FM CH02

chapter 2
Investment appraisal
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Ranking of investment appraisal techniques
2 Relevant cash flows
3 Taxation
4 Inflation
5 Replacement analysis
6 Capital rationing
7 Investment appraisal in a strategic context
8 Investing overseas
Summary and Self-test
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 19

Financial management
Introduction
Learning objectives Tick off

 To explain the decision making process
 To select and justify investment appraisal techniques
 To choose appropriate values for use in investment appraisal
 To take account of tax and inflation
 To recommend and justify a course of action based on the results of investment appraisal
 To consider relevant non-financial factors, including the limitations of the techniques

The syllabus references relevant to this chapter are 3a, b, d, h, k.
Practical significance
Investment decisions such as developing a new product or moving into a new market are required by any
business over time if they are to generate new growth. Such decisions will depend upon an analysis of the
costs and benefits of the options under review, in particular the financial pay offs. The techniques required
for this are covered in this chapter.
Stop and think

What criteria would you use to judge an investment decision against?
Working context
Accountants involved in discounting future cash flows will find the techniques in this chapter useful. This
includes those working in auditing, treasury and corporate finance.
Syllabus links
This chapter develops the basic investment appraisal decisions introduced at knowledge level Management
Information. The strategic context of these decisions is taken further in Business Strategy. The underlying
techniques will be applied in exploring valuation methods in the Advanced level paper Business Analysis.
20 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

INVESTMENT APPRAISAL 2
Examination context
Exam requirements
In the examination you may be asked to set out the relevant cash flows of a decision, including tax and
inflation effects, decide whether or not to make an investment, and to discuss the financial and non-financial
issues surrounding it.

1 Ranking of investment appraisal techniques
Section overview
 Financial management progresses the skills from knowledge level into application level in the area of
investment appraisal.
 Relative merits and demerits mean that discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques such as NPV and IRR
are superior.
1.1 Recap of investment appraisal techniques

Investment appraisal was introduced at knowledge level in the Management Information paper. These
techniques are taken further in this subject where they are applied to more involved scenarios. This allows
for a progression of skills from knowledge into application.
Summary of techniques
Payback The time taken for cash inflows from a project to equal the cash
outflows.
Accounting rate of return Average annual profit from investment
ARR = ×100
Initial investment
Average annual profit from investment

or ×100
Average investment
Initial outlay  Scrap value

where average investment =
2
Note: profit is after depreciation
Net present value The maximum an investor would pay for a given set of cash flows (at
his/her cost of capital) compared to the actual amount he/she is being
asked to pay.
The difference, the NPV, represents the change in wealth of the investor
as a result of investing in the project.
Internal rate of return A cost of capital at which the NPV of a project would be CU0.
IRR is usually found via interpolation using two discount rates.
NPVa
IRR = a + (b-a)
NPVa – NPVb
Where a is the first discount rate giving NPVa
b is the second discount rate giving NPVb

Interactive question 1: Revision of basic techniques [Difficulty level: Easy]

A company is considering expanding its business. The expansion will cost CU350,000 initially for the
premises and a further CU150,000 to refurbish the premises with new equipment. Cash flow projections
from the project show the following cash flows over the next six years.
Year Net cash flows
CU
1 70,000
2 70,000
3 80,000
4 100,000
5 100,000
6 120,000
The equipment will be depreciated to a zero resale value over the same period and, after the sixth year, it
is expected that the new business could be sold for CU350,000.
Requirements
Calculate
(a) The payback period for the project
(b) The ARR (using the average investment method)
(c) The NPV of the project. Assume the relevant cost of capital is 12%
(d) The IRR of the project
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
There are four basic investment appraisal techniques that are used in practice by companies. The reason
why some are used more than others is because of their relative merits and demerits.
Interactive question 2: Ranking of techniques [Difficulty level: Easy]

What are the relative merits and demerits of the following investment appraisal techniques and what
conclusion would you therefore draw about their relative attractiveness?
Merits Demerits Rank
Payback
Accounting rate of
return
Net present value

Internal rate of
return
2 Relevant cash flows
Section overview
 Cash flows should be used in investment appraisal rather than profits as this more closely reflects the
impact on shareholders' wealth.
 Relevant cash flows are those which are affected by the decision.
 Opportunity costs reflect the cash forgone as a consequence of using resources.
2.1 Why cash flows rather than profits?

When a firm makes a long-term investment in a project, rarely does the profit in any year of the project's
life equal the cash flow. For example, in cash flow terms the purchase of plant and equipment may be
represented by an outflow at the start of the first year (i.e. the purchase) and an inflow at the end of the
last year (i.e. the scrap value). In the annual income statements in between, what appears is the difference
between the initial cost and the scrap value, i.e. depreciation, which is not a cash flow.
In addition, profit measurement is concerned with the time period in which income and expenses are
recognised. Thus, while the income statements might show CU100,000 for sales, the actual cash receipts
may be much less as some cash is still to be received, i.e. there are receivables. This increase in receivables
represents a further 'investment' in the project.
From a wealth point of view shareholders will be interested in when cash goes out and when it is returned
to them in the form of dividends, i.e. the amount and timing of the flows are important to them.
Over the life of a project the undiscounted net flows will equal the total accounting profit/loss but (because
of the above) the timing will be different.
It is also important to appreciate that not all cash flows are necessarily relevant. In Management Information
the behaviour of costs was introduced. Over a given period some costs are fixed and some variable. Whilst
all of the costs for a period will be reflected in the income statement i.e. they will influence the profit, they
may not all be relevant cash flows for a particular decision, e.g. depreciation.
The section below on relevant cash flows explores this idea further.
2.2 Profits to cash flows

If income statement information is provided, there are two adjustments which should be made to convert
to cash flows:
 Depreciation – as noted above, depreciation is not a cash flow and should be added back where it
has been deducted in arriving at profits. The initial outflow and scrap inflow will deal with depreciation
at the appropriate time
 Working capital – a project may involve not only investment in land, buildings etc but also
investment in working capital (inventory + receivables – payables). Increases in net working capital
represent an outflow, decreases an inflow.

Worked example: Working capital

Gorgon Ltd expects the following sales from a new project over its three year life:
CU
t1 150,000
t2 175,000
t3 200,000
Working capital equal to 10% of annual sales is required and it needs to be in place at the start of each year.
Calculate the working capital flows.
Solution
First, calculate the absolute amounts of working capital needed at the start of each year and then find the
cash flows.
t0 t1 t2 t3
CU CU CU CU
Working capital at start 15,000 17,500 20,000 Nil
Cash flow (15,000) (2,500) (2,500) 20,000
Only the incremental flow is relevant, so for example at t1 an additional CU2,500 is required over and
above the CU15,000 already in place.
At the end of the project all working capital is assumed to be recovered, i.e. an inflow of CU20,000 at t3.
Interactive question 3: Changing working capital [Difficulty level: Easy]

A company plans to make sales of CU100,000 at t1, increasing by 10% per annum until t4. Working capital
equal to 15% of annual sales is required at the start of each year.
Requirement
What are the working capital cash flows?
2.3 Relevant cash flows

The general rule is to include only those costs and revenues which can affect the decision or be affected by
it. This means using only future incremental cash flows. Future flows are used as no decision now can change
past cash flows; incremental, i.e. changed, cash flows are used because flows which continue into the future
regardless of the decision are irrelevant to the decision.
Definition
The relevant cash flows are future, incremental, cash flows arising from the decision being made.

The relevant cash flow is the difference between:

 The cash flow if the course of action is taken, and
 The cash flow if it is not
The assessment of relevant cash flows needs to be done from the point of view of the business as a whole
and not individual divisions or departments.
Typical items which are excluded from the analysis as irrelevant are discussed below:
 Sunk costs – money already spent, e.g. when trying to determine whether an existing machine which
cost CU250,000 three years ago should be used on a new project, the analysis should ignore the
CU250,000 as nothing can be done about it; instead, the machine's current worth (either scrap value
or cash benefits from retention) should be included
 Accounting entries – e.g. depreciation (as discussed above) is not a cash flow
 Book values – e.g. FIFO/LIFO inventory values. This is similar to sunk costs above as the FIFO/LIFO
conventions merely deal with the treatment of money already spent
 Unavoidable costs – money already committed, e.g. a non-cancellable lease or apportioned fixed
costs. As far as fixed costs are concerned it is the total amount which is important (not any attempt to
spread the fixed cost, i.e. apportionment). If the total changes, then this is relevant; if not, the fixed
costs are ignored as they are unaffected by the decision. For example, if a firm can make a new
product within its existing rented factory, then any share of the rent apportioned to the new product
should be ignored as the total rent bill is unchanged. However, if a new factory needs to be rented,
then the additional rent is relevant in the appraisal of the new product
 Finance costs – e.g. interest (discounting deals with this by finding the present value of the flows
allowing for the time the finance is tied up and the interest rate)
Specifically include:
 All opportunity costs and revenues.
2.4 Opportunity costs and revenues
Definition
The opportunity cost of a resource may be defined as the cash flow forgone if a unit of the resource is
used on the project instead of in the best alternative way.
If there are scarcities of resources to be used on projects (e.g. labour, materials, machines), then consideration
must be given to revenues which could have been earned from alternative uses of the resources.
 Shareholders are concerned with the flows generated by the whole organisation in terms of assessing
their impact on their wealth
 The cash flows of a single department or division cannot therefore be looked at in isolation. It is
always the cash flows of the whole organisation which must be considered
 For example, the skilled labour which is needed on the new project might have to be withdrawn
from normal production causing a loss in contribution. This is obviously relevant to the project
appraisal
Worked example: Relevant cost of material

A new contract requires the use of 50 tonnes of metal ZX 81. This metal is used regularly on all the firm's
projects. At the moment there are in inventory 100 tonnes of ZX 81, which were bought for CU200 per
tonne. The current purchase price is CU210 per tonne, and the metal could be disposed of for net scrap
proceeds of CU150 per tonne.
With what cost should the new contract be charged for the ZX 81?

Solution
The use of the material in inventory for the new contract means that more ZX 81 must be bought for
normal workings. The cost to the organisation is therefore the money spent on purchase, no matter
whether existing inventory or new inventory is used on the contract.
Assuming that the additional purchases are made in the near future, the relevant cost to the organisation is
current purchase price, i.e. 50 tonnes  CU210 = CU10,500.
Interactive question 4: Material with no alternative use

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]
Suppose the organisation has no alternative use for the ZX 81 in inventory.
What is the relevant cost of using it on the new contract?
Interactive question 5: Material with a scrap value [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Suppose again there is no alternative use for the ZX 81 other than a scrap sale, but that there are only 25
tonnes in inventory.
Worked example: Relevant cost of labour

A mining operation uses skilled labour costing CU8 per hour, which generates a contribution of CU6 per
hour, after deducting these labour costs.
A new project is now being considered which requires 5,000 hours of skilled labour. There is a shortage of
the required labour. Any used on the new project must be transferred from normal working.
What is the relevant cost of using the skilled labour on the project?
Solution
What is lost if the labour is transferred from normal working?
CU
Contribution per hour lost from normal working 6
Labour cost per hour which is not saved 8
Cash lost per hour as a result of the labour transfer 14
The contract should be charged with 5,000  CU14 CU70,000

Interactive question 6: Relevant cost of surplus labour [Difficulty level: Easy]

Facts as in the previous Worked example, but there is a surplus of skilled labour sufficient to cope with the
new project. The idle workers are being paid full wages.
Interactive question 7: Relevant costs [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

A research project, which to date has cost the company CU150,000, is under review.
If the project is allowed to proceed it will be completed in approximately one year, when the results are to
be sold to a government agency for CU300,000.
Shown below are the additional expenses which the managing director estimates will be necessary to
complete the work:
Materials. This material has just been purchased at a cost of CU60,000. It is toxic; if not used in this
project, it must be disposed of at a cost of CU5,000.
Labour. Skilled labour is hard to recruit. The workers concerned were transferred to the project from a
production department, and at a recent meeting the production manager claimed that if these people were
returned to him they could generate sales of CU150,000 in the next year. The prime cost of these sales
would be CU100,000, including CU40,000 for the labour cost itself. The overhead absorbed into this
production would amount to CU20,000.
Research staff. It has already been decided that, when work on this project ceases, the research
department will be closed. Research wages for the year are CU60,000, and redundancy and severance pay
has been estimated at CU15,000 now, or CU35,000 in one year's time.
Equipment. The project utilises a special microscope which cost CU18,000 three years ago. It has a
residual value of CU3,000 in another two years and a current disposal value of CU8,000. If used in the
project it is estimated that the disposal value in one year's time will be CU6,000.
Share of general building services. The project is charged with CU35,000 per annum to cover general
building expenses. Immediately the project is discontinued, the space occupied could be sub-let for an
annual rental of CU7,000.
Requirement
Advise the managing director as to whether the project should be allowed to proceed, explaining the
reasons for the treatment of each item.
(Note: Ignore the time value of money.)

2.5 Deprival value

 When an asset which is currently owned by the business is required for another specific
contract/project, the existing activity is to be deprived of that asset. The value to be used in the
investment appraisal is, therefore, the asset's deprival value.
Worked example: Deprival value

A company has a printing press which needs to be used on a new contract.
The press could be sold for CU1,000 or made use of to service the needs of existing customers for
business which has a value (in present value terms) of CU1,500.
Requirements
(a) What is the opportunity cost of using the machine on a new contract?
(b) If the printing press could be replaced at a cost of either
(i) CU800
(ii) CU1,800
What would the relevant cost be?
Solution
(a) The existing customers create more value than selling the machine, so the machine would not be sold.
Hence the opportunity cost is the value in use of CU1,500
Note: if the value in use ever dropped below the net realisable value (NRV), then the asset would not
be worth keeping.
(b) (i) If the new contract will make use of a currently owned machine then in principle the cost of
using it will be the replacement cost. If the value in use is CU1,500, and the replacement cost is
CU800, then the machine will be replaced. The equipment cost of the new contract would
therefore be CU800.
(ii) If however, the replacement cost is CU1,800 then it is not worth replacing. Thus the relevant cost
of equipment for the new contract will be the opportunity cost or benefit forgone – i.e. the
CU1,500.
In each case therefore the relevant cost is the cash flow effect of the decision to use the existing
resource – either the replacement cost or the benefit in the next best case, i.e. the deprival value.
This can be summarised as follows.
Deprival value
= lower of
Replacement cost and Recoverable amount
ie the cost of replacing = higher of

the asset with one of a
similar age and condition Value in use/ Net realisable
and
Economic value value
ie the present value of ie the asset's worth if

the cash generated it were to be sold, net
from using the asset of selling costs

 If the asset has a net realisable value in excess of its economic value it should be sold, i.e. it is better to
discontinue using it. If the economic value is higher than the net realisable value it is worth keeping and
using. At this point, therefore, were the firm to be deprived of the asset, the best alternative forgone
is the higher of the net realisable value or economic value (the 'recoverable amount')
 However, if the recoverable amount is less than the replacement cost, then the recoverable amount is
the deprival value, i.e. the asset would not be replaced were the firm to be deprived of its use. If the
recoverable amount exceeds the replacement cost, the asset should be replaced as the latter
represents its deprival value
Interactive question 8: Deprival value [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Joe's car is not insured against theft.
He bought it two years ago for CU2,000. A similar vehicle would now cost CU1,000. He believes he could
sell the vehicle for CU1,000 after spending CU100 on advertising. The vehicle has two years of life
remaining, and over this period he believes it will save him taxi fares with a present value of CU800.
Requirement
What is the loss to Joe if his car is stolen?
3 Taxation
Section overview
 Taxable profit and accounting profit may not be the same.
 Tax is charged on net cash flow.
 Tax depreciation reduce the tax payable.
3.1 Basics
Income statement
Imagine an income statement drawn up at the end of the first year of a project's life using normal financial
accounting principles:
Worked example: Taxable profit

CU CU
Sales 10,000
Materials 1,000
Labour 1,500
Variable overheads 500
Fixed overheads
Depreciation 1,000
Other 500
(4,500)
5,500
Interest on loan to finance project (3,000)
Profit 2,500
Requirement
In calculating the taxable profit for investment appraisal purposes, what are the relevant cash flows to be
considered?

