany, was established in 1901 in Plon. To this day, it has

been playing an important role. It is currently called the Macro-Plank Institute,

which researches evolutionary biology.

The subsequent development of limnology began in the early twentieth century.

During this time, the research work of Thienemann (Thienemann, 1882-1960) and

Naumann (1891-1934) in Germany made essential contributions to limnology. They

conducted the first comparative research on the continent of Europe, conducting

research independently. Notable among these research works are mainly

classification, regional characteristics, and descriptions of biogeochemical cycles.

Using Weber's theory (1906), these studies provide insights into oligotrophic and

eutrophic systems that have served as essential foundations for developing

lymphology. The classification of lakes based on nutrients was the first step in the

development of lymphology. Birge and Juday (1911) provide an idea of the types of

lakes. In this case, they consider the productivity of lake organic matter, the depth

of the lake, the morphology of the lake, and the interrelationship between

dissolved oxygen.
L. Agassiz (1850) was a pioneer in the development of limnology in North America.

Birge (1851-1950) and Jude (182-1944) studied the effects of heat and chemical

stratification on plankton. They did comparative research on lakes in North

America. They established graphic relationships with quantitative studies such as

water transparency, organic matter, and phosphorus, with frequency distribution

and trends (Juday and Birge, 1933). Moreover, they did a comparative study of

some lakes in Central America.

There are important differences between the early stages of the development of

limnology in Europe and America. American researchers studied the chemical

cycles of the system and European researchers studied the biological community

(Margalef, 1983). For example, Birge and Juday use the amplitude and

concentration of dissolved oxygen to express certain factors acting on the lake.

The important events in the development of lymphology are

as follows:

Thienemann ‍and Naumann founded the International Association of Theoretical

and Applied Limnology in 1926, now known as the International Society of

Limnology.
 A laboratory was established in Wildermeier in 1931 to support the Freshwater

Biological Association, founded in 1926. The institute conducts essential research

from the northern Lake Districts of England (Talling, 1919).

Yoshimara's (1937) research work in Japan established an important scientific

database. Many Japanese limnologists also play an important role in

oceanography as important scientific research. Japan is the only country that

demarcates the boundaries between limnology and oceanography. They

conducted research on the eutrophication of inland and coastal waters. This is an

important aspect of aquaculture. They need to understand the significant

limnological oceanographic processes in aquaculture and even have a

comparative idea to apply the same technique to freshwater and saltwater ponds

for food.

In the United States and Europe, laboratories have been established near lakes

and regional systems, which have helped build internationally renowned

institutions. These laboratories existed as active centers that conducted research

on local aquatic ecosystems and collected scientific data. These studies have

played an important role in highlighting the evolution of various theories and

sciences of limnology and regional systems.

Extensive research by various groups has resulted in tropical limnology from

temperate regions. Thenemann's research shows that Java, Sumatra, and Bali

lakes lack hypoallergenic oxygen, so the traditional oligotrophic / eutrophic

classification cannot be used for temperate lakes.

The classification described by Thinemann and Naumann had a catalytic effect on

the scientific progress of limnology (until 1958).

In 1950, the classification of lakes became a fundamental factor. Thinemann (1925)

added another word, dystrophy, to the terms eutrophic and oligotrophic,

meaning a lake rich in high-density humic material. Central and South American,

North American, and European influences are not the same. In South America,

researchers from the Max Planck Institute (Sioli, 1975) and the National Institute

for Amazonian Researchers (INPA) conducted a wide range of research on

significant rivers and deltas. Bonito (1985.1986), and others, Uruguay, studied the

Bermejo River

Comparative tropical limnology has been developed in Africa based on various

explorations on deep and shallow lakes (Bidley, 1981). Tropical limnology has

played a significant role in research on African lakes such as Lake Victoria (Tolling,
1985, 198) and other lakes (Tolling, 1989). Tolling and Limoli presented a more

relevant summary of tropical limnology in 1997.

The International Biological Program (IBP) conducted extensive research on the

moon (Carmok Ze et al. 1983) and Lake George (Ganf, 1974; Viner, 1975, 1977). Due

to the comparative study between lakes of different latitudes and the

normalization of the method and the quantitative measurement of the process,

IBP was important for limnology. It establishes more dynamic and comparative

ideas, mostly through research on ecological processes. It provides a scientific

basis for more quantitative ideas in lake research.

The evolution of limnology continues to be influenced by the construction of

drainage dams in South America and Africa (Vander Heide, 1982). In Spain, 100

reservoirs were studied, which opened the door to reservoir types theory and

classification process (Margalif, 1985, 198). In this case, mainly research on

artificial aquifers reveals the processes that take place in them. Margalif's study

provides an essential theoretical, and practical perspective on limnology.

Extensive research over the last 30 years has led to the emergence of various

theories in limnology. In the twentieth century, Hutchinson (1958, 198, 1985, 1993)

conducted significant research in limnology and trained new researchers. Notable

researchers who give donations to research works include Whipple, Fair and

Whipple (1927), Welch (1935,1948), Ruttner (1954), Dussart (1966), Hynes (1972),

Golterman (1975), Wetzel (1975), and Margalif (1983). 1991 and 1994), Goldman

and Horne (1994), Kalff (2002), and Carpenter (2003).