Solution
Corporation tax for year 1 of the project is not simply CU2,500 times the tax rate. Some adjustments need
to be made to the profit calculation before computing the tax charge:
 Only incremental relevant cash flows need be considered (as covered in section 2 above) and the
incremental tax charge. Thus some of the above costs – e.g. fixed costs, may not be relevant and
therefore the tax effect of these is not relevant
 Depreciation should be ignored (it is not allowed as a deduction from profits when calculating the tax
– see below)
 Interest should be ignored. The tax effect of interest is incorporated into the cost of capital
3.2 Effects
Taxation has two effects in investment appraisal, both giving rise to relevant cash flows.
OUTFLOW INFLOW
Tax charged Tax relief

on net cash given on assets
flows purchased via
Tax Depreciation (TD)
3.3 Tax Depreciation (TDs)

 This is the National Board of Revenue (NBR) version of depreciation. For the purposes of the
examination, only TDs on plant and equipment are considered (though in practice there are other
categories of non-current assets that attract TDs).
 Unless otherwise stated:
– Calculate tax depreciation allowances (TDAs) at 25% on a reducing balance basis
– There is no TDA in the year of sale; a balancing allowance/charge is calculated instead. The
balancing allowance relieves any unrelieved expenditure; the balancing charge claws back any
excess relief given – assume that there are sufficient profits available elsewhere in the business to
utilise all tax benefits in full and at once.
3.4 Other assumptions

 Although large companies make tax payments in four equal instalments during the income year, for
examination purposes the whole tax payment is assumed to be made at the end of the year to which it relates
 For examination purposes corporation tax is assumed to be paid at 30% (although other rates are
possible in the real world)
 The tax rate can be assumed to be constant over the life of the project (unlikely in practice)
 It should be assumed that working capital flows have no tax effects

Worked example: Tax Depreciation

Happy Ltd bought a machine for CU10,000 on 31 December 20X1, its accounting year end. The asset
generated cash flows of CU7,000 pa. It sold the asset on 31 December 20X3 for CU2,000.
20X1 20X2 20X3
Acquired Disposed
The company pays tax at 30%. Tax Depreciation is available at 25% on a reducing balance basis.
Show the TDAs and any balancing charge or allowance.
Solution
Year ended 31 Dec Tax WDV (WDV = written down value)
CU
20X1 10,000
TDA @ 25% (2,500)
Asset owned at end of each of
20X2 7,500 20X1 and 20X2.  25% TDA
TDA @ 25% (1,875) calculated
20X3 5,625 In 20X3 asset sold. As proceeds
Proceeds (2,000) (in this case) are less than WDV a
Balancing allowance 3,625 balancing allowance is given.
Total reliefs = CU(2,500 + 1,875 + 3,625) = CU8,000 (= cost – scrap). Tax payments, cash flows etc can
then be shown as follows:
Tax computation
31 Dec 20X1 31 Dec 20X2 31 Dec 20X3
CU CU CU
Net inflows 7,000 7,000
TDA/Balancing allowance (2,500) (1,875) (3,625)
Taxable (2,500) 5,125 3,375
Tax @ 30% 750* (1,537.50) (1,012.50)
* Tax saved, assuming sufficient profits exist elsewhere in the business to obtain relief from TDA as soon as
possible (section 3.3 above).
Normally the tax effect is shown as two separate elements:
31 Dec 20X1 31 Dec 20X2 31 Dec 20X3
CU CU CU
(1) Tax paid @ 30% (2,100) (2,100)
TDAs/Balancing allowance (2,500) (1,875) (3,625)
(2) Tax saved @ 30%* 750 562.50 1,087.50
Total tax (above) (1) + (2) 750 (1,537.50) (1,012.50)
* i.e. being able to deduct the TDA from profit saves tax @ 30%.
The NPV calculation would show (rounding to the nearest CU):
31 Dec 20X1 31 Dec 20X2 31 Dec 20X3
CU CU CU
Tax (2,100) (2,100)
Asset purchase (10,000)
Scrap 2,000
Tax saved on TDAs 750 562 1,088
Net CF for discounting (9,250) 5,462 7,988

Interactive question 9: Tax Depreciation [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

1 A company buys an asset for CU10,000 at the end of its accounting period, 31 December 20X0, to
undertake a two year project.
2 Net trading inflows at t1 and t2 are CU5,000.
3 The asset has a CU6,000 scrap value when it is disposed of at the end of year 2.
4 Tax is charged at 30%. TDAs are available at 15% pa
Requirement
Calculate the net cash flows for the project.
See Answer at the end of the chapter.
Interactive question 10: Timing issues [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

As in interactive question 9, except that the asset is now bought on 1 January 20X1.
Requirement
Calculate the net cash flows for the project.
See Answer at the end of the chapter.
4 Inflation
Section overview
 Inflation rate can be incorporated into both cash flow and discount rate ('money @ money').
 Inflation can be ignored in both cash flows and discount rate ('real @ real').
Inflation in Bangladesh has varied between 1% and 25% pa since 1972. As inflation will continue to exist in
the future, account needs to be taken of its effects, i.e. increases in prices, when appraising projects. It
creates two problems in investment appraisal:
 Estimating future cash flows – the rate of inflation must be taken into account
 The rate of return required by shareholders and lenders will increase as inflation rises – the discount
rate is therefore affected

4.1 Real and money (or nominal) rates

 The rates of interest that would be required in the absence of inflation in the economy are referred to
as the real rates of interest
 When real rates of interest are adjusted for the effect of general inflation, measured by the consumer
prices index (CP1), the results are referred to as money (or nominal) rates of interest
Worked example: Impact of inflation

Kuman is considering a choice. He can spend CU100 on consumables now or he can invest it for a year, but
will only do so if he can consume more of it at that time.
The underlying time value of money for Kuman is 10%, and inflation is 5%.
Requirement
What return in money terms does Kuman require?
Solution
The total return must compensate Kuman for his consumption preference i.e. the fact that he would prefer
to consume now. He must therefore earn 10% to reflect his time value of money. In addition, the rate must
compensate Kuman for the fact that prices are rising by 5% pa.
This can be illustrated as follows.
Now 1 year later
t0 Underlying t1
'Real' return
required
Consume CU100 CU110 is the amount
r = 10% required to satisfy
the consumption
preference i.e. Kuman needs
to be able to purchase
10% more goods
Inflation i = 5%
The impact of inflation means

that in order to be able to
purchase 10% more goods,
Kuman needs
CU110  1.05 = CU115.50
In order to be satisfied with not consuming now, Kuman needs CU115.50 of money in a year
CU100  (1.10)(1.05) = CU115.50
CU15.50
Overall money return (m) required = =15.5%
CU100
Money rates, real rates and general inflation (CPI) are linked by the following:
(1 + m) = (1 + r) (1 + i)
where m = money rate
r = real rate
i = general inflation

Thus in the example above

(1 + m) = (1.10) (1.05) = 1.155
m = 15.5%
4.2 Money and current cash flows

As examination questions are normally answered using the money method (see section 4.4 below) it is vital
to determine whether the cash flows are given in money or current terms.
 Money (or nominal) cash flows are cash flows where any inflationary effects have already been taken
into account
 Current cash flows are cash flows expressed in today's terms which will be affected by inflation in the
future and have not yet been adjusted
4.3 General and specific inflation rates

It is also important in examination questions to determine what sort of inflation rate is applicable to the
items in the question.
 A general inflation rate is a weighted average of many specific inflation rates, e.g. CPI, and is normally
applied to the real rate in order to derive the money rate (section 4.1 above)
 A specific inflation rate is the rate of inflation on an individual item or service, e.g. the rate at which
labour costs per hour will increase
 Examples:
Individual item Specific inflation
Bread 1% pa
Milk 3% pa CPI is a weighted average of these rates
Cheese 2% pa
etc.
 Economic forecasters will regularly publish estimates of general inflation. Estimating individual rates is
much more difficult, and decision makers should recognise that they are just that – estimates, and
subject to a degree of error
4.4 Discounting
Money method ('money @ money')
It is essential to match like with like when performing NPV calculations. In the real world money flows are
the easiest to deal with as they are the everyday flows people are used to. So to use the money method:
 Adjust the individual cash flows, e.g. sales/revenue, materials, labour using their specific inflation rates
to convert to money cash flows, i.e. the flows which will actually occur
 Discount these money flows using the money rate, i.e. the rate of interest which will actually occur.
This is the simplest technique. Use wherever possible unless a question directs otherwise.
Real method ('real @ real')
An alternative way of reaching the same NPV and again matching like with like, is to use the real method.
The problem with this method is that real cash flows and interest rates are not directly identifiable in the
way that money flows and rates are. For example, banks regularly publish money interest rates on savings
accounts, overdrafts, etc. The unpublished real rate needs to be derived by stripping out the general
inflation used to determine the money rate (as in section 4.1 above). So to use the real method:
 Remove the effects of general inflation from money cash flows to generate real cash flows
 Discount using real rate.
Although this achieves the same NPV as the money method, it is often very long winded and would only be
useful in a question where the real flows and interest rate were already given.

Interactive question 11: Money @ money [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Project Invest CU10,000 at t0 in new plant and equipment
Returns CU5,000 pa in current terms for three years, inflating at 7% pa
Money rate of interest is 10%
Requirement
Calculate the project's NPV using the money method.
Effective method
 This method can sometimes be a short cut for the money method, e.g. for long projects with annuity
or perpetuity cash flows
 To use the effective method leave cash flows in current (t0) terms and adjust the discount rate as
shown below to incorporate both inflating and discounting
 Discount current terms cash flows using effective rate (e):
1 m
1+e=
1  is
where is = inflation specific to given cash flow
Interactive question 12: Effective rate [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Labour costs inflate at 8% pa in perpetuity
Money rate = 10%
Labour currently costs CU10,000 in t0 terms
Requirement
Calculate the present value of labour costs.
4.5 Practical considerations

 General inflation may not be constant, thus the money discount rate may vary year on year. In order
to discount cash flows with a different money interest rate in each year, the money @ money
approach discussed above should be used
 The impact of inflation is more significant for longer periods as the increase in prices is compounded
year on year. However, as noted earlier, the further into the future the more difficult it is to estimate
specific inflation rates, so errors in estimates will be compounded

4.6 NPV Proforma

The following proforma summarises the topics dealt with so far and provides a layout for NPV calculations
useful in 95%+ of situations:
t0 t1 t2 t3
CU CU CU CU
Operating cash flows
Adjust for inflation Sales/revenue X X X
Include only relevant cash flows Costs (X) (X) (X)
Net X X X
Tax (X) (X) (X)
Asset
Purchase (X)
Scrap X
Tax on TDAs X X X X
Working capital (X) (X) (X) X
Net flows (X) X X X
* Discount factor 1 X X X
PV of cash flows (X) X X X
PV = NPV
* Use discount factors for the after-tax cost of capital
5 Replacement analysis
Section overview
 The optimal replacement cycle is the one with the lowest equivalent annual cost.
 The analysis assumes the replacement decision will apply indefinitely.
 So far it has been assumed that investment in an asset is a one-off decision. However, a project is likely
to involve commitment to long-term production, and machinery will therefore need to be replaced
 A business needs to know how often to replace such assets. Replacing after a long time means not
replacing as often, so delaying the cost of a new replacement machine. However this invariably means
keeping an asset whose value is declining and which costs more to maintain. These costs and benefits
need to be balanced
Worked example: Replacement decision

A decision has to be made on replacement policy for vans. A van costs CU12,000. Vans can be replaced
after 1,2, or 3 years. The following additional information applies:
Interval between Trade-in Age at Maintenance cost
replacement allowance Year end paid at end of year
(years) CU (years) CU
1 9,000 Year of replacement Nil
2 7,500 1 2,000
3 7,000 2 3,000
Calculate the optimal replacement policy at a cost of capital of 15%. There are no maintenance costs if the
van is replaced after one year. Ignore taxation and inflation.

Solution
NPVs
9,000
1 year cycle NPV = (12,000) + = CU(4,174)
1.15
(2,000) 7,500
2 year cycle NPV = (12,000) + + = CU(8,068)
1.15 1.15 2
(2,000) (3,000) 7,000
3 year cycle NPV = (12,000) + + 2
+ = CU(11,405)
1.15 1.15 1.153
These costs are not comparable, because they refer to different time periods. The reason the one year
cycle appears cheaper is because it only reflects the cost of having a machine for one year, whereas the
CU11,405 for the 3 year cycle is the cost to the business of keeping the resource for three years. There are
two possible approaches to making the costs comparable.
5.1 Lowest common multiple approach

One method of comparing the different replacement options is to evaluate the costs over a time frame
which makes them consistent.
In the above example, this will be achieved if the costs incurred under each cycle were compared over
the same number of years for each.
For example:
1 Year 2 Year 3 Year
Time cycle cycle cycle
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
0 (12) (12) (12)
1 9 + (12) (2) (2)
2 9 + (12) 7.5 + (12) (3)
3 9 + (12) (2) 7 + (12)
4 9 + (12) 7.5 + (12) (2)
5 9 + (12) (2) (3)
6 9 7.5 7
In order to be comparable, the analysis has to be continued for six years (the lowest common multiple of
the asset lives). Stopping before this means one of the options would be part way through a cycle. At the
end of six years is the earliest occasion that all three cycles come to an end at the same time (i.e. a new van
is required under each cycle). The lowest common multiple approach will give a solution, but is rather long
winded. The Equivalent Annual Cost approach is a better method, and is discussed below.
5.2 Equivalent annual cost (EAC)

In Management Information, the method for finding the present value of an annuity was introduced.
PV of an annuity = Annuity  Annuity Factor (AF) for n periods at a discount rate r
This can be applied here to restate the present value of the costs over a life cycle into an annuity – the
equivalent annual cost – over the life cycle, as follows:
The NPVs calculated above are converted into equivalent annual costs, i.e. the equivalent constant annual
sum payable at the end of each year for any given cycle.
The equivalent annual costs can be compared.
1 year cycle (4,174) = X  AF 1 year @ 15%
(4,174) = X  0.870
X = CU(4,798)

2 year cycle (8,068) = X  AF 2 years @ 15%

(8,068) = X  1.626
X = CU(4,962)
3 year cycle (11,405) = X  AF 3 years @ 15%
(11,405) = X  2.283
X = CU(4,996)
Thus it is cheapest to replace the vans every year, because this cycle has the lowest cost in NPV terms.
So the method can be summarised as:
1 Calculate the NPV of each replacement strategy
2 Calculate the annual equivalent cost of the NPV for each strategy
3 Choose the strategy with the lowest annual equivalent cost.
Interactive question 13: Replacement cycle [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

A machine costs CU20,000 and it can be replaced every year or every two years. Delaying the replacement
causes the running costs to increase and the scrap proceeds to decrease as follows:
Running costs Scrap proceeds
CU CU
Year 1 5,000 16,000
Year 2 5,500 13,000
Company's cost of capital = 10%.