Significant scientific advances have been made in limnology in the twentieth

century. Knowledge of limnology in the case of lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and

wetlands has expanded considerably in the early 1970s due to the works of

Thinemann and Naumann.

The following are the processes of lymphological

development:

 Phytoplankton succession and the processes influence this process, a spatial and

temporal succession of phytoplankton (Harris, 1970,1984,1986; Reynolds,

1994,1995, 1996,1997; Bo Ping Han et al., 1999).

 Energy transfer, phyto-zooplankton integration techniques and the structure and

composition of food webs  (Porter, 1973; Lampert and Wolf 1986).

 Sediment, sediment and water interaction, water-geochemical and geochemical

research of lake chemical processes (Srumm and Morgan, 1981).

 Gain extensive knowledge of species proliferation, biodiversity, biodiversity, and

controlling factors (Lamotte and Boulieve, 1983).

 Climate and hydrology in different aspects of geography and their effects on early

production and the widespread scientific spread of biogeochemical cycles

(Straikraba, 1973; Le Cren and Lowc-McConnel, 1980; Talling and Lemoalle, 1998).

Over the past few decades, several studies have been conducted on fisheries

expansion, population dynamics, biogeography and chemical elements, trophic

levels, especially lake morphometry, and the structure of artificial reservoirs and

ichthyofauna (Barthem and Goulding, 1997). Such research has been playing a role

in the formation of various ideas in theoretical ecology and its application. At the

ecosystem level, river hydrology, interaction with floodplains and lakes (Neiff,

1996; Junk, 1997), wetland control techniques (Mitsch, 1996), comparative study

of reservoirs (Margalef et al. 1976;

Stralkraba et al. 1996), saline lakes ( Williums, 1996), the interaction between

terrestrial systems and aquatic systems (Decamps, 1996), and research on the

ecology of large and small rivers (Bonetto, 1994; Walker, 1995) has led to

significant advances in limnology.

Extensive knowledge has been acquired about various process management

techniques at the interaction or ecosystem level between system components,

making important contributions to lake and reservoir management. The

remarkable work of Henderson and Sellers (1994) and Cooke et al. (1996) has

been doing instrumental in modeling aquatic environmental management.

Some Internationally Important Limnological

Publications

1. Advances in Limnology 

2. Annales de Limnologie - International Journal of Limnology

3. Aquatic Conservation

4. Aquatic Ecology

5. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

6. Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology

7. Freshwater Biology

8. Hydrobiologia

9. Journal of Ecology and Fisheries

10. Journal of Limnology

11. Limnetica
12. Limnologica

13. Limnological Review

14. Journal of the North American Benthological Society

15. Limnology and Oceanography

16. Marine and Freshwater Research

17. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research

18. Review of Hydrobiology

19. River Research and Applications

20.Journal of Coastal Research

21. Journal of Ecology

22. Journal of Fish Biology

23. Journal of Freshwater Biology

24.Journal of Great Lakes Research

25. Journal of Lake and Reservior Management

26.Journal of Phycology (US)

27. Journal of Plankton Ecology

28.Journal of Plankton Research

29.Journal of Tropical Ecology

30.Lake &Reservior Research and Management

31. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences

 32. International Review of Hydrobiology

33. Aquaculture

34.Aquatic Botany

35. Aquatic Ecology

36.Biodiversity and Conservation

37. Ecology

38.Ecology of Freshwater Fish

39.Environmental Biology of Fishes

40. Fisheries Management and Ecology

41. Fisheries Research

42.Freshwater Riview

43.Freshwater Biology

21st Century Limnology

 The last decade of the twentieth century has seen conceptual advances in

limnology and the discovery of various scientific processes. The importance of

these discoveries in indoor aquatic system management, revitalization programs

has increased. Basic science supports such an application.

This decade has seen significant changes in technology and the invention of more

accurate methods, mostly automated measurement methods and real-time data

collection. An analysis of the progress of limnology can lead to a conclusion. The

significant developments at this time are as follows:

 From the knowledge of the processes, it can be deduced that the lake is

not an inland internal body of water of the continent but depends on the

interaction of the bottom of the body of water.

 The response of the lake to human activity in the reservoir depends on

the type of lake activity, lake formation, or morphology.

 As a result of human activity in the vicinity of the extractable reservoir,

the reaction of the lake and the change in the remote area of the basin

are different.

 Collection of information on the physical and chemical processes that

occur in the lake in response to communities brings about lake

productivity, biodiversity formation, and genetic changes (Kajak and

Hillbrichr-IIKowska, 192; Reynolds, 1997a; Talling and Lemoalle, 1998).

Importance of Limonology As A Science

Like other sciences, the study of limnology is essentially a search for principles.

Principles that involve several processes and management strategies that are

used to make decisions and compare.

Particularly, emphasis should be placed on the comparative aspect of limnology.

For example, comparing the hydrology of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs on the

fundamental functional aspects shows that there are some fundamental practical

aspects that influence the life cycle of aquatic organisms and their extent and

biomass.

Other important factors are the physiological study of phytoplankton and the

analysis of the response to changes in light intensity due to currents. This new

approach sheds light on hydrodynamics and its effects on the vertical structure as

a major controlling factor in the system`s phytoplanktonic sequence. This

approach has opened wide theoretical and practical doors in limnology research.

A notable aspect of this approach is that it is closely related to recent lim স ology,

conceptually similar to oceanography.

Limonology is considered a science because of its ability to make predictions, and

it is vital in applied limnology. In recent years, deforestation and air pollution

around various types of waste reservoirs have resulted in acid rain, leading to a

gradual deterioration of inland water bodies. All these processes which are

damaging the inland water bodies can be brought back to normal by changing and

correcting them. On the other hand, human intervention in aquatic organisms

(over-exploitation of aquatic plants and animals, the introduction of exotic

species) has brought about many structural changes in the aquatic ecosystem. In

addition to pollution problems, inland water bodies are affected by

eutrophication.

Proper management is required for better utilization of existing resources in

lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. In many countries, the construction of landscaping

dams has resulted in significant changes in natural aquatic and terrestrial

ecosystems, creating new ecosystems with unique features. These ecosystems

can be managed for a variety of purposes with little investment through the

application of basic knowledge. It can also perform important practical functions

in limnology by increasing scientific interest and basic knowledge.

Another important aspect of distinguishing between basic and applied limnology

is the study of the evolution of lakes and artificial reservoirs.

The ecosystem can be identified by the scientific information obtained by

comparing different lakes and reservoirs from the point of view of origin.

Aquatic ecosystems form complex systems of interaction with terrestrial systems.

What is Conservation Biology?

Conservation biology, said to be a "mission-oriented crisis discipline" (Soulé 1986), is a multidisciplinary science that has developed

to address the loss of biological diversity. Conservation biology has two central goals: 1. to evaluate human impacts on biological

diversity and 2. to develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species (Soulé 1986, Wilson 1992). The field seeks to

integrate conservation policy with theories from the fields of ecology, demography, taxonomy, and genetics. The principles

underlying each of these disciplines have direct implications for the management of species and ecosystems, captive breeding and

reintroduction, genetic analyses, and habitat restoration.

The concept of conservation biology was introduced by Dasmann (1968) and Ehrenfeld (1970). Soulé & Wilcox's (1980)

contribution, Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary Ecological Perspective, served as an impetus for the development of the

discipline. Over the next six years, many scientists began to refer to themselves as conservation biologists. Conservation Biology:

The Science of Scarcity and Diversity was published, a Society for Conservation Biology formed, and a journal was established (Soulé

1986).

Several factors contributed to the development of the field. Scientists began to realize that virtually all natural systems have been

damaged by what Diamond (1986) referred to as the "Evil Quartet": habitat loss and fragmentation, overharvesting, introduced

predators and competitors, and the indirect effects of these threats on ecological interactions. None of the traditional applied

disciplines, such as wildlife management, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, were comprehensive enough by themselves to

address critical threats to biological diversity (Primrack 1993). Also, these traditional applied disciplines often overlooked

threatened species that were of little economic or aesthetic value. Theories and field studies in community ecology, island
biogeography, and population ecology were subjects of major investigation and development in the 1960s and 1970s, and while

these disciplines have direct relevance to conservation, they traditionally emphasized the study of species in their natural

environments, in the absence of human activity. The growing separation of "applied" and "basic" disciplines prohibited the

exchange of new ideas and information between various academic assemblages and to management circles (Soulé 1980).

Conservation biology as a discipline aims to provide answers to specific questions that can be applied to management decisions.

The main goal is to establish workable methods for preserving species and their biological communities. Specific methods have

been developed for determining the best strategies for protecting threatened species, designing nature reserves, initiating

breeding programs to maintain genetic variability in small populations, and reconciling conservation concerns with the needs of

local people (Primrack 1993). For this to be successful, communication among all sectors of the conservation community is

necessary.

The interface between theory and practice in conservation biology, especially from the point of view of resource managers, has

been somewhat neglected (Soulé 1986). Because we do not understand community and ecosystem structure and function well

enough to make reliable predictions, uncertainty has inhibited scientists from providing concrete answers to managers. The

availability of statistical and computational tools has been integral in the development of analytical methods critical to addressing

the issue of uncertainty in conservation biology. Management tools such as population viability analysis (PVA), Bayesian statistics,

and decision analysis have been developed to provide "objective" methods for making conservation decisions. These approaches

have been key in the transformation of conservation biology from an idea to a discipline.

Statistical and Computational Tools Used in Conservation Biology

Population Viability Analysis (PVA)

PVA is a process used to evaluate the likelihood that a population will persist for some particular time in a particular environment.

Gilpin and Soulé (1986) conceived of population vulnerability analysis as an integrative approach to evaluate the full range of forces

impinging on populations and to make determinations about viability. PVAs have become a cornerstone of conservation biology,

and it is likely that their importance will increase in the future. The precise role of PVA in conservation biology is still emerging.