Requirement
Should the machine be replaced every one or every two years?
5.3 Limitations of the replacement analysis performed

This method assumes that a firm is continually replacing like with like, and therefore determines a once-
and-for-all optimal replacement cycle. In practice this is unlikely to be valid due to:
 Changing technology, which can quickly make machines obsolete and shorten replacement cycles. This
means that one asset is not being replaced by one exactly similar
 Inflation, which by altering the cost structure of assets means that the optimal replacement cycle can
vary over time
 If inflation affects all variables equally it is best excluded from the analysis by discounting real cash
flows at a real interest rate – the optimal replacement cycle will remain valid
 Differential inflation rates mean that the optimal replacement cycle varies over time
 The effects of taxation (ignored in the analysis but they could be incorporated)
 The fact that production is unlikely to continue in perpetuity

6 Capital rationing
Section overview
 Scarce capital means that projects have to be ranked according to how efficiently they use the limiting
factor.
 Divisible projects are ranked using NPV per CU of scarce capital.
 Indivisible projects are ranked using trial and error by finding the combination of projects that
maximises NPV.
Definition
Capital rationing is the situation where insufficient funds exist to undertake all positive NPV projects, so
a choice must be made between projects.
6.1 Two types of rationing

 Hard rationing: where the external capital market (banks, stock exchange, etc) limit the supply of funds
 Soft rationing: where internally the firm imposes its own constraint on the amount of funds raised.
This may be as a surrogate for other constraints, e.g. insufficient managerial capacity to handle all
positive NPV projects
Soft rationing may also arise where it is impractical for the firm to go to the market and raise a small
amount of finance, and where raising the funds in large amounts is more practical and cost effective.
6.2 Single period rationing

When funds are scarce in one year only, but freely available otherwise, the basic NPV approach to project
selection is modified.
Projects are ranked by NPV per CU capital outlay in the rationed period. (This can be referred to as the
'profitability index'.) This is an extension of key factor analysis covered at the knowledge level of the
professional stage examinations.
The situation where funds are rationed in more than one time period (multi-period capital rationing) is
beyond the syllabus.
Interactive question 14: Capital rationing [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

A business has CU50,000 available at t0 for investment.
Four divisible projects are available:
Project NPV Funds required at t0
CU CU
A 100,000 (50,000)
B (50,000) (10,000)
C 84,000 (10,000)
D 45,000 (15,000)
Requirement
Which project(s) should be undertaken?

6.3 Indivisible projects

The solution to Interactive question 14 assumes it is possible to accept half of project A, i.e. that projects
are perfectly divisible so half the outlay gives half the NPV, etc.
In reality projects may be indivisible, i.e. all or nothing, in which case trial and error is necessary to find the
optimal combination.
In Interactive question 14 above, possible combinations are:
NPV Funds
CU CU
A 100,000 50,000
C and D 129,000 25,000
Therefore choose C and D.
6.4 Mutually exclusive projects

It may be the case that projects are mutually exclusive, i.e. it is not possible to undertake both at the same
time, perhaps because management would be overstretched in trying to run both projects.
Imagine that a firm facing single period capital rationing is trying to choose between five projects – P, Q, R,
S and T. P and Q are mutually exclusive, i.e. either P or Q but not both could be undertaken. In order to
make the choice it should apply the procedures in sections 6.2 or 6.3 above to two separate groupings
P, R, S, T Q, R, S, T
and see which produces the higher overall NPV.
6.5 Project synergy

So far projects have been considered independently. It may be the case that by undertaking certain
combinations of projects, some synergy (extra NPV) is created, e.g. from cost savings.
Interactive question 15: Project synergy [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

A firm has CU100,000 available for investment at t0.
Three divisible projects are available:
Project NPV Funds required at t0
CU CU
X 25,000 100,000
Y 11,000 50,000
Z 8,000 40,000
If Y and Z were undertaken together an extra CU4,400 of NPV could be earned.
Requirement
Which project(s) should be undertaken?
See the Answer at the end of the chapter.

7 Investment appraisal in a strategic context
Section overview
 Investment appraisal needs to be considered in a strategic context
 Shareholder value analysis (SVA) focuses on decisions which maximise shareholder wealth
 Investment may give rise to new opportunities, known as real options.
7.1 Project generation, decision making and control

Investment projects will normally be identified as part of a firm's strategic planning process. This is covered
in detail in the Business Strategy paper. In outline the process is as follows:
Analyse the current position of the business by examining the

external (eg competitors) and internal (eg human resources)
environment. Normally summarised by SWOT analysis
(strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats)
Determine mission and objectives (here

assumed to be wealth maximisation)
Identify and select strategies (eg

new products, new markets, etc)
Implement and control
 Once potential projects are identified, e.g. replacing an existing product with a new one, the relevant
costs and revenues associated with the proposal must be determined. Care must be taken to avoid
bias in estimates, e.g. from managers closely associated with the proposal
 The relevant costs and revenues should be assessed using NPV to determine whether wealth
increases. Where there are competing projects, those that offer the best NPV should be chosen
(capital rationing may need to be considered at this point)
 Chosen projects are then implemented and performance monitored, e.g. actual outcomes v budget etc
7.2 Shareholder value analysis
Definition
Shareholder value analysis (SVA) is the process of analysing the activities of a business to identify how
they will result in increasing shareholder wealth.
Managers may sometimes be influenced to act in a manner which is inconsistent with maximising
shareholder wealth. The claimed advantage of SVA, as a philosophy of business decision-making, is that the
actions of managers can be directly linked to value generation and the outcomes of decisions can be
assessed in that context.

Interactive question 16: SVA [Difficulty level: Easy]

Explain what possible problems are created when using the following measures to assess management
effectiveness.
Return on capital employed
Earnings per share
See the Answer at the end of the chapter.
7.3 The principles of SVA

A business has a particular value at a particular time because of the projected cash flows from its activities.
The particular value will be based on their timings and riskiness. According to the philosophy of SVA, the
value of the business is affected or 'driven' by just seven factors, known as 'value drivers’. To increase the
value of the business, i.e. to generate additional value, one or more of these seven will need to alter in a
favourable direction. The value drivers, and their effect on shareholder value, are shown below.
Cost Life of Sales

of projected growth
capital cash flows rate
Investment Operating
in working
Shareholder profit
capital wealth margin
Investment
in non- Corporation
current tax rate
assets
These seven factors all impact on the operating cash flows and through them the value of the business and
the wealth of the shareholders.
These will be examined in turn and related to individual parts of the business.
Sales growth If a greater level of sales can be generated in the future than was expected, this should
rate create more cash flows and, therefore, value. The greater level of sales could come
from a new product and, provided that this did not have an adverse effect on one of
the other value drivers, greater value would necessarily be created. Similarly, arresting
an expected decline in sales levels for some existing product has the potential to
generate value.
Operating The operating profit margin is the ratio of net profit, before financing charges and tax,
profit margin to sales. The higher this ratio the more cash flows there are for each sale. Thus if
costs can be controlled more effectively, more cash will tend to flow from each sale
and value will be enhanced.
Corporation This clearly affects cash flows and value because, broadly, tax is levied directly on
tax rate operating cash flows. Management's ability to affect the tax rate and the amount of tax
paid by the business tends, at best, to be marginal.

Investment in Normally cash has to be spent on additional non-current assets in order to enhance
non-current shareholder value. Wherever managers can find ways of reducing the outlay on plant
assets etc without limiting the effectiveness of the business, this will tend to enhance
shareholder value.
Investment in Nearly all business activities give rise to a need for working capital: inventories,
working receivables, payables and cash. Amounts tied up in working capital can be
capital considerable. Steps that can be taken, for example, to encourage trade receivables to
pay more quickly than expected, will bring cash flows forward and tend to generate
value, as long as the benefits of quicker payment outweigh the cost of delivering it.
Cost of The cost of funds used to finance the activities of the business will typically be a major
capital determinant of shareholder value. So if the business can find alternative, cheaper,
sources of long-term finance, value would tend to be enhanced.
Life of Clearly, the longer that the life of any cash generating activity can continue, the longer
projected its potential to generate value.
cash flows
7.4 How can SVA be used?

Where SVA is seen to be most useful is in highlighting the key drivers of value. This enables managers to set
targets for achieving value enhancing strategies in each area. It can help to create an environment where
value enhancement is at the top of the agenda for managers in all areas of the business. In this way the
primary financial objective of the business can be achieved.
7.5 Real options

One problem of NPV analysis is that it only considers cash flows related directly to the project. It is
possible that a project with a negative NPV is accepted for 'strategic' reasons. This is because management
accept that there are options associated with a particular project which outweigh the conventionally
calculated negative NPV.
The revised decision model becomes
Project worth = Traditional NPV + value of any options
Worked example: Real options
Situation Real option
Follow on options Launching this project would give a later

opportunity to launch a second (and third and so
A firm is considering investing in a project to
on) version which could be highly profitable or
manufacture microcomputers. The initial NPV is
could lose money.
negative.
Launching the first version effectively gives the
right to invest in later versions. The right to invest
or buy is known as a call option.

Situation Real option
Abandonment options Both projects offer the right to abandon the

project if things go wrong, by selling the assets.
A firm is considering investing in two projects,
The value of the second option is much greater
both having the same expected NPV. The first uses
and could well be preferred by management.
a highly specialised machine with little resale value
or alternative use. The second involves The right to sell is known as a put option.
expenditure mainly on highly marketable land and
Some projects such as those in the natural
buildings.
resource industry (timber, mining etc) have inbuilt
options to reduce capacity or suspend operations
temporarily.
Timing options Projects where commencement can be delayed are
often attractive. In a volatile market a project that
A firm has the development rights over a piece of
can be delayed is like a call option with a long
land. The rights can be exercised any time over the
period of expiry. If the company can delay
next five years.
investment it can wait and see what happens to the
market before investing or not (exercising the
option or not). The longer the delay, the more
valuable the option.
The option to delay is only valuable if it offsets any
loss from delaying e.g. delaying results in a
competitor establishing a loyal customer base that
makes it difficult for the company to enter later.
Patents and other barriers to entry can offer some
protection against this.
Growth options Choices might include
New technology, deregulation etc present  Full investment and hope it pays off (high risk)
uncertain growth opportunities for firms –  Wait and see but competitors might take a lead
investing could produce substantial losses.  Acquire 'growth option'
Growth options include
 Start with small capacity, expanding later if
market conditions are good
 Joint ventures and strategic alliances as entry
strategies into emerging markets, e.g. China
 R&D avoiding 'wait and see' risk and, if
prospects look poor, no full investment, e.g.
pharmaceutical companies
 Follow on options noted above
Flexibility options A more expensive station capable of using gas or
coal or oil gives greater flexibility. This flexibility
A power station could be constructed to generate
option has a value which must be included in the
electricity using only gas as the input fuel. Whilst
evaluation.
this might be the cheapest option it lacks flexibility
in the face of volatile gas prices.
The above refers to options associated with investments – so called 'real' options. Chapters 9 and 10 will
introduce how options to buy and sell currency, shares, bonds, etc can be used to manage risks such as
interest rates and exchange rates.

8 Investing overseas
Section overview
 Overseas investment carries additional risks, including political and cultural.
 The methods of financing overseas subsidiaries will depend on the length of investment period
envisaged, also the local finance costs, taxation systems and restrictions on dividend remittances.
When deciding what types of country it should enter (in terms of environmental factors, economic
development, language used, cultural similarities and so on), the major criteria for this decision should be as
follows.
(a) Market attractiveness. This concerns such indicators as GNP/head and forecast demand.
(b) Competitive advantage. This is principally dependent on prior experience in similar markets and having
a cultural understanding.
(c) Risk. This involves an analysis of political stability, the possibility of government intervention and
similar external influences.
8.1 Political risks
Definition
Political Risk is the risk that political action will affect the position and value of a company.
When a multinational company invests in another country, e.g. by setting up a subsidiary, it may face a
political risk of action by that country's government which restricts the multinational's freedom.
If a government tries to prevent the exploitation of its country by multinationals, it may take various
measures, including the following:
Quotas Import quotas could be used to limit the quantities of goods that a subsidiary can buy
from its parent company and import for resale in its domestic markets.
Tariffs Import tariffs could make imports (such as from parent companies) more expensive
and domestically produced goods therefore more competitive.
Non-tariff Legal standards of safety or quality (non-tariff barriers) could be imposed on
barriers imported goods to prevent multinationals from selling goods through a subsidiary
which have been banned as dangerous in other countries.
Restrictions A government could restrict the ability of foreign companies to buy domestic
companies, especially those that operate in politically sensitive industries such as
defence contracting, communications, energy supply and so on.
Nationalisation A government could nationalise foreign-owned companies and their assets (with or
without compensation to the parent company).
Minimum A government could insist on a minimum shareholding in companies by residents.
shareholding This would force a multinational to offer some of the equity in a subsidiary to
investors in the country where the subsidiary operates.