Minimum Viable Population: What's the Magic Number?

In the 1970s, empirical studies and ecological and genetic theory converged on the idea that a species becomes exceptionally

vulnerable to extinction when it includes only a few small populations (MacArthur & Wilson 1967, Richter-Dyn & Goel 1972, Leigh

1975). The observation that once a population was reduced below a certain threshold, it began to dwindle toward extinction led to
the concept of minimum viable population size (MVP), the smallest number of individuals necessary to prevent a population from

going extinct. The concept of MVP officially emerged in response to an injunction from the United States Congress to the US

Forest Service to maintain "viable populations" of all native vertebrate species in National Forests (National Forest Management

Act of 1976, 16 USC 1600-1614; Gilpin & Soulé 1986). The concept encompasses theories that had been developed and tested to

varying degrees in the fields of population genetics and demography. The critical feature of MVP is that it allows a quantitative

"rule of thumb" estimate of minimum population size to be made.

MVP remains a tenuous concept among conservation biologists. In light of the complex and dynamic nature of single species

population dynamics, conservation biologists have frowned upon the "magic number" concept. They argue that the job of

conservation biologists should be to recommend or provide more than just the minimum number necessary for a species'

persistence (Soulé 1987). Yet the term has not been abandoned and actually remains a central theme in conservation biology. As

human population growth continues to encroach upon the habitat of endangered and threatened species, the MVP concept is

likely to become a critical tool for conservation biologists to assure the continued existence of species.

Decision Analysis and Multiple-Criteria Approaches

Decision analysis, which was developed for guiding business decisions under uncertainty, has been proposed as a useful tool for

endangered species management (Raiffa 1968, Behn & Vaupel 1982, Maguire 1986). Statistical approaches make explicit the logic

by which a decision is reached under conditions of uncertainty. Mace & Lande (1991) and the International Union for Conservation

of Nature (IUCN) have attempted to apply decision analysis theory to put the MVP and PVA concepts into practice for determining

a species' status on the Red List of threatened and endangered wildlife.

Broad Speculation on the Future of Conservation Biology

Conservation biology has become a burgeoning discipline since it originated in the early 1980s. Theories from the fields of island

biogeography, genetics, demography, and population ecology have been broadly applied to the design and management of

reserves, captive breeding programs, and the classification of endangered species. Since 1980 we have witnessed the rapid

expansion of a professional society and the emergence of active graduate programs.

Nonetheless, the course of development of the discipline has not altogether been smooth sailing; lack of adequate funding

remains a critical problem. The financial and institutional supports for conservation biology, in both its research and educational

roles, need to be strengthened (Soulé 1986). Furthermore, while some advances have been made in the realm of interdisciplinary

cooperation and communication between scientists and managers, significant progress is necessary before the original goals of

conservation biology can be met.

The caveats with various analytical methods necessitate further research in order to reach their full potential as predictors of

extinction. It has become clear that PVA is not currently a viable method for predicting the precise time to extinction for a species.

Further, requiring quantitative data for conservation decisions may unduly place the burden of proof on scientists in a manner

detrimental to the species of concern. PVA is useful, however, for comparing the relative extinction risks among species and

populations, and for prioritizing research and management actions.

Similarly, the MVP concept has thus far been limited in its potential for application to conservation decisions. Because lack of

genetic variability does not generally pose extinction risks for large populations, the concept is only relevant to small populations.

However, even for small populations, a temporary reduction below any MVP does not necessarily imply a high probability of

extinction. Consensus among conservation biologists about the selection of appropriate assumptions for estimating effective

population size and about the timeframe under which we are concerned about extinction, offers potential for the use of MVP as a

tool in conservation biology.

Because conservation decisions are often confounded by uncertainty, decision analysis appears to be a particularly useful method

for conservation biologists. The IUCN classification scheme offers a risk-averse approach to species classification in its use of

multiple criteria, wherein data would typically be available to evaluate at least one of the criteria. However, additional analyses are

necessary to develop and refine analytical tools suggested by the IUCN as status determination criteria.

Until these issues are resolved, the status of conservation biology as a predictive science will remain in serious doubt (Soulé 1986).

Given the imperfect nature of the analytical tools integral to the field of conservation biology, the apparent gap between theory

and practice, and the continued loss of biodiversity, what is the future for conservation biology? The models of today may

undoubtedly become the "broken stick models . . . and other strange and wonderful debris" that Soulé (1987) envisions as littering

the field of mathematical population biology. Nonetheless, population models will continue to evolve as critical tools to

conservation biologists.

The gap between theory and practice is narrowing as a function of the prominence of conservation biology as a field of study.

Because the field is interdisciplinary, it necessarily unites basic and applied scientists with natural resource managers. Scientists will

continue to work with policy makers in developing appropriate and workable approaches to species conservation.

A central theme in conservation biology is developing compromises between conservation priorities and human needs. However,

the precise role of conservation biologists as advocates has yet to be formalized. Soulé himself disobliges scientists from taking on

an advocacy role: "Most biologists and most economists are not trained to be advocates. They're trained to think and teach, to
encourage students and support and advance their disciplines. So to expect that most scientists will turn themselves into effective

community activists, politicians, or managers is unfair and unrealistic."

Instead, the role of the conservation biologist remains simply to advocate for good science and to make salient findings available

to managers and scientists in other fields. Advocating "values" under the auspices of doing science undermines the objectivity of

science. The distinction between advocacy and science should be clear for conservation biology to persist as a legitimate discipline.

Finally, the dichotomy referred to by Caughley (1994) as the "small population paradigm," which needs more empirical evidence,

and the "declining population paradigm," which needs more theoretical development, has generated substantial debate among

conservation biologists about where the field is going. Caugley pointed out that many of the theoretical underpinnings of

conservation biology are misguided in that they treat an effect, such as small population size, as if it were a cause. He suggested

that conservation efforts should instead be focused on determining causes of population declines and the means by which agents

of a decline can be identified (Caughley 1994). This idea has reoriented many theoreticians to consider the broader scope of their

work and has encouraged field biologists to more closely align their research to conservation-related questions. Thus, the stage

has been set for the future development of both the theoretical constructs and the natural history investigations critical to the

persistence of conservation biology as a scientific discipline.

What is an ecosystem and how is it relevant to conservation biology?

An ecosystem comprises living and non-living components that interact with each other,

such as plants and animals with nutrients, water, air and sunlight. Ecosystems range in size

from a few square meters to millions of square kilometers. There are no set ecosystem

boundaries, rather they are defined by the particular component(s) that biologists are

interested in. For example, a biologist who wants to know how residential development has

affected the fish in a stream ecosystem might study the small streams that feed into a large

stream as well as the surrounding land. Such an ecosystem would cover many square

kilometers and would include hundreds of living and non-living components.

While conservation traditionally focused on protecting single species, current practitioners

often focus on protecting entire ecosystems or even groups of adjacent ecosystems, or

landscapes. This trend increases the probability that we will protect the large-scale

processes (such as nutrient cycling) that biodiversity depends on.

Biodiversity underpins all ecosystems and their services

 Biodiversity is the variety of all forms of life and it is essential to the existence

and proper functioning of all  ecosystemsecosystemsAll living things and

nonliving things in an area, as well as the interactions between them. .

 Biodiversity supports habitats for all species by providing many unique

environments in which species can exist; these include ecosystems of all types

and sizes, rare ecosystems, and corridors between habitats.

 Many scientists believe biodiversity, as it represents all forms of life on earth,

provides or supports the core benefits that humans derive from their

environment.

 Biodiversity is fundamental for the provision of ecosystem services, which we

depend on for food, air, and water security, and multiple other natural

benefits.
Stressors and drivers of change 

 Many human activities can have a negative effect on biodiversity. This eco-

wheel image shows natural resources provided by biodiversity, the benefits

and beneficiaries, and drivers of change.

 The growing human population and the land development that comes with

population growth can be especially detrimental because land conversion and

subsequent loss of habitats can affect the stability or continued existence of

species. 

 Habitat loss is a challenge for virtually all species, as humans convert natural

habitats to other land uses.

 Overexploitation from extractive uses, such as commercial fishing and game

hunting, can greatly reduce species numbers, sometimes to the brink of

extinction1.

o An extreme decline was observed in U.S. stocks of Atlantic cod

following overexploitation and stock depletion.

o The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008,

approximately 32% of fish stocks were overexploited, depleted, or

recovering from depletion2.

 o Upsetting the viability of a single species can have far-reaching impacts

for the balance of an entire ecosystem.

 People can also harm biodiversity by putting stress on environments and

species through overuse. Outdoor recreation may be a positive, healthful

activity for humans, but high numbers of visitors to an area can damage plant

life, stress local animal populations, and introduce  invasive species.

 Invasive species can outcompete or consume native species to the point of

extinction. Some invasive species that are found in the U.S., such as kudzu and

the Emerald Ash Borer Beetle, can completely alter ecosystems, affecting

overall biodiversity.

 All forms of pollution, from chemicals to nutrient loading, can also pose

serious threats to aquatic and terrestrial species.

 The benefits of conserving biodiversity

 Biodiversity supports food security and sustained livelihoods through overall

genetic diversity.

o Genes regulate all biological processes on the planet and increase the

ability of organisms to cope with environmental stressors.

o Preserving genetic diversity ensures the continuing existence of a wide-

range of crops that may be able to withstand disease, and potentially

 useful biochemicals such as those used in healthcare. It also means

availability of species for pollination and pest control. Losses in

genetic diversity will decrease organisms' coping ability and risk

losing potentially beneficial biological information 3.

 Biodiversity has greatly contributed to modern medicine and advancements in

human health research and treatment.

o Many modern pharmaceuticals are derived from plant species, including

the anti-tumor agent Taxol from the Pacific yew tree, the anti-malarial

artemisinin from sweet wormwood, and the cardiac drug digoxin from

the digitalis plant.

o Pharmaceuticals can also be derived from non-plant species, such as the

drug ziconotide, which has been highly effective in relieving nerve pain

and severe pain in cancer patients and is derived from the venom of

predatory cone snails4.

o Without the species that provide these drugs, it is possible that

treatments for ailments like malaria, tuberculosis, cancerous tumors,

congestive heart failure and multiple other illnesses may never have

been discovered.
 o As conversion of habitats and subsequent losses in diversity take place,

the potential for losing cures for some of the world's most troubling

ailments increases.