8.1.1 Assessment of political risk

There are a large number of factors that can be taken into account when assessing political risk, for
example:
 Government stability
 Political and business ethics
 Economic stability/inflation
 Degree of international indebtedness
 Financial infrastructure
 Level of import restrictions
 Remittance restrictions
 Evidence of expropriation
 Existence of special taxes and regulations on overseas investors, or investment incentives
In addition micro factors, factors only affecting the company or the industry in which it invests, may be
more significant than macro factors, particularly in companies such as hi-tech organisations.
8.1.2 Dealing with political risks

There are various strategies that multinational companies can adopt to limit the effects of political risk.
Negotiations with The aim of these negotiations is generally to obtain a concession agreement. This
host government would cover matters such as the transfer of capital, remittances and products,
access to local finance, government intervention and taxation, and transfer
pricing.
Insurance See Chapter 10 where overseas trade is explored.
Production It may be necessary to strike a balance between contracting out to local sources
strategies (thus losing control) and producing directly (which increases the investment and
hence increases the potential loss). Alternatively it may be better to locate key
parts of the production process or the distribution channels abroad. Control of
patents is another possibility, since these can be enforced internationally.
Management Possible methods include joint ventures or ceding control to local investors and
structure obtaining profits by a management contract.
8.2 Cultural risk

The following areas may be particularly important depending upon the location of the overseas investment:
(a) The cultures and practices of customers and consumers in individual markets
(b) The media and distribution systems in overseas markets
(c) The different ways of doing business in overseas markets
(d) The degree to which national cultural differences matter for the product concerned (a great deal for
some consumer products, e.g. washing machines where some countries prefer front-loading machines
and others prefer top-loading machines, but less so for products such as gas turbines)
(e) The degree to which a firm can use its own 'national culture' as a selling point
8.3 Factors influencing the choice of finance for an overseas subsidiary

In determining how an overseas investment should be financed, the following considerations need to be
made:
(a) The local finance costs, and any subsidies which may be available
(b) Taxation systems of the countries in which the subsidiary is operating. Different tax rates can favour
borrowing in high tax regimes, and no borrowing elsewhere. Tax-saving opportunities may be

maximised by structuring the group and its subsidiaries in such a way as to take the best advantage of
the different local tax systems
(c) Any restrictions on dividend remittances
(d) The possibility of flexibility in repayments which may arise from the parent/subsidiary relationship
(e) Access to capital. Obtaining capital from foreign markets may increase liquidity, lower costs and make
it easier to maintain optimum gearing

Summary and Self-test
Summary
Taxation
- Tax charged on net cash
flow
- tax depreciation gives a
tax benefit

Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 A company is considering investing in a two-year project. Machine set-up costs will be CU150,000
payable immediately. Working capital of CU4,000 is required at the beginning of the contract and will
be released at the end.
Given a cost of capital of 10%, what is the minimum acceptable contract price to be received at the
end of the contract?
A CU150,696
B CU154,000
C CU182,342
D CU186,342
2 A company is considering a project with a three year life producing the following costs and revenues:
CU
Cost of machine 100,000
Depreciation of machine (for three years) 20,000 per annum
Residual value of machine 40,000
Annual cost of direct labour 20,000
Annual cost of supervisor (who is employed in any case by the company) 12,000
Annual cost of components required 18,000
Net revenues from machine arising at end of each year
commencing one year hence 80,000
What is the net present value at a cost of capital of 20% of purchasing the machine?
A CU(13,000)
B CU(11,380)
C CU11,620
D CU22,370
3 A company is considering investing CU520,000 in machinery to manufacture a new product. The
machinery has a lifetime of five years and will be depreciated on a straight-line basis to its scrap value
of CU20,000. The new product will produce annual income of CU350,000, receivable annually in
arrears. Variable production costs, payable annually in advance, amount to CU100,000 per annum.
Fixed costs, other than depreciation, will increase by CU10,000 per annum, payable in arrears.
What (to the nearest CU1,000) is the net present value of the proposal discounting at 15%?
A CU(101,000)
B CU(91,000)
C CU244,000
D CU295,000
4 A project has a life of three years. In the first year it is expected to generate sales of CU200,000,
increasing at the rate of 10% per annum over the remaining two years. At the start of each year
working capital is required equal to 10% of the sales revenue for that year. All working capital will be
released at the end of the project.
What is the net present value (to the nearest CU000) of the working capital cash flows of the project
discounting at a rate of 20%?
A Nil
B CU(9,000)
C CU(17,000)
D CU(55,000)

5 Allen Ltd wishes to use a machine for one month on a new contract. The machine cost CU120,000 six
years ago. When purchased it had an estimated life of ten years and it is being fully depreciated using
the straight line method. It is currently valued at CU39,000 and its estimated value at the end of the
year is CU15,000. The machine is under-used and stands idle for perhaps 30% of its time, but it must
be retained for use on similar contracts.
What is the relevant cost of using the machine on the new contract?
A Nil
B CU250
C CU812.50
D CU1,000
6 A company operating an 'aggregate' crushing plant is considering a change from oil-fired to gas for its
boilers. The cost of oil now used is CU132,000 p.a., whereas gas would cost only CU120,000 p.a.
Current depreciation on the oil-fired boilers is CU18,000 p.a. but depreciation on the new boilers
would be only CU10,000 p.a. The present boilers would be scrapped if new boilers were acquired.
The gas-fired crusher could work faster and complete the same volume of work as the oil-fired
machine in 80% of the time, so that a smaller apportionment of fixed overheads would be made; no
volume increase is expected in 'aggregate' output. The estimated annual cost savings referred to above,
as per the management accounts, are as follows:
(a) Fuel CU12,000
(b) Depreciation CU8,000
(c) Fixed overheads CU2,000
What are the relative annual savings for the discounted cash flow evaluation?
A (a) only
B (a) and (b)
C (a) and (c)
D (a), (b) and (c)
7 A company is considering undertaking project X which will require 100 kg of a special material Q. The
company has 100 kg of Q in inventory but there is no possibility of obtaining any more. If project X is
not undertaken, then the company can undertake project Y which will also require 100 kg of Q. The
revenues and costs associated with project Y are as follows:
Project Y revenues and costs
CU CU
Revenues 10,000
Less Costs
Original purchase cost of 100 kg of Q 3,000
Other direct costs 5,000
(8,000)
Profit 2,000
The 100 kg of Q can also be sold as it is for CU4,000. What is the relevant cost of using 100 kg of Q
when deciding whether to accept project X?
A CU2,000
B CU3,000
C CU4,000
D CU5,000

8 Sark is tendering for contract M. The cost estimate includes CU2,750, the price paid for 100 units of
part KL. These are currently held in inventory and will not be required for any other future jobs.
However, if CU75 were spent on their conversion, they could be used on other work as substitutes
for 100 units of part XB. These would otherwise have to be bought in at a cost of CU22 each.
Alternatively, the KL parts could be sold for CU20 each.
Given that Sark’s objective is to maximise its net cash inflow, what figure should be included in the
cost estimate in respect of part KL?
A CU2,750
B CU2,275
C CU2,125
D CU2,000
9 Sherburn Ltd has sufficient material Y in inventory for a year’s production of 'Stringfree'. Material Y
cost CU8,000 but is subject to major price variations; the current market value is double the original
cost. It could be sold at the market price less 15% selling expenses. An alternative is to retain it for
later use by which time the market price is expected to be CU11,200.
What is the relevant cost of using material Y on the Stringfree contract?
A CU16,000
B CU13,600
C CU11,200
D CU8,000
10 A company is about to quote a price for manufacturing a special machine which will require 1,500 kg
of material X and 2,000 kg of material Y. The following information is available about these resources:
Original cost
Type of Amount in price of inventory Current purchase Net realisable
material inventory now per kg price per kg value now per kg
CU CU CU CU
X 1,000 5 6 4
Y 2,000 8 10 7
The inventory of X cannot be used by the company for any other purpose; material Y is used
frequently by the company.
What is the relevant cost of the materials for the manufacture of the special machine?
A CU21,000
B CU24,000
C CU27,000
D CU29,000
11 The following data relate to 200 kg of material ZX in inventory and needed immediately for a contract:
CU
Standard cost 2,300
Replacement cost 2,200
Realisable value 2,000
Within the firm the 200 kg of material ZX can be converted into 200 kg of material RP at a cost of
CU100. Material RP has many uses in the firm, and 200 kg cost CU2,200.
What cost should be included for material ZX when assessing the viability of the contract?
A CU2,000
B CU2,100
C CU2,200
D CU2,300

12 The following data relate to material held in inventory and needed immediately for a contract:
CU
Realisable value 3,900
Storage costs for this quantity for one month 200
There will be no alternative use for this material until one month later when the replacement cost will
be CU4,300.
What cost should be included for the material when assessing the viability of the contract?
A CU3,900
B CU4,000
C CU4,100
D CU4,200
13 The following data apply to a non-current asset:
CU
Net realisable value 5,000
Historic cost 6,000
Net present value in use 7,500
What is the deprival value?
A CU5,000
B CU6,000
C CU7,500
D CU10,000
14 In the recently prepared annual accounts of Evy, closing inventory of finished goods includes CU4,800
for item X, calculated as follows:
CU
Materials at cost 1,800
Direct labour 2,000
Production overhead
Variable with labour cost 400
Fixed 600
Factory cost of producing item X 4,800
Soon after the year end item X was stolen and the management wishes to know its deprival value. A
replacement could be made during normal working hours as Evy has spare capacity. Labour is paid on
the basis of hours worked. The cost of replacement would be as in the schedule above except for
materials, the replacement cost of which is now CU2,200. The item sells for CU7,000.
What is the deprival value of item X?
A CU7,000
B CU5,200
C CU4,600
D CU4,200
15 The following three values apply to a firm’s asset:
CU
Net realisable value 23,000
Economic value 24,000
What will be the firm’s policy with regard to the asset?
A Use but do not expect to replace
B Use and expect to replace
C Sell and do not replace
D Sell and replace for resale

16 A firm has estimated the following unit costs and revenues for a product:
Selling price S
Variable costs V
Apportioned fixed costs F
Excluded from the variable costs of manufacture is an opportunity cost representing lost contribution
of L. This arises because labour will have to be diverted from another profitable venture if the product
is produced. The cost of labour itself is included in the variable costs above. Tax is paid on corporate
earnings at a rate T.
Which of the following represents the tax on each additional unit of sales?
A (S – V + L – F)T
B (S – V + L)T
C (S – V – L – F)T
D (S – V – L)T
17 In order to manufacture a new product a firm needs two materials, S and T. There are ample
quantities of both in inventory. S is commonly used within the business, whereas T is now no longer
used for other products. Relevant information for the two types of material is as follows:
Material Quantity per unit Original cost Replacement cost Scrap value
kg CU/kg CU/kg CU/kg
S 2 2.40 4.20 1.80
T 3 1.00 1.40 0.40
The opportunity cost of materials to be used in making one unit of the new product is
A CU4.80
B CU7.80
C CU9.60
D CU12.60
18 Bluebell prints and binds specialist books. Her budgeted costs per copy for a run of 1,000 copies are as
follows:
CU
Direct costs 8
Fixed overhead 3
Total 11
Job, a printer, has tendered to produce the required 1,000 copies for CU10,000. Bluebell has decided
to accept the tender if it gives her savings of CU1,000 or more. If Bluebell accepts the tender,
CU1,000 of fixed overhead costs will be eliminated, and the facilities released can be used to save
relevant costs on other projects.
What level of saving of relevant costs in relation to other projects will Bluebell have to make in order
to save CU1,000 by accepting the tender?
A Nil
B CU1,000
C CU2,000
D CU3,000

19 Jason Ltd makes a product, the Elke, which sells for CU35. Its standard cost is made up as follows:
CU
Material 11
Direct labour (2 hours) 12
Variable overhead (2 hours) 6
29
All labour time is fully utilised. A customer approaches Jason Ltd to make a special order for which he
will pay CU10,000. To carry out the order, materials will need to be purchased for CU3,000, extra
fixed costs of CU500 will be incurred, and 500 hours of labour time will be required.
What is the effect of the order on profit?
A CU500
B CU2,000
C CU3,500
D CU4,000
Questions 20 and 21
Using the following information, answer questions 20 and 21.
An asset costing CU20,000 is expected to last three years when it can be sold for CU16,000. The tax rate
is 30%, tax depreciation allowances of 25% are available, and the cost of capital is 10%. (Capital expenditure
occurs on the last day of a financial year and tax depreciation is claimed as early as possible.)
20 What is the cash flow at the end of year 2 in respect of tax depreciation?
A CU844
B CU1,125
C CU2,812
D CU3,750
21 What is the NPV of the asset and its associated tax depreciation?
A CU(6,607)
B CU(6,467)
C CU(3,507)
D CU(2,623)
22 Jones Ltd plans to spend CU90,000 on an item of capital equipment on 1 January 20X2. The
expenditure is eligible for 25% tax depreciation allowances, and Jones pays corporation tax at an
effective rate of 30%. The equipment will produce savings of CU30,000 per annum for its expected
useful life deemed to be receivable every 31 December. The equipment will be sold for CU25,000 on
31 December 20X5. Jones has a 31 December year end and has a 10% post-tax cost of capital.
What is the present value at 1 January 20X2 of the tax savings that result from the tax depreciation?
A CU14,332
B CU14,387
C CU15,765
D CU15,828
23 A company has 31 March as its accounting year end. On 1 April 20X6 a new machine costing
CU2,000,000 is purchased. The company expects to sell the machine on 31 March 20X8 for
CU500,000.
The effective rate of corporation tax for the company is 30%. Tax depreciation allowances are
obtained at 25% on the reducing balance basis, and a balancing allowance is available on disposal of the
asset. The company makes sufficient profits to obtain relief for tax depreciation as soon as it arises.
If the company’s cost of capital is 10% per annum, what is the present value at 1 April 20X6 of the
effect on tax cash flows of depreciation (to the nearest CU000)?
A CU337,000
B CU350,000
C CU371,000
D CU384,000

24 A project has the following cash flows:

Cash flow Timing of cash flow Value
Purchase of equipment Now CU150,000
Sale of equipment Four years from now CU25,000
Sales revenue At end of each of next four years CU300,000 per annum
Variable costs At end of each of next four years CU210,000 per annum
Taxation on profit End of period to which it relates 30%
The equipment costs are not allowable as a deduction from revenue profit and no tax depreciation is
available. Fixed overheads of CU15,000 per annum have been allocated to the project based on labour
hours used.
What is the net present value (to the nearest CU000) of the project cash flows using an after-tax cost
of capital of 15% p.a.?
A CU121,000
B CU44,000
C CU22,000
D CU13,000
25 Moreton Ltd’s post-tax cost of capital is 12%. The company can borrow CU20,000 at t = 0 to buy
equipment which will generate the following cash flows:
t=1 t=2 t=3
CU CU CU
Net cash savings 15,000 10,000 15,000
Tax (3,600) (2,400) (4,000)
What is the net present value (to the nearest CU10) of the project that should be used in the
investment decision?
A CU4,070
B CU7,260
C CU8,130
D CU13,170
26 A company has a 'money' cost of capital of 21% per annum. The inflation rate is currently estimated at
9% per annum.
What is the 'real' cost of capital?
A 9%
B 11%
C 12%
D 21%
27 Data of relevance to the evaluation of a particular project are given below:

Cost of capital in real terms 10% per annum
Expected inflation 5% per annum
Expected increase in the project’s annual cash inflows 6% per annum
Expected increase in the project’s annual cash outflows 4% per annum
Which of the following sets of adjustments will lead to the correct NPV being calculated?
Cash inflow Cash outflow Discount percentage
A 5% p.a. increase 5% p.a. increase 15.5%
B 6% p.a. increase 4% p.a. increase 15.0%
C 6% p.a. increase 4% p.a. increase 15.5%
D Unadjusted Unadjusted 10.0%