 In addition to the many medicinal benefits from biodiversity, human health can

be positively affected simply by spending time in outdoor environments, which

has been linked to increases in life satisfaction and happiness, and decreases in

blood pressure, anxiety, and cardiovascular disease symptoms.

 Conserving biodiversity and protecting a wide range of habitats maintains the

many benefits that this diversity provides for all species. Highly diverse

environments, such as Yellowstone National Park, are prime ecosystems that

support many species in addition to being aesthetically beautiful, educational,

and interesting recreation sites.

 Biodiversity conservation efforts are essential in maintaining functioning

ecosystems, a steady food supply, and the multiple other benefits including

aesthetics, recreation, and spiritual purposes to Native American tribal

nations5.
 What Is Environmental Justice?

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all

people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the

development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws,

regulations, and policies. Fair treatment means that no population bears a

disproportionate share of negative environmental consequences resulting from

industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or from the execution of federal,

state, and local laws; regulations; and policies. Meaningful involvement requires

effective access to decision makers for all, and the ability in all communities to

make informed decisions and take positive actions to produce environmental

justice for themselves.

Environmental justice (EJ) is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all

people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the

development, implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations

and policies.
Fair treatment means no group of people should bear a disproportionate share of

the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, governmental

and commercial operations or policies.

Meaningful involvement means:

 People have an opportunity to participate in decisions about activities that

may affect their environment and/or health;

 The public's contribution can influence the regulatory agency's decision;

 Community concerns will be considered in the decision making process; and

 Decision makers will seek out and facilitate the involvement of those

potentially affected.

EPA and Environmental Justice

EPA's goal is to provide an environment where all people enjoy the same degree of

protection from environmental and health hazards and equal access to the decision-

making process to maintain a healthy environment in which to live, learn, and work.

EPA's environmental justice mandate extends to all of the Agency's work, including:

 setting standards

 permitting facilities
  awarding grants

 issuing licenses

 regulations

 reviewing proposed actions by the federal agencies

EPA works with all stakeholders to constructively and collaboratively address

environmental and public health issues and concerns. The Office of Environmental

Justice (OEJ) coordinates the Agency's efforts to integrate environmental justice into

all policies, programs, and activities. OEJ's mission is to facilitate Agency efforts to

protect environment and public health in minority, low-income, tribal and other

vulnerable communities by integrating environmental justice in all programs,

policies and activities.

Executive Order 12898

Executive Order 12898 directed federal agencies to develop environmental justice

strategies to help federal agencies address disproportionately high and adverse

human health or environmental effects of their programs on minority and low-

income populations.
The Presidential Memorandum accompanying the order underscores certain

provisions of existing law that can help ensure that all communities and persons

across the nation live in a safe and healthy environment.

Federal Interagency Working Group

The executive order established an Interagency Working Group on Environmental

Justice (EJ IWG) chaired by the EPA Administrator and comprised of the heads of 11

departments or agencies and several White House offices.  The EJ IWG now includes

17 agencies and meets on a monthly basis to continue collaborative efforts. 

Laws and Statutes

The statutes that EPA implements provide the Agency with authority to consider and

address environmental justice concerns. These laws encompass the breadth of the

Agency's activities including:

 Setting standards

 Permitting facilities

 Making grants

 Issuing licenses or regulations

 Reviewing proposed actions of other federal agencies

These laws often require the Agency to consider a variety of factors that generally

include one or more of the following:

 Public health

 Cumulative impacts

 Social costs

 Welfare impacts

Moreover, some statutory provisions, such as under the Toxics Substances Control

Act, explicitly direct the Agency to target low-income populations for assistance.

Other statutes direct the Agency to consider vulnerable populations in setting

standards. In all cases, the way in which the Agency chooses to implement and

enforce its authority can have substantial effects on the achievement of

environmental justice for all communities.

Integrating EJ at EPA

Since OEJ was created, there have been significant efforts across EPA to integrate

environmental justice into the Agency's day-to-day operations. Read more about

how EPA's EJ 2020 Action Agenda will help EPA advance environmental justice

through its programs, policies and activities, and support our cross-agency strategy
on making a visible difference in environmentally overburdened, underserved, and

economically distressed communities.

Every regional and headquarter office has an environmental justice coordinator who

serves as a focal point within that organization. This network of individuals provides

outreach and educational opportunities to external, as well as internal, individuals

and organizations. To find out more about Agency efforts to address environmental

justice, contact an  EJ coordinator based on your location or area of interest. 

The Environmental Justice Movement in the USA

The Environmental Justice Movement emerged in the early 1980s in North Carolina, USA,

due to a local dispute over toxic waste dumping near a neighborhood of African-American

people. The movement emphasized from the beginning that environmental problems

cannot be solved without unveiling the practices maintaining social injustices. Many of the

traditional environmental organizations were targeted by this critique.