28 A company is considering investment in new labour-saving equipment costing CU1 million. One major
saving is expected to be semi-skilled labour which in the year 20X0 is paid CU5 per hour. However,
the firm expects to have to increase this labour cost at 5% per annum into the foreseeable future. If
purchased, the equipment would expect to save 20,000 labour hours per year, and would be in place
from the start of 20X1.
The company’s money cost of capital is 15.5%.
Assuming that savings arise at the end of each year, what (to the nearest CU000) is the present value
at the beginning of 20X1 of the savings over a ten year planning period?
A CU386,000
B CU558,000
C CU615,000
D CU676,000
29 A company is commencing a project with an initial outlay of CU50,000 on 1 January 20X1. It is

estimated that the company will sell 1,000 items on 31 December 20X1 and at the end of each
subsequent year until 31 December 20X3. The contribution per unit on 31 December 20X1 will be
CU33, and is expected to rise by 10% per year over the life of the project.
At the end of the project scrap sales are expected to realise a cash amount of CU15,000. This will be
received by the company on 31 December 20X3. At an inflation rate of 10% pa the real cost of capital
is 10% pa.
What is the net present value of the project’s cash flows at 1 January 20X1 (to the nearest CU1,000)?
A CU33,000
B CU36,000
C CU41,000
D CU43,000
30 A project consists of a series of cash outflows in the first few years followed by a series of positive
cash inflows. The total cash inflows exceed the total cash outflows. The project was originally
evaluated assuming a zero rate of inflation.
If the project were re-evaluated on the assumption that the cash flows were subject to a positive rate
of inflation, what would be the effect on the payback period and the internal rate of return?
Payback period Internal rate of return
A Increase Decrease
B Decrease Increase
C Decrease Decrease
D Increase Increase
31 A firm finds that the internal rate of return (IRR) of a project is 15%, assuming that all cash flows are
subject to uniform inflation at a rate of 4% p.a.
What would be the internal rate of return if all cash flows were subject to uniform inflation at a rate of
7%?
A 18.3%
B 18.0%
C 12.0%
D 11.8%

32 In the following cash flow analysis inflation rates for revenues, costs and capital in year 1 were
assumed to be zero and in year 2 to be 10%.
The 'real' after-tax cost of capital is 12.5%.
t=1 t=2
CU'000 CU'000
Revenues 1,000.0 1,320.0
Costs (750.0) (990.0)
Profit before tax 250.0 330.0
Tax (at 25%) (62.5) (82.5)
Profit after tax 187.5 247.5
What is the present value of the cash flow if the inflation rates in year 2 for revenues, costs and capital
are respectively 10%, 8% and 7.5%?
A CU344,500
B CU345,200
C CU358,500
D CU377,500
33 Ackford is contemplating spending CU400,000 on new machinery. This will be used to produce a
revolutionary type of lock, for which demand is expected to last three years. Equipment will be bought
on 31 December 20X1 and revenue from sale of locks would be receivable on 31 December 20X2,
20X3 and 20X4. Labour and labour-related costs for the three years, payable in arrears, are estimated
at CU500,000 per annum in current terms. These figures are subject to inflation at 10% per annum.
Materials required for the three years are currently in inventory. They originally cost CU300,000; they
would cost CU500,000 at current prices although Ackford had planned to sell them for CU350,000.
The sales revenue from locks in the first year will be CU900,000. This figure will rise at 5% per annum
over the product life.
If Ackford has a money cost of capital of 15.5%, what is the net present value of the lock project at
31 December 20X1?
A CU(130,030)
B CU(23,460)
C CU19,970
D CU126,540
34 Calder Inc has been told that its 'real' cost of capital is 10%. The twin benefits from a prospective
project have been estimated at CU50,000 and CU80,000 per annum. Both types of benefit are
receivable in arrears and for an indefinite period; both are expressed in current terms, the former
subject to 4% inflation, the latter to 8% inflation.
If the Consumer Prices Index indicates general inflation running at 7%, what is the present value of the
estimated benefits?
A CU734,000
B CU1,270,000
C CU1,300,000
D CU5,187,000

35 Oze uses the net present value (NPV) approach in evaluating possible projects. Data of relevance to
the evaluation of a particular project are given below:
% per annum
Oze’s cost of capital (CC) in real terms is 10
Inflation is expected to be 5
The annual cash inflow (CI) from the project is expected to increase by 6
The annual cash outlay (CO) on the project is expected to increase by 4
Which of the following sets of adjustments will lead to the correct NPV being calculated?
A CI and CO to be increased by 5% per annum and discounted by 15% per annum
B CI to be increased by 6% per annum, CO to be increased by 4% per annum and both discounted
by 15% per annum
C CI to be increased by 6% per annum, CO to be increased by 4% per annum and both discounted
by 15.5% per annum
D CI and CO to be unadjusted and discounted by 10% per annum
36 Paisley Ltd plans to purchase a machine costing CU13,500. The machine will save labour costs of
CU7,000 in the first year. Labour rates in the second year will increase by 10%. The estimated average
annual rate of inflation is 8%, and the company’s real cost of capital is estimated at 12%.
The machine has a two year life with an estimated actual salvage value of CU5,000 receivable at the
end of year 2. All cash flows occur at the year end.
What is the NPV (to the nearest CU10) of the proposed investment?
A CU550
B CU770
C CU970
D CU1,150
37 XYZ Ltd is considering investment in new labour-saving equipment costing CU1 million. One major
saving is expected to be semi-skilled labour which in the forthcoming year is to be paid CU5 per hour.
However, the firm expects to have to increase this labour rate subsequently at 5% per annum into the
foreseeable future. If purchased, the equipment is expected to save 20,000 labour hours per annum,
and will be in place from the start of next year.
Assuming savings arise at the end of each year, the present value of the savings over a ten year
planning period as at the beginning of next year, if the money cost of capital is 15.5% is (to the nearest
CU000)
A CU386,000
B CU675,000
C CU615,000
D CU585,000
38 A project has an annual net cash inflow in current terms of CU6 million, occurring at the end of each
year of the project’s two year life.
An investment of CU7 million is made at the outset. All cash inflows are subject to corporation tax of
30%. There are no tax depreciation allowances on the initial investment. An average inflation rate of
5% per annum is expected to affect the inflows of the project.
The opportunity cost of capital in money terms is 15.5%.
What (to the nearest CU000) is the expected net present value of the project?
A CU(703,000)
B CU175,000
C CU289,000
D CU709,000

39 Four projects, P, Q, R and S, are available to a company which is facing shortages of capital over the
next year but expects capital to be freely available thereafter.
Project
P Q R S
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Total capital required over life of project 20 30 40 50
Capital required in next year 20 10 30 40
Net present value of project at company’s
cost of capital 60 40 100 80
In what sequence should the projects be selected if the company wishes to maximise net present
values?
A P, R, S, Q
B Q, P, R, S
C Q, R, P, S
D R, S, P, Q
Questions 40 and 41
With reference to the following information, answer questions 40 and 41.
A company has identified a number of independent investment projects, each of which lasts two years. It is
estimated that the cash flows and net present values of the projects are as follows:
Time NPV
t0 t1 t2
CU CU CU CU
Project H (500) +250 +260 (49)
Project I (2,000) +1,500 +1,500 +603
Project J +500 +650 (1,250) +58
Project K +350 (750) +375 (22)
Project L (1,000) +600 +1,200 +537
Cash flows in t1 and t2 occur at the end of each year, and t0 is the immediate inflow/outflow. Inflows from
one project can be used to finance outflows for another project in the same period.
40 If the cash available for investment projects at t0 is limited to CU2,850 and projects are indivisible, what
is the maximum net present value that could be generated from projects?
A CU603
B CU1,176
C CU1,198
D CU1,548
41 If the cash available for investment projects at t0 is limited to CU2,000 and projects are infinitely
divisible, what will be the net present value generated from projects accepted?
A CU839
B CU989
C CU1,095
D CU1,131
42 Capital rationing is best described as a situation where
A a company has insufficient cash to undertake all the projects available to it
B a company has chosen to use some of its cash to pay a dividend rather than undertaking all the
projects that have a positive NPV at its cost of capital
C a company has insufficient projects available with a positive NPV to use up all its cash
D a company has insufficient cash to undertake all the projects that have a positive NPV at its cost
of capital

43 A company involved in landscape gardening is currently reviewing its investment strategy. There are
four projects open to the company, only one of which can be undertaken. Details of the projects are
given below:
Project
A B C D
Net present value at 15% CU180m CU120m CU150m CU70m
Initial capital required CU60m CU30m CU50m CU20m
Internal rate of return 20% 26% 30% 24%
The company’s cost of capital is 15% and it has only CU100m of capital available for immediate
investment.
If none of the projects can be delayed, which one should the company accept?
A Project A
B Project B
C Project C
D Project D
44 A mining company with a cost of capital of 10% has four potential projects, details of which are given
below:
Project
A B C D
Initial investment CU1.8m CU1.6m CU2.5m CU1.0m
Net present value at 10% CU3.6m CU2.4m CU4.0m CU1.8m
Internal rate of return 18% 20% 16% 12%
The initial investment represents the maximum amount that can be put into each project; any amount
up to the maximum can be invested.
If the company has only CU1m to invest in these projects, which should it choose?
A Project A
B Project B
C Project C
D Project D
45 Plum Ltd wishes to replace its existing pressing machine with a new model immediately. The new
model would be replaced by the same model in perpetuity. Three new models are available as follows:
Model I II III
Purchase price CU50,000 CU40,000 CU70,000
Estimated life 5 years 4 years 6 years
Annual running costs
(payable at the end of each year) CU4,000 CU6,000 CU3,500
If model I were purchased, its life could be extended to eight years by incurring repair costs of
CU30,000 after five years of use. Annual running costs of CU7,000 would be incurred at the end of
each of the three years of extended life. Plum Ltd has a cost of capital of 10% per annum.
Which new model should Plum Ltd choose, and what replacement policy should it follow if it wishes
to minimise the present value of its costs?
A Purchase model I and replace every five years
B Purchase model I and replace every eight years
C Purchase model II and replace every four years
D Purchase model III and replace every six years

46 Moore has estimated the following cash flow pattern for the purchase and maintenance of a piece of
equipment which he expects to use for the foreseeable future:
Time 0 1 2 3 4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Capital cost 150
Maintenance 20 30 40 50
Scrap proceeds (30)
He anticipates purchasing a replacement machine every four years.
Moore has been approached by a leasing company offering to provide a maintenance-free machine for
as long as he wishes for a fixed annual sum payable in advance.
If Moore has a 10% cost of capital, what is the maximum annual sum (to the nearest CU100) he should
be prepared to pay the leasing company?
A CU59,200
B CU65,000
C CU67,900
D CU74,700
47 A machine costing CU150,000 has a useful life of eight years, after which time its estimated resale
value will be CU25,000. Annual running costs will be CU5,000 for the first three years of use and
CU8,000 for each of the next five years. All running costs are payable on the last day of the year to
which they relate.
Using a discount rate of 20% per annum, what would be the annual equivalent cost of using the
machine if it were bought and replaced every eight years in perpetuity (to the nearest CU100)?
A CU46,600
B CU43,900
C CU43,300
D CU21,100
48 MR DIPSTICK
Mr Dipstick has been asked to quote a price for a special contract. He has already prepared his tender
but has asked you to review it for him.
He has pointed out to you that he wants to quote the minimum price as he believes this will lead to
more lucrative work in the future.
Mr Dipstick’s tender
CU
Material
A, 2,000 kgs @ CU10 per kg 20,000
B, 1,000 kgs @ CU15 per kg 15,000
C, 500 kgs @ CU40 per kg 20,000
D, 50 litres @ CU12 per litre 600
Labour
Skilled 1,000 hrs @ CU25 per hr 25,000
Semi-skilled 2,000 hrs @ CU15 per hr 30,000
Unskilled, 500 hrs @ CU10 per hr 5,000
Fixed overheads 3,500 hrs @ CU12 per hr 42,000
Costs of preparing the tender
Mr Dipstick’s time 1,000
Other expenses 500
Minimum profit (5% of total costs) 7,725
Minimum tender price 166,825

Other information
Material A. 1,000 kgs of this material is in inventory at a cost of CU5 per kg. Mr Dipstick has no
alternative use for his material and intends selling it for CU2 per kg. However, if he sold any he would
have to pay a fixed sum of CU300 to cover delivery costs. The current purchase price is CU10 per kg.
Material B. There is plenty of this material in inventory at a cost of CU18 per kg. The current purchase
price has fallen to CU15 per kg. This material is constantly used by Mr Dipstick in his business.
Material C. The total amount in inventory of 500 kgs was bought for CU10,000 some time ago for
another one-off contract which never happened. Mr Dipstick is considering selling it for CU6,000 in
total or using it as a substitute for another material, constantly used in normal production. If used in
this latter manner it would save CU8,000 of the other material. Current purchase price is CU40 per
kg.
Material D. There are 100 litres of this material in inventory. It is dangerous and if not used in this
contract will have to be disposed of at a cost to Mr Dipstick of CU50 per litre. The current purchase
price is CU12 per litre.
Skilled labour. Mr Dipstick only hires skilled labour when he needs it. CU25 per hour is the current
hourly rate.
Semi-skilled labour. Mr Dipstick has a workforce of 50 semi-skilled labourers who are currently not
fully employed. They are on annual contracts and the number of spare hours currently available for
this project is 1,500. Any hours in excess of this will have to be paid for at time and a half. The normal
hourly rate is CU15 per hour.
Unskilled labour. These are currently fully employed by Mr Dipstick on jobs where they produce a
contribution of CU2 per unskilled labour hour. Their current rate is CU10 per hour, although extra
could be hired at CU20 an hour if necessary.
Fixed overheads. This is considered by Mr Dipstick to be an accurate estimate of the hourly rate based
on his existing production.
Costs of preparing the tender. Mr Dipstick has spent ten hours working on this project at CU100 per
hour, which he believes is his charge-out rate. Other expenses include the cost of travel and research
spent by Mr Dipstick on the project.
Profit. This is Mr Dipstick’s minimum profit margin which he believes is necessary to cover 'general
day to day expenses of running a business'.
Requirement
Calculate and explain for Mr Dipstick what you believe the minimum tender price should be.
(16 marks)
49 TINOCO LTD
In January 20X3 Tinoco Ltd gave the go-ahead to its research and development department to pursue
work on a major new product line, code-named 'Product Z'. The cash expenditure to date on this
development has totalled CU200,000, consisting of CU70,000 during 20X3 and CU130,000 during
20X4. The work is now complete, resulting in a marketable product.
In order to market this product the company will need to build and equip a new factory specifically for
the purpose. A suitable site has been found which, if the company decides to go ahead with
production, will be purchased on 1 January 20X5 at a cost of CU270,000. Construction of the factory
will then commence immediately and take an estimated two years at a total cost of CU2.5 million. Half
of this sum will be payable as a stage payment at the end of the first year of construction, the balance
being payable on completion. Installation of the necessary machinery can be done during the last two
months of construction and will cost a total of CU1,250,000. CU250,000 of this will be paid upon
delivery and the balance in two equal annual instalments on the anniversary of delivery.
The company intends to undertake a significant advertising campaign for this new product, which will
commence twelve months before completion of the factory. During its first year this campaign will
cost CU150,000 and will then continue for the next two years at a cost of CU250,000 and CU100,000
respectively in each of those years. Payment will be made at the end of each of the three years. As a
consequence of this campaign the company is forecasting an annual demand for Product Z of 400,000
units and expects this demand level to continue for ten years after production commences. Initial

production will commence immediately upon completion of the factory at an annual rate to match
demand.
Production costs will consist of CU4 per unit of variable costs and annual fixed costs of CU300,000.
After five years of production the equipment within the factory will need replacement. The old
machinery will be sold for CU250,000 and new equipment acquired at the same cost and on the same
terms as the original equipment. This replacement can be achieved without disruption to production.
At the end of the ten-year production period the product will be abruptly discontinued, and the
production facility will then be surplus to the company’s requirements. It is expected that the
machinery can be sold at that time for CU250,000 and that the factory and site will command a price
of CU3 million.
Despite extensive market research during the last six months at a cost of CU50,000 the company
remains uncertain as to the price it will be able to charge for this new product. However, the sales
director is currently suggesting a selling price of CU7.50 per unit.
The company’s discount rate is 15% per annum.
Requirements
(a) Calculate the net present value of the proposed new production, assuming the sales director’s
forecast selling price is correct. (12 marks)
(b) Calculate the minimum selling price that must be set in order to make Product Z a viable
proposition. (3 marks)
(15 marks)
50 SHAW SECURITY SYSTEMS LTD
Shaw Security Systems Ltd, a company financed by a mixture of equity and debt capital, manufactures
devices which seek to deter the theft of motor vehicles. The company’s development department has
recently produced a new type of anti-theft device. This device, which will be known as an Apollo, will
be fitted to private motor vehicles. The Apollo emits an electronic signal which can be picked up by an
electronic sensor fitted to police cars, enabling the police to locate stolen cars and, possibly,
apprehend the thief. Development costs totalled CU500,000. These were all incurred in 20X5.
A decision now needs to be taken as to whether to go ahead with producing and marketing Apollos.
This is to be based on the expected net present value of the relevant cash flows, discounted at the
company’s estimate of the 20X5 weighted average cost of capital of 8% (after tax). The company’s
management believes that a three year planning horizon is appropriate for this decision, so it will be
assumed that sales will not continue beyond 20X8.
Following discussions with a number of police forces, the company has reached agreement that, if it
decides to go ahead with the project, one of the Midland forces will trial the Apollo system, and the
sensors will be fitted to its police cars.
The cost of providing and fitting the sensors to the police cars would be borne by the company, which
would retain ownership. The police force would bear the cost of maintenance. The sensors would be
manufactured and fitted by a sub-contractor, who has offered to do this work by the end of 20X5 for
a total cost of CU1 million, payable immediately on completion of the work. This cost would attract
the normal tax depreciation for plant and equipment. If the company were to make the investment, it
would elect for the sensors to be treated as a short-life asset. At the end of three years the sensors
would be scrapped.
The first sales of Apollos would be expected to be made during the year ending 31 December 20X6.
There is uncertainty as to the level of sales which could be expected, so a market survey has been
undertaken at a cost of CU100,000.
The survey suggests that, at the company’s target ex-works price of CU200 per Apollo, there would
be a 60% chance of selling 10,000 Apollos and a 40% chance of selling 12,000 during 20X6.
If the 20X6 sales were to be at the lower level, 20X7 sales would be either 8,000 Apollos (30%
chance) or 10,000 (70% chance). If 20X6 sales were to be at the higher level, 20X7 sales would be
estimated at 12,000 Apollos (50% chance) or 15,000 (50% chance).

20X8 sales would be expected to be 50% of whatever level of sales were to occur in 20X7.
Sales of Apollos would be expected to have an adverse effect on sales of the Mercury, a less
sophisticated device produced by the company, to the extent that for every two Apollos sold one less
Mercury would be sold. This effect would be expected to continue throughout the three years.
Materials and components would be bought in at a cost of CU70 per Apollo. Manufacture of each
Apollo would require three hours of labour. This labour would come from staff released by the lost
Mercury production. To the extent that this would provide insufficient hours, staff would work
overtime, paid at a premium of 50% over the basic pay of CU6 an hour.
The Mercury has the following cost structure.
CU per unit
Selling price (ex-works) 100
Materials 20
Labour (4 hours) 24
Fixed overheads (on a labour hour basis) 33
The management team currently employed by the company would be able to manage the Apollo
project except that, should the project go ahead, four managers, who had accepted voluntary
redundancy from the company, would be asked to stay until the end of 20X8. These managers were
due to leave the company on 31 December 20X5 and to receive lump sums of CU30,000 each at that
time. They were also due to receive an annual fee of CU8,000 each for consultancy work, which the
company would require of them from time to time. If they were to agree to stay on, they would
receive an annual salary of CU20,000 each, to include the consultancy fee. They would also receive
lump sums of CU35,000 each on 31 December 20X8. It is envisaged that the managers would be able
to fit any consultancy requirements round their work managing the Apollo project. These payments
would all be borne by the company and would qualify for full tax relief.
Apollo production and sales would not be expected to give rise to any additional operating costs
beyond those mentioned above.
Working capital to support both Apollo and Mercury production and sales would be expected to run
at a rate of 15% of the ex-works sales value. The working capital would need to be in place by the
beginning of each year concerned. There would be no tax effects from changes in the level of working
capital.
The company’s accounting year end is 31 December. Sales should be assumed to occur on the last day
of the relevant year. The company’s corporation tax rate is expected to be 30% throughout the
planning period. Tax cash flows occur at the end of the accounting period to which they relate.
Requirements
(a) Prepare a schedule which derives the annual expected net cash flows from the Apollo project,
and use it to assess the project on the basis of its expected net present value. (18 marks)
(b) Comment on the assessment of the project made in requirement (a) and any reservations you
have about using it as the basis for making a decision as to whether to proceed with the project.
(4 marks)
Ignore inflation.
Work to the nearest CU1,000. (22 marks)

51 FIORDILIGI LTD
Fiordiligi Ltd is evaluating a potential new product, the ottavio, in which the following costs are
involved.
(a) Labour
Each ottavio requires 1/2 hour of skilled labour and 2 hours of unskilled labour. During the next
year Fiordiligi expects to have a surplus of skilled labour, retained on contracts under which the
minimum wage is guaranteed. This surplus is sufficient to complete the budgeted quantity of
ottavios in the first year, but there will be no surplus thereafter. All unskilled labour will be taken
on as required.
The wage rates are CU4.00 per hour for skilled labour and CU2.50 per hour for unskilled.
(b) Materials
(i) Material 'Ping' is used in the ottavios, 2 kgs per unit. No inventories of Ping are held by the
company.
(ii) Material 'Pang' is used at the rate of 0.5 kg per unit of ottavio. Sufficient of this material to
meet the entire budgeted production is already in inventory; it has no other use.
(iii) Material 'Pong' is also used; 1.5 kgs are required per unit. Some inventories are already held;
further supplies may readily be purchased. Pong is used in the manufacture of another
product, the masetto, which earns a contribution of CU0.85 per kg of Pong, net of the cost
of Pong, and depreciation at an estimated CU0.06 per kg.
The value of the various materials may be summarised as follows.
Ping Pang Pong
CU CU CU
Cost of material in inventory (per kg) – CU2.00 CU0.70
Current replacement cost (per kg) CU1.40 CU2.20 CU0.80
Current realisable value (per kg) CU1.10 CU1.80 CU0.65
Any materials requiring purchase will be bought in advance of the year for which they are
needed.
(c) Overheads
(i) Variable overheads are expected to be incurred at the rate of CU1.40 per skilled labour
hour. This represents the extra cash cost expended.
(ii) Fixed overheads will be affected by the project as follows.
(1) A new factory will be leased at an annual rental of CU2,000 in advance for the life of
the project.
(2) Rates on the factory (payable in arrears) will be CU1,000 per annum.
(3) The equipment (see below) will be written down to its realisable value over the life of
the project.
(4) The central management accounting department will absorb administration costs into
production on the basis of CU0.50 per unskilled labour hour. Direct administration of
the project will be carried out by management without any increase in overtime or
staffing levels.
It is expected that ottavios will be produced for three years at the rate of 10,000 units per annum, and
then for a further two years at the rate of 8,000 units per annum. The selling price will be CU18 per
unit in the first three years and CU14 thereafter.
Special machinery will be purchased at the start of the project for CU60,000. It will be sold at the end
of the fifth year for CU6,000.

Requirement
Calculate the net present value of the projected production of ottavios, and hence advise the directors
whether or not to proceed. The company’s cost of capital for investments of this nature is 15%.
Note: Ignore taxation. (15 marks)
52 GIOVANNI LTD
Giovanni Ltd is considering investing in an ice cream plant to operate for the next four years. After
that time the plant will be worn out, and Giovanni, the owner of the company, wishes to retire in any
case. The plant will cost CU5,000 and is expected to have no realisable value after four years. If
worthwhile the plant will be purchased at the end of an accounting period. Tax depreciation at the
rate of 25% per annum will be available in respect of the expenditure.
Revenue from the plant will be CU7,000 per annum for the first two years and CU5,000 per annum
thereafter. Incremental costs will be CU4,000 per annum throughout.
You may assume that all cash flows occur at the end of the financial year to which they relate. Assume
Giovanni Ltd pays corporation tax at 30% and has a cost of capital of 10%.
Requirements
(a) Calculate the tax saved through tax depreciation and show when the savings arise. (3 marks)
(b) Advise Giovanni Ltd on whether or not to proceed with investment in the ice cream plant.
(4 marks)
(c) Show what difference it would make if the plant were to be purchased and sold at the beginning
of the accounting period. Comment on the wisdom of disposing of an asset on the first day of an
accounting period. (3 marks)
(10 marks)
53 SHAREHOLDER VALUE
(a) The following statements appear in the objectives of two well-known listed companies.
'We never confuse why we exist – to create the maximum possible returns to our shareholders.'
'In everything the company does, it is committed to creating wealth, always with integrity, for our
employees, customers, suppliers and the community in which we operate.'
Requirement
Discuss these two different perspectives of the operation of a firm, and explain why they are not
necessarily contradictory. (5 marks)
(b) The managing director of the first company believes that the best external measure of
shareholder wealth maximisation is growth in earnings per share (EPS).
Requirement
Critically evaluate this belief. Suggest three value drivers on which a business can focus, and why
their management will increase shareholder wealth. (6 marks)
(11 marks)

54 PACKERS LTD
Packers Ltd has been offered a contract to manufacture a batch of chemicals. The company’s managers
estimate that it will take two years to produce the chemicals. The price offered is CU235,000
expressed in current pounds sterling. This price will be increased in line with increases in the
Consumer Price Index during the contract period, and the adjusted amount will be paid in full when
the chemicals are delivered at the end of two years.
Production of the chemicals will require the following resources.
(1) A machine will be purchased immediately for CU75,000 for exclusive use on this contract. The
machine will have a two-year life and no scrap or resale value.
(2) Ten workers who are currently employed by the company will each work for two years on
production of the chemicals. The total cost of employing one worker is currently CU6,000 per
annum, based on wage rates which have recently been agreed for the coming year. The managers
expect to negotiate wage rates at the end of one year; as a result they expect that total
employment costs for the second year of the contract will rise by 12.5%. You may assume that all
employment costs are payable on the last day of the year to which they relate.
If the chemicals contract is not accepted, there will be no work within the company for the ten
workers during the coming two years and they will be made redundant. The company will incur a
net redundancy cost of CU200 for each worker payable immediately. The managers expect new
orders after two years and the company will re-employ the ten workers at the end of the second
year. Administrative and advertising costs associated with the re-employment are expected to be
CU500 per person. This amount will not be affected by inflation during the next two years.
(3) 2,000 units of raw material D will be needed immediately and 2,000 units will be needed at the
end of one year. Packers Ltd has 2,000 units of D in inventory. These units originally cost CU18
per unit and have a current replacement cost of CU20 per unit. The company has no use for
material D other than on the contract offered and, if the contract is rejected, the units in
inventory will be disposed of at an immediate cost of CU1.50 per unit. (The material is highly
specialised and cannot be re-sold.) The cost of buying material D is expected to rise by 15%
during the coming year.
Packers Ltd has a discount rate of 15% per annum, which reflects the inflation expected over the
life of the contract, and the Consumer Price Index rise is 10% per annum.
Requirement
Calculate the net present value of the contract which has been offered to Packers Ltd. (10 marks)
55 AINSDALE LTD
Ainsdale Ltd, an all equity company, manufactures a single product, an item of exercise equipment for
use in the home. The company is considering moving one of its factories to a new site.
Moving to new premises would take place on 1 January 20X1. It would cause significant disruption to
existing sales and production, and incur substantial initial costs. The new site would mean, however
that output would no longer be constrained by the size of the factory and hence, when there is
sufficient demand, higher output and sales can be achieved.
If the move takes place the existing premises would be leased out indefinitely for an annual rental of
CU450,000 payable in advance commencing 1 January 20X1. Lease rentals would be subject to
corporation tax.
The cost of new premises would be CU10 million payable on 1 January 20X1. Assume that the
premises would not qualify for industrial buildings allowances.
Improved machinery for the new factory would be purchased at 31 December 20X0 at a cost of CU1
million. This machinery would be expected to be sold on 31 December 20X4 for CU300,000. The old
machinery, which has a zero written down value, would need to be scrapped at 31 December 20X0 if
the new factory is purchased but, due to its specialist nature, would not generate any proceeds. It
would, however, continue to be used if the company were not to move to the new factory.