The North American debate on environmentalism and justice has developed via deep

contradictions, which reflects the delicate historical nature of the issue. Racial and other

social questions are often intentionally avoided by dedicated nature conservationists and

this frames the whole tradition, initially established through the struggles for nature parks

and wilderness areas. The history of the Western idea of nature is part of the history of the

white middle class that had learned to appreciate the esthetic value of wilderness. Purified

and thus white areas of nature therefore symbolize the areas of white power. This was
made clear during the formative years of nature conservation in the USA when the

indigenous First Nations were forced to leave their homelands which were overlapping with

the proposed national parks of Yellowstone and Yosemite.

Environmental history in North America is rooted to the expansive colonial control over the

resources of newly settled areas. The European colonization of the continent turned into a

cruel genocide of the First Nations. The frontier of the settlers progressed through the

wilderness and this was considered synonymous with the dawn of civilization. The colonial

success was completed by the transatlantic slave trade and later immigration to urban

ghettos colored by unfair divisions of welfare. Environmental justice issues turn therefore

repeatedly into questions of environmental racism. The evidence telling that environmental

risks tend to accumulate on ethnic minorities starkly reminds the North Americans of their

violent ethnic past.

The historically specific sense of justice, built on the awareness of the interethnic violence

behind the founding of modern North America, is present in the continuous re-articulation

of social and environmental inequalities, both local and global. The environmental justice

issues are accordingly dealt with in two main forums. They are routinely taken care of by law

experts in courtrooms while the critical alternatives are presented by the activist networks

worrying about local–global injustices. The pragmatic lawyers and the forward-looking

activists share with many Europeans the ideal of just decision making and the belief in

change for the better. However, despite the common background, the practical conditions

and formulations of environmental justice are different in Europe.

Environmental justice is a movement that grew from the recognition of a disproportionate number

of environmental burdens in certain communities. It works to ensure a healthy environment for all

regardless of race, nationality, income, gender or age.

Environment: Definition

When you think about the environment, your mind might conjure up images of rambling

rivers, peaceful woodlands or scenic mountains. However, a broader definition

of environment is the surroundings or conditions in which a person lives. By this definition,

the environment would include your home, place of work, schools, and community parks.

These are the places you spend your time, and they play a big role in your overall health,

happiness and well-being.

Those involved in the movement called environmental justice feel that a healthy

environment is a necessary component of a healthy life. In this lesson, we will learn about

environmental justice and its efforts to make everyone's environment clean, safe and

healthy.
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Environmental Justice

The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines environmental justice as the

fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national

origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of

environmental laws, regulations, and policies. In other words, your health should not suffer

because of the environment where you live, work, play or learn.

The concept of environmental justice began as a movement in the 1980s due to the

realization that a disproportionate number of polluting industries, power plants, and waste

disposal areas were located near low-income or minority communities. The movement was

set in place to ensure fair distribution of environmental burdens among all people regardless

of their background.

Environmental Justice Issues and Examples

Examples of environmental burdens that may be considered under the umbrella of

environmental justice cover many aspects of community life. These burdens can include any

environmental pollutant, hazard or disadvantage that compromises the health of a

community or its residents. For instance, one of the environmental justice issues and

examples is inadequate access to healthy food. Certain communities, particularly lower-

income or minority communities, often lack supermarkets or other sources of healthy and

affordable foods.
Another issue is inadequate transportation. While public transportation may be available in

urban areas, policies must be monitored to avoid cuts in service and fare hikes that make it

difficult for community residents to pursue employment or an adequate living standard.

Air and water pollution are major environmental justice issues. Because many lower-income

or minority communities are located near industrial plants or waste disposal sites, air and

water quality can suffer if not properly monitored.

These communities may also contain older and unsafe homes. Older homes are more likely

to have lead-based paint that can chip and find its way into the dust and soil surrounding the

home, leading to illness. These houses may also be prone to structural problems, mold or

other hazards that put residents at higher risk of health problems.

Principles of Environmental Justice

In 1991, principles of environmental justice were adopted at the First National People of

Color Leadership Summit meeting in Washington D.C.

WE, THE PEOPLE OF COLOR, gathered together at this multinational People of Color

Environmental Leadership Summit, to begin to build a national and international

movement of all peoples of color to fight the destruction and taking of our lands and

communities, do hereby re-establish our spiritual interdependence to the sacredness of

our Mother Earth; to respect and celebrate each of our cultures, languages and beliefs

about the natural world and our roles in healing ourselves; to ensure environmental

justice; to promote economic alternatives which would contribute to the development of

environmentally safe livelihoods; and, to secure our political, economic and cultural

liberation that has been denied for over 500 years of colonization and oppression, resulting

in the poisoning of our communities and land and the genocide of our peoples, do affirm

and adopt these Principles of Environmental Justice: The Principles of Environmental

Justice (EJ)

1) Environmental Justice affirms the sacredness of Mother Earth, ecological unity and the

interdependence of all species, and the right to be free from ecological destruction.