Machinery is subject to a 'short-life' asset election and excluded from the general pool (ignore re-
pooling). This means that it attracts 25% (reducing balance) tax depreciation in the year of its
acquisition and in every subsequent year of its being owned by the company, except the last year. In
the last year the difference between the machinery’s written down value for tax purposes and its
disposal proceeds will either be allowed to the company as an additional tax relief, if the disposal
proceeds are less than the written down value, or be charged to the company if the disposal proceeds
are more than the tax written down value.
The maximum production capacity of the new factory would normally be 10 million units per year and
that of the existing factory is 6 million units per year. Due to setting-up time and disruption from
moving, however, the capacity of the new factory in 20X1 would be only 5 million units. Potential
demand for the company’s output in the years ending 31 December is estimated as follows.
Units
(millions)
20X1 8
20X2 9
20X3 10
20X4 9
20X5 and thereafter 6
Given that projected sales and output are equal for both factories in the year 20X5 and thereafter, no
incremental manufacturing costs or revenues will arise from the move after 20X4.
Labour is employed under flexible contracts. It is thus estimated that labour costs will vary directly
with output, being CU1 per unit of output. This is the case at both the existing and the new factory.
Material quantities per unit of output and costs per kg are as follows.
Quantity Cost per kg
kgs CU
Material XM2 2 1.50
Material TS4 1 1.25
Material XM2 would only be available from an overseas supplier during 20X1 and 20X2, and this
would lead to a transport cost on material purchases of CU1.75 per kg in addition to the basic CU1.50
per kg during those two years. From 20X3, however, it is expected that a supplier will be able to
provide the material for CU1.50 per kg.
The selling price per unit is set to achieve a contribution of 40% of selling price. For this purpose
contribution is defined as selling price less labour and material costs. It excludes transport costs,
training and redundancy costs.
If the company decides to move site, some employees are expected to refuse to move. This is
expected to lead to redundancy payments of CU200,000 which will be made on 1 January 20X1.
Retraining costs of CU100,000 will be incurred on 31 December 20X0 in respect of the replacement
employees.
The corporation tax rate can be assumed to be 30%. Assume that tax is paid at the end of the
accounting year in which the transaction occurs. There are expected to be sufficient taxable profits
available to set off all allowances.
The annual after-tax cost of capital is 10%. The company prepares its accounts to 31 December each
year. All cash flows can be assumed to arise at year ends unless otherwise specified.
Requirements
(a) Identify the annual net incremental cash flows that would arise from Ainsdale Ltd’s decision to
move the location of its factory, and use them to calculate the net present value at 1 January
20X1. (18 marks)
(b) Calculate the payback period in respect of the incremental cash flows which would arise from
Ainsdale Ltd’s decision to move the location of its factory. (3 marks)
Ignore inflation. (21 marks)

56 ARCADIAN PRODUCTS LTD

The management of Arcadian Products Ltd is considering the introduction of a new product, code
named NP14. The company’s finance department has undertaken some investigations and has
assembled the following information relating to NP14 production.
(1) Annual contributions from NP14s are expected to be as follows.
Year CUm
20X1 2.5
20X2 3.5
20X3 3.5
20X4 2.5
Production and sales would be expected to cease at the end of 20X4. Sales and operating
expenses are assumed to occur on the last day of the relevant year. The company’s accounting
year is to 31 December.
(2) Production of NP14s would require the use of some new equipment.
This equipment could be bought and paid for at the end of 20X0 at a cost of CU12 million. It
would be scrapped at the end of 20X4 for an estimated CU2 million. Under the contract to buy
this equipment there would be an obligation for the supplier to maintain the equipment
throughout its four-year life at no cost to the company.
Alternatively, production could use existing equipment already owned by the company. This
equipment is currently not in use and would be sold on 31 December 20X0 for an estimated
CU3 million, were it not to be used in NP14 production. It was bought for CU10 million and first
used during 20W8. It would be expected to continue to operate effectively in the production of
NP14s until the end of 20X4, when it would be expected to be scrapped (zero sales proceeds).
You should assume that all items of equipment are treated as 'short-life' assets and excluded
from the 'pool'. This means that the equipment attracts a 25% (reducing balance) tax depreciation
in the year of acquisition and in every subsequent year of ownership by the company, except the
last year. In the last year the difference between the equipment’s written-down value for tax
purposes and its disposal proceeds is expected to be treated as an additional relief, if the disposal
proceeds are less than the written-down value; or be charged to the company, if the disposal
proceeds are more than the tax written-down value.
A problem with using the existing equipment is that it would require a relatively high level of
maintenance to enable it to operate as effectively as the new equipment. The annual maintenance
costs of the old equipment are estimated to be as follows.
Year CUm
20X1 0.5
20X2 1.5
20X3 2.0
20X4 2.5
(3) Labour for NP14 production, included in calculation of the contributions, would be hired for the
duration of the production period.
(4) NP14 production would require the support of working capital equal to 10% of the
contributions. This would need to be in place by the start of each year. It has no tax implications.
The maintenance costs, were the existing plant to be used, would not give rise to any working
capital requirement.
(5) The corporation tax rate is expected to be 30% for the foreseeable future. Assume that tax will
be paid at the end of the year in which the event giving rise to it occurs.
(6) All operating cash flows are expected to increase by an annual factor of 3%, due to general
inflation. Except for the expected disposal proceeds of the equipment, all of the financial
information given above is expressed in terms of 1 January 20X1 prices.
The company’s real cost of capital, on all of its activities, is estimated at 10% per annum.
(7) There are no incremental costs or benefits other than those to which reference is made above.

Requirements
(a) Assuming that NP14 production and sales would be economically viable, produce a schedule of
annual cash flows and use it to indicate whether the company should use the existing equipment
or acquire new equipment. (13 marks)
(b) Taking account of the decision reached in (a), produce a schedule of annual cash flows and use it
to indicate whether NP14 production would be economically viable. (8 marks)
Work to the nearest CU000. (21 marks)
57 JUNO PRODUCTS LTD
Juno Products Ltd leases a factory in North Wales where, among other products, it makes a
component, known as the MC15, which is used in the manufacture of civil airliners and sold to aircraft
manufacturers worldwide. The factory’s lease expires on 31 December 20Y2, so the company intends
to review the future of all of its production there in anticipation of that event. Meanwhile the immediate
future of MC15 production is in doubt. Some members of the company’s management team believe that
recent developments in aircraft design have rendered the MC15 an uneconomic prospect for the
company during the four years 1 January 20X9 to 31 December 20Y2. As a member of the company’s
finance staff you have been asked to make an assessment of the economic viability of the MC15 over
the next four years on the basis of net present value. It seems fairly certain that, irrespective of the
short-term future of the MC15, its manufacture will not be continued beyond 20Y2.
Estimated sales demand for the MC15 over the next four years ending 31 December at a unit selling
price of CU35,000 is as follows.
Year Units
20X9 500
20Y0 500
20Y1 400
20Y2 300
It is believed, however, that were a modification to be made to the design of the MC15, demand could
be raised to 700 units in each of the first two years, but this modification would have no effect on
demand for 20Y1 and 20Y2. The modification could be effected by 31 December 20X8. It would cost
CU8 million, payable on 31 December 20X8, and this amount would be fully allowable for corporation
tax for the year in which this expenditure would be incurred.
The factory is leased for a fixed CU6 million per annum payable annually in advance.
The direct, variable manufacturing costs of each MC15 are as follows.
CU
Direct labour 4,000
Raw material and bought-in parts 7,000
The company generally operates a 'just-in-time' inventory holding policy, which means that the
inventories of nearly all of the materials and parts are negligible. In the case of one bought-in part,
however, there will be an inventory of 1,000 units at 1 January 20X9. This arose because, early in
20X8, the company was offered a special deal on this item provided that it was prepared to make a
bulk purchase. This bought-in part is included in the raw material and bought-in parts total above at its
normal price of CU1,000 per unit. Each MC15 requires the use of one of these parts and this part can
be used only in the manufacture of MC15s. The bulk purchase was made at a price of CU800 per unit.
If MC15 production were not to continue, the inventory could be sold for CU600 per unit on 31
December 20X8 for immediate cash settlement. Any necessary tax adjustments resulting from this
inventory can be ignored.
Ceasing MC15 production would release 25% of the factory space, but this could not be used for any
other activity. The labour released could, however, be transferred to another department of the
factory for work on another of the company’s products. Demand for that product exceeds the ability
of the company to meet it due to a shortage of labour, a shortage which would otherwise persist
throughout the four years. For every CU1’s worth of labour transferred, it is estimated that a
contribution (sales revenue less direct labour and materials) of CU3 could be generated. The possible
additional sales of MC15s during 20X9 and 20Y0, should the modification be undertaken, would not
affect the output of the other product.

Plant, bought for CU10 million on 1 January 20X7, is used in the manufacture of MC15s. It could be
disposed of on 31 December 20X8 for an estimated CU6 million. By 31 December 20Y2 it would be
expected to have no market value. This plant was the subject of an election to be treated as a 'short-
life asset' and excluded from the 'pool'. This means that it attracted 25% (reducing balance) tax
depreciation in the year of its acquisition and in every subsequent year of its being owned by the
company, except the last year. In the last year the difference between the plant’s written down value
for tax purposes and its disposal proceeds will either be allowed to the company as an additional tax
relief, if the disposal proceeds are less than the tax written down value, or be charged to the company
if the disposal proceeds are more than the tax written down value.
It is estimated that overheads (excluding lease payments) apportioned to MC15 total CU5 million per
annum. Of this amount CU2 million can be avoided by ceasing MC15 production.
The company’s accounting year end is 31 December. The corporation tax rate is expected to be 30%
throughout the period concerned. Tax can be assumed to be payable at the end of the year in which
the event giving rise to it occurs.
There are no other incremental cash flows associated with MC15 production and sales.
All cash flows can be treated as occurring on the last day of the year to which they relate, unless
specified otherwise.
The company uses its after-tax long-term borrowing rate of 5% per annum to assess projects, and you
are expected to follow this approach.
Requirements
(a) Assuming that MC15 production and sales continue until 20Y2, assess whether it would be
economically viable to pay for the modification to the design of the product. (4 marks)
(b) Using the results from (a), prepare a statement which shows the annual relevant cash flows
associated with a decision on whether on the basis of net present value to cease production of
MC15s at 31 December 20X8 or to continue production until 31 December 20Y2. (11 marks)
(c) Discuss the suitability of using the long-term borrowing rate as the discount rate for project
evaluation. (3 marks)
Ignore inflation. (18 marks)
58 REXAL LTD
Rexal Ltd is a small company that specialises in the manufacture of pit-props and supports.
Management see the maximisation of shareholders’ wealth as the primary business objective. The
company is profitable and is able to utilise tax depreciation obtained on new capital investment at the
earliest opportunity. The directors have never felt comfortable with debt finance and as a
consequence there is negligible long-term debt in the company’s capital structure.
A local coal field has approached Rexal Ltd recently requesting the production of some special pit-
props. After researching the contract it emerged that there were two options available to the
company.
These are outlined below.
Option 1
A new machine will be purchased for CU80,000, payable on 1 January 20X1. The machinery will be
sold for CU8,000 on 31 December 20X3.
Any labour required under this option will have to be recruited.
The net year-end operating cash inflows are budgeted as follows.
CU
20X1 60,000
20X2 74,000
20X3 88,000
These figures are stated in money terms and are before corporation tax.

Option 2
As an alternative to acquiring new equipment and extra labour, use could be made of existing
resources.
A machine acquired many years ago for CU120,000 could be used on this project. It was to be sold on
1 January 20X1 for CU30,000. If used it is felt that its realisable value would be zero due to the three
extra years of use. The current tax written down value of this asset is nil; all available tax depreciation
on this asset was taken as 100% first year allowances in its first year of use.
The net year-end operating cash inflows under option 2 are the same as for option 1, except for the
following two factors.
(a) Extra running costs of CU5,000 in 20X1, which will rise in line with inflation thereafter, will be
incurred due to using the old machinery.
(b) The labour used for option 2 will be moved from existing company operations. This will lead to a
loss of contribution on such operations of CU20,000, CU22,000 and CU23,500 in the three
years respectively.
Working capital equal to 10% of that year’s net cash inflows, excluding tax flows, will be required at
the beginning of each year for both options. This will be released at the end of the project. There are
no tax effects associated with movements in working capital. (In the case of option 2, net cash inflows
should be taken as the values after adjustment for the machine and labour costs.)
The company’s real cost of capital is estimated at 15% per annum and is expected to remain at that
rate for the foreseeable future.
Inflation rates have been estimated for the next four years as follows.
20X1 10%
20X2 8%
20X3 6%
20X4 4%
The company’s financial year runs to 31 December. Corporation tax is payable at 30%.
Requirements
(a) Calculate the net present values at 31 December 20X0 of each of the two options. (15 marks)
(b) Indicate any reservations you might have in basing an investment decision on these figures.
(3 marks)
(18 marks)
59 STICKY FINGERS LTD
After paying CU15,000 for a preliminary investigation, the costing department of Sticky Fingers Ltd
was able to calculate the cash flows for the following investment projects.
Net cash flows t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Immediate
outlay
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Project A (1,500) (500) 1,200 600 300
Project B (2,000) (1,000) 2,500 2,500 2,500
Project C (1,750) 500 1,100 1,400 1,000
Project D (2,500) 700 900 1,300 300
Project E (1,600) (500) 200 2,800 2,300
Note. All cash flows take place at the end of the year.
You have only just taken up the appointment of financial analyst. The cash flows from the various
projects, as shown above, have been given to you with a memorandum from the managing director
outlining your first task.

Requirements
Advise the company in the following circumstances.
(a) The company’s cost of capital has been calculated as 15%. Cash is freely available and all projects
are independent and divisible. Prepare calculations showing which projects should be accepted.
(3 marks)
(b) The amount of cash available for investment at time 0 has been limited to CU3 million. None of
the projects can be delayed.
Which projects should be accepted? (3 marks)
(c) The amount of cash available for investment at time 1 has been limited to CU200,000. None of
the projects can be delayed. There is now no rationing at time 0.
(d) The situation is as in part (b) except that now all projects are independent but indivisible, and
CU3.5 million is available.
Which projects should now be accepted? (2 marks)
(13 marks)
60 IGLOO LTD
Igloo Ltd has identified the following investment projects.
t0 t1 t2
Immediate Time 1 Time 2
outlay
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Project A (100) (100) 303.6
Project B (50) (100) 218.9
Project C (200) 100 107.8
Project D (100) (50) 309.1
Project E (200) (50) 345.4
Requirements
Advise in the following circumstances.
(a) The company faces a perfect capital market, where the appropriate discount rate is 10%. All
projects are independent and divisible.
Which projects should the firm accept? (2 marks)
(b) The company faces capital rationing at t0. There is only CU225,000 of finance available. None of
the projects can be delayed.
Which projects should the firm accept? (2 marks)
(c) The situation is as in part (b) above, except that you are now informed that projects A and B are
mutually-exclusive.
Which projects should now be accepted? (2 marks)
(d) The solution is as in part (b) above, except that you are now told that all projects are
independent but indivisible.
Which projects should be accepted? What will be the maximum NPV available to the company?
(2 marks)
(e) All projects are independent and divisible. There is capital rationing at t1 only. No project can be
delayed or brought forward. There is only CU150,000 of external finance available at t1.
(11 marks)

61 STAN BELDARK
Stan Beldark is a wholesaler of lightweight travelling aids. His company employs a large number of sales
representatives, each of whom is supplied with a company car. Each sales representative travels
approximately 40,000 miles per annum visiting customers. Stan wishes to continue his present policy
of always buying new cars for the sales representatives but wonders whether the present policy of
replacing the cars every three years is optimal. He believes that keeping the cars longer than three
years would result in unacceptable unreliability and wishes to consider whether a replacement period
of either one year or two years would be better than the present three year period. The company’s
fleet of cars is due for replacement in the near future.
The cost of a new car, at current prices, is CU5,500. Resale values of used cars, which have travelled
similar mileages to those of Stan’s firm, are CU3,500 for a one-year-old car, CU2,100 for a two-year-
old car and CU900 for a three-year-old car, all at current prices. Running costs at current prices,
excluding depreciation, are as follows.
Road fund licence Fuel, maintenance
and insurance repairs, etc
CU CU
During first year of car’s life 300 3,000
During second year of car’s life 300 3,500
During third year of car’s life 300 4,300
Stan uses a discount rate of 10% when making such decisions.
Running costs and resale proceeds are paid or received on the last day of the year to which they
relate. New cars acquired for use from the start of year 1 are purchased on the last day of the
previous year.
Requirement
Prepare calculations for Stan Beldark showing whether he should replace the cars of sales
representatives every one, two or three years.
Note. Ignore taxation. (7 marks)
62 TALEB LTD
Taleb Ltd is a manufacturing company which makes a wide range of products. One of these, the Bat,
requires the use of a special Dot machine. The company’s present policy is to replace each Dot
machine at the end of its physical productive life of four years. The directors are now considering
whether to replace the machine more frequently than once every four years in view of the fact that its
productive capacity declines as it gets older and potential sales of Bats are lost. There is insufficient
demand for the company’s Bats to justify the purchase of a second Dot machine.
Taleb Ltd charges a selling price of CU0.12 per Bat, at which price it is able to sell up to 500,000 per
annum. Variable costs, excluding machine depreciation and running costs, amount to CU0.04 per Bat.
Details of productive capacities and running costs (including maintenance) of the Dot machine are as
follows.
Year of machine’s life Productive capacity Running costs
(Bats) CU
First 500,000 6,000
Second 500,000 6,500
Third 400,000 7,500
Fourth 400,000 9,000
Annual running costs are independent of the number of Bats manufactured.
The directors wish to continue their present policy of always buying new Dot machines at a price of
CU60,000 each. Resale values of Dot machines are CU40,000 for one-year-old machines, CU25,000
for two year-old machines, CU10,000 for three-year-old machines and zero for four-year-old
machines. The company provides depreciation on all its non-current assets using the straight line
method.