2) Environmental Justice demands that public policy be based on mutual respect and

justice for all peoples, free from any form of discrimination or bias.

3) Environmental Justice mandates the right to ethical, balanced and responsible uses of

land and renewable resources in the interest of a sustainable planet for humans and other

living things.

4) Environmental Justice calls for universal protection from nuclear testing, extraction,

production and disposal of toxic/hazardous wastes and poisons and nuclear testing that

threaten the fundamental right to clean air, land, water, and food.

5) Environmental Justice affirms the fundamental right to political, economic, cultural and

environmental selfdetermination of all peoples.

6) Environmental Justice demands the cessation of the production of all toxins, hazardous

wastes, and radioactive materials, and that all past and current producers be held strictly
accountable to the people for detoxification and the containment at the point of

production.

7) Environmental Justice demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level

of decisionmaking, including needs assessment, planning, implementation, enforcement

and evaluation.

8) Environmental Justice affirms the right of all workers to a safe and healthy work

environment without being forced to choose between an unsafe livelihood and

unemployment. It also affirms the right of those who work at home to be free from

environmental hazards.

9) Environmental Justice protects the right of victims of environmental injustice to receive

full compensation and reparations for damages as well as quality health care.

10) Environmental Justice considers governmental acts of environmental injustice a

violation of international law, the Universal Declaration On Human Rights, and the United

Nations Convention on Genocide.

11) Environmental Justice must recognize a special legal and natural relationship of Native

Peoples to the U.S. government through treaties, agreements, compacts, and covenants

affirming sovereignty and self-determination.

12) Environmental Justice affirms the need for urban and rural ecological policies to clean

up and rebuild our cities and rural areas in balance with nature, honoring the cultural
integrity of all our communities, and provided fair access for all to the full range of

resources.

13) Environmental Justice calls for the strict enforcement of principles of informed

consent, and a halt to the testing of experimental reproductive and medical procedures

and vaccinations on people of color.

14) Environmental Justice opposes the destructive operations of multi-national

corporations.

15) Environmental Justice opposes military occupation, repression and exploitation of

lands, peoples and cultures, and other life forms.

16) Environmental Justice calls for the education of present and future generations which

emphasizes social and environmental issues, based on our experience and an appreciation

of our diverse cultural perspectives.

17) Environmental Justice requires that we, as individuals, make personal and consumer

choices to consume as little of Mother Earth's resources and to produce as little waste as

possible; and make the conscious decision to challenge and reprioritize our lifestyles to

ensure the health of the natural world for present and future generations.

Abstract

Beliefs about environmental justice are an important aspect in the willingness to

continuously commit to pro-environmental behaviors and actions both on

individual and societal levels. Since environmental policy is subject to decisions

across various state institutions, the current article focuses on three principles of

environmental justice beliefs, and tests their independent contributions toward

pro-environmental behavior. In a representative sample of German citizens, we

tested the effects of intergenerational justice, ecological justice and global justice

beliefs on pro-environmental intentions. In addition, we focused on two potential

processes that might explain the relation between justice beliefs and pro-

environmental behavior, namely, moral anger and perceived responsibility. In line

with expectations, stronger environmental justice beliefs predicted pro-

environmental intentions. Path analyses further revealed that sense of

responsibility and moral anger mediated the effects, with the former being a

stronger predictor of pro-environmental intentions than the latter. These findings

are discussed in light of current societal debate and policy recommendations are

exemplified.

Why is Environmental Justice Important?

CalRecycle recognizes the varied cultural strengths in California, and we acknowledge the

different communication, environmental health, and economic needs within the state,

including those of Native Americans and disadvantaged communities. We understand

barriers, such as complex government processes and limited English language skills, may

hinder full participation in important environmental programs. We also recognize that many
Californians live in the midst of multiple sources of pollution, and some people and

communities are more vulnerable to the effects of pollution than others.

CalRecycle’s Environmental Justice Objectives

Overall Improvements

 Increase protection of public health and safety, and the environment, within disadvantaged

communities.

 Expand our awareness of, and services to, Californian’s varied cultures.

 Address language barriers to best serve communities.

 Ensure our vision for solid waste recycling infrastructure includes minimizing negative

impacts to disadvantaged communities.

 Increase community knowledge and capacity through environment-based education.

 Highlight each person’s responsibility to preserve the earth’s natural and cultural resources

and to protect equal access, rights, and enjoyment for future generations.

Participation in Decisions

 Effectively communicate CalRecycle funding opportunities through outreach and education.

 Provide accessible information about our roles, responsibilities, and rules.

 Advance opportunities for community members to participate in the decision-making

process, prior to the actual point when decisions are being made, so they have a say in
 decisions that affect their well-being. This includes working with local enforcement agencies,

planning departments, cities, and counties for information sharing about local-level decisions

Resources

 Promote wide participation in CalRecycle programs by providing clear information, for

businesses and consumers, about reducing waste and increasing reuse, recycling, and

composting.

 Ensure Environmental Justice interests are prioritized in CalRecycle grant funding decisions

and other economic opportunities.

 Continue research that promotes healthier lives and communities.