All costs and revenues are paid or received in cash at the end of the year to which they relate, with
the exception of the initial price of the Dot machine which is paid immediately on purchase. Taleb Ltd
has an annual cost of capital of 10%.
Requirement
Prepare calculations for the directors of Taleb Ltd showing whether they should replace the Dot
machine every one, two, three or four years.
Note. Ignore inflation and taxation. (10 marks)
Now go back to the Learning Objectives in the introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.

Answers to Self-test
1 C
PV = CU(150,000 + 4,000) – (CU4,000  0.826)
= CU150,696
TV = CU150,696  1.21
= CU182,342
2 C
CU42,000 CU42,000 CU82,000
(CU100,000) +   = CU11,620
1.2 1.2 2 1.2 3
3 C
t0 (520,000)  1 (520,000)
t5 20,000  0.497 9,940
= CU244,120
t1–5 340,000  3.352 1,139,680
t0–4 (100,000)  (1 + 2.855) (385,500)
4 B
t0 t1 t2 t3
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Sales in the year 200 220.0 242.0
Working capital 20 22.0 24.2
WC cash flow (20) (2.0) (2.2) 24.2
Discount factor 1 0.833 0.694 0.579
Present value (20) (1.7) (1.5) 14.0
NPV = (CU9,200)
 (CU9,000) rounded
5 A
Has to be retained for use on other contracts  nil cost.
6 A
Depreciation is not a cash flow and there are no incremental fixed costs.
7 D
The original purchase cost of Q is irrelevant as it is sunk.
The choice is therefore to sell Q for CU4,000 or to use it in project Y to yield contribution of
CU10,000 – CU5,000 = CU5,000.
Hence choose project Y, the relevant cost being CU5,000.
8 C
(a) Historic cost of CU2,750 is sunk, therefore irrelevant.
(b) Used as substitute for XB.
CU
Purchase cost saved (100  CU22) 2,200
Less Conversion cost (75)
Net saving 2,125
(c) Resale value = 100  CU20
= CU2,000
Therefore relevant cost estimate = CU2,125

9 B
CU
Market value 2  CU8,000 16,000
Current resale value CU16,000  85% 13,600
The opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone, which is the sales proceeds of
CU13,600.
10 C
CU
Material X
1,000 kg in inventory could be sold for 4,000
500 kg must be purchased for 3,000
Material Y
Since it has alternative uses, it must be replaced for 20,000
27,000
11 B
The deprival value is
Lower of
Replacement Higher of
cost CU2,200
Disposal value Economic value

CU2,000 CU(2,200 – 100) = CU2,100
Therefore relevant cost of ZX is CU2,100 (the net saving to the company on material RP).
12 B
If we do not go ahead with the project the existing material will be stored with an incremental, future
and cash cost of CU200. (It would not be sold for CU3,900 only to be replaced a month later at
CU4,300).
If we go ahead with the project the existing inventory will be used. As it is in constant use, then we
follow the cheaper option and replace it immediately at CU4,000. Storage costs of CU200 are not
avoided and are therefore not incremental as a result of the decision and are not relevant.
The relevant future, incremental cash cost is therefore the replacement cost of the inventory which is
CU4,000.

13 C
Lower of
Replacement Higher of
cost CU10,000

CU5,000 CU7,500
Therefore deprival value = CU7,500

14 C
Lower of
Replacement cost
Higher of
CU(2,200 + 2,000 + 400)
= CU4,600

CU7,000 ?
(The economic value is not known, but it is irrelevant, since replacement cost is lower than the
disposal value.)
15 A
Lower of
Replacement cost
Higher of
CU25,000

CU23,000 CU24,000
The firm’s policy would therefore be to use the asset, since CU24,000 is higher than CU23,000. It
would not replace it at a cost of CU25,000.

16 D
One must include variable cost of labour and its lost contribution.
17 C
2  CU4.20 + 3  CU0.40 = CU9.60
18 C
This is a make or buy decision. As a general rule, a company will go with the cheapest option. Here,
we are looking to calculate the additional saving required to make the buying option CU1,000 cheaper
than the make option.
Cost of Making: CU8,000
Bluebell will accept the buying tender if we save an additional CU1,000 so the relevant cost of the
buying option is CU7,000.
Cost of Buying:
CU
Contract price 10,000
Less incremental fixed cost saving (1,000)
Less additional incremental fixed cost saving (2,000) (to balance)
Relevant cost 7,000
19 A
CU CU
Price 10,000
Materials 3,000
Labour 3,000
Variable overhead 1,500
Fixed overhead 500
(8,000)
Benefit from order 2,000
Lost contribution CU6  500 hrs (1,500)
2 hrs
Net profit 500
20 A
Tax Tax Time
WDV cash flow paid
CU CU
Time 0 20,000
Time 0 25% TDA (5,000) 1,500 t0
15,000
Time 1 (3,750) 1,125 t1
11,250
Time 2 (2,812) 844 t2
8,438
Time 3 Proceeds (16,000)
Time 3 Balancing charge 7,562 2,269 t3
21 B
Cash 10% PV
flow factor
CU CU
Time 0 (20,000) 1.000 (20,000)
Time 0 1,500 1.000 1,500
Time 1 1,125 0.909 1,023
Time 2 844 0.826 698
Time 3 (2,269) 0.751 (1,704)
Time 3 16,000 0.751 12,016
Net present value (6,467)

22 D
Tax WDV Capital Tax 10%
allowance saved factor PV
CU CU CU CU
90,000
(22,500) 22,500 6,750 0.909 6,136
67,500
(16,875) 16,875 5,063 0.826 4,182
50,625
(12,656) 12,656 3,797 0.751 2,852
37,969
(25,000)
12,969 12,969 3,891 0.683 2,658
PV of tax savings 15,828
23 D
The investment is made on 1 April 20X6, so tax depreciation can first be set off against profits for the
accounting period ended 31 March 20X7. The tax cash saving will therefore be at 31 March 20X7, or
time 1.
Payment
Time Date Tax saved time
CU CU
0 1 April 20X6 2,000,000
1 31 March 20X7
TDA (500,000) @ 30% = 150,000 1
1,500,000
2 31 March 20X8
Sale proceeds (500,000)
BA 1,000,000 @ 30% = 300,000 2
Present value = (CU150,000  0.909) + (CU300,000  0.826)

= CU384,150
24 B
Time Cash flow DF at 15% PV
CU CU
0 (150,000) 1 (150,000)
1-4 90,000 2.855 256,950
1-4 (27,000) 2.855 (77,085)
4 25,000 0.572 14,300
NPV 44,165
NPV = CU44,000 (to the nearest CU000)
25 A
CU1,400 CU7,600 CU11,000
NPV =   – CU20,000
1.12 1.12 2 1.12 3
= CU4,067
26 B
(1 + Money rate) = (1 + Real rate)  (1 + Inflation rate)
1.21 = (1 + Real rate)  1.09
Real rate = 11%

27 C
As there are different rates of inflation, the 'money approach' must be used, i.e. the cash flows must be
inflated at their specific rates and discounted at the money cost of capital.
(1 + Money rate) = (1 + Real rate)  (1 + Inflation rate)
= 1.1  1.05
= 1.155
28 C
Savings are discounted at an effective (‘real’) discount rate of 10% as it is advantageous to have non-
inflating cash flows (annuity) and the annuity tables/formula can be applied.
(1 + money rate) = (1 + effective rate)  (1 + inflation rate)
(1 + 0.155) = (1 + e)  (1+ 0.05)
(1+ e) = 1.155/1.05 = 1.1
The effective discount rate is 10%
We now need to find the non-inflated savings resulting from the saved labour hours. The current
semi-skilled labour rate is CU5. This is without the effects of inflation.
PV of savings = 20,000 hours p.a. x CU5 x 6.145 (CDF 10 years at 10%)
= CU615,000
29 A
Time Cash flow DF at 21% PV
CU CU
0 (50,000) 1 (50,000)
1 33,000 0.826 27,258
2 36,300 0.683 24,793
3 39,930 0.564 22,521
3 15,000 0.564 8,460
NPV 33,032
Present value, using money cost of capital, is CU33,000 (to the nearest CU000).
1+m 1
Using the formula 1+ r = the money cost of capital is 21%. The DF is obtained using
1+ i (1+r)n
The same answer could be obtained by applying the real cost of capital to flows expressed in current
terms.
30 B
The payback period will decrease and the IRR increase because the outflow at time 0 is unaffected by
inflation.
Consider a simple project.
Time Cash Inflation at Revised
flow say, 10% cash flow
CU CU
0 (100) 1 (100)
1 (100) 1.1 (110)
2 100 1.1 2 121
3 100 1.1 3 133
4 100 1.1 4 146
Payback period 3 years 2.7 years
IRR  18%  30%

31 A
We are given a discount rate after inflation which happens to be an IRR. The IRR must therefore be a
money rate. If the rate of inflation requires revision we must strip out the effects of the original
inflation rate and determine the effective interest rate. A revised money rate (IRR) can then be
determined by applying the revised rate of inflation.
(1 + money rate) = (1 + effective rate) x (1 + inflation rate)
(1 + 0.15) = (1 + e) (1 + 0.04)
Therefore the effective rate is 1.15/1.04 = 10.6%
If we multiply the effective rate by 1 + revised inflation rate (7%) it will yield the revised money rate
(IRR) of 18.3%, i.e. 1.15/1.04 x 1.07 = 1.183
32 C
Given there is zero inflation in year 1 and no adjustment is proposed to the inflation rates in year 1,
then there is no adjustment to the cash flows in year 1.
Year 2 cash flows will require revision where applied specific inflation rate differs to the revised rates
proposed as follows:
Revenue CU1,320 – No revision required as applied specific inflation of 10% remains unchanged.
Costs CU990 – Here we need to reverse inflation of 10% and apply a revised specific inflation rate on
costs of 8%, i.e. 990/1.1 x 1.08 = 972
Revised year 2 profit after tax will become (1,320 – 972) x 75% (1 – t) = 261
Year 1 discount rate is 12.5%. The money rate will equal the effective rate as there is zero inflation in
this first year.
Year 2 discount rate is 20.9375%
(1 + money rate) = (1 + effective rate) x (1 + inflation rate) = 1.125 x 1.075 = 1.209375
PV of cash flows
Year 1 187.5/1.125 Discount from t1 to t0 year at 12.5%
Year 2 261/(1.125 x 1.209375) Discount from t2 to t1 at 20.9375% from t1 to t0 at 12.5%
Present value = CU358,500
33 C
t0 t1 t2 t3
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Equipment (400.00)
Revenue – 900.00 945.00 992.25
Labour – (550.00) (605.00) (665.50)
Materials (350.00) – – –
(750.00) 350.00 340.00 326.75
PV @ 15.5% (750.00) 303.03 254.87 212.07
Net present value @ 15.5% = CU19,970
34 B
Money C of C = [(1.10  1.07) – 1]  100
= 17.7%
 1.177 
Effective rates  -1  100
 1.04 
= 13.17%
 1.177 
 -1  100
 1.08 
= 8.98%
50 80
PV (CU000) = +
0.1317 0.0898
= 1,270

35 C
Money cash flows should be discounted at money discount rates.
Money cost of capital = [(1.1  1.05) – 1]
= 0.155 or 15.5%
36 C
Money cost of capital = [(1.08  1.12) – 1]  100
= 20.96%
Time t0 t1 t2
CU CU CU
Outlay (13,500)
Labour 7,000 7,700
Salvage 5,000
12,700
20.96% discount factor 1 0.8267 0.6835
Present value –13,500 5,787 8,680
NPV = CU970 rounded
37 D
Savings are discounted at an effective (‘real’) discount rate of 10% as it is advantageous to have non-
inflating cash flows (annuity) and the annuity tables/formula can be applied.
(1 + money rate) = (1 + effective rate)  (1 + inflation rate)
(1 + 0.155) = (1 + e)  (1+ 0.05)
(1 + e) = 1.155/1.05 = 1.1
The effective discount rate is 10%
We now need to find the non-inflated savings resulting from the saved labour hours. The current
semi-skilled labour rate is CU5 is given for the forthcoming year (t ). Specific inflation for one year
1
must be stripped out of this rate to give the ‘current’ rate at t0, i.e. before the effects of inflation.
Current semi-skilled labour rate = CU5/1.05 = CU4.76
PV of savings = 20,000 hours p.a.  CU4.76  6.145 (CDF 10 years at 10%)
= CU585,000
38 C
Time 0 1 2
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Investment (7,000)
Revenue 6,300 6,615
Tax (1,890) (1,985)
Net cash flow (7,000) 4,410 4,630
PV at 15.5% (7,000) 3,818 3,471
NPV = CU289,000
39 C
P Q R S
NPV/CU of capital in restricted period 60  20 40  10 100  30 80  40
=3 =4 = 3.3 =2
The optimal sequence is QRPS.

40 C
For individual projects the maximum NPV must be found basically by trial and error, as follows:
(a) Project H is clearly not viable, since it has a negative NPV and requires investment at t0.
(b) It is not worthwhile considering project K unless its capital generated at t0 is required, since it has
a negative NPV.
(c) There is sufficient capital to undertake the remaining three projects without project K and so this
must be optimal.
NPV = 603 + 58 + 537
= CU1,198
41 D
Project H is not worthwhile, whereas project J definitely is worthwhile. This leaves the following.
NPV/CU at t0
Project I 0.30
Project K (0.06)
Project L 0.54
Project K could be worthwhile since the NPV lost/CU generated is less than the benefit/cost ratio of
projects I and L.
t0 Capital NPV
CU CU
Project J (500) 58
Project L 1,000 537
Project K (350) (22)
185 Project I 1,850 558
200
2,000 1,131
42 D
It is possible that a firm would accept a project with a negative NPV, making (A) possible if less likely.
43 A
Not sufficient capital for each project.
44 A
Project A B C D
NPV per CU1 CU2 CU1.5 CU1.6 CU1.8
Project to be accepted  A
45 A
A Model I every five years
50 + 4 ×3.791
= 17.2
3.791
B Model I every eight years
50 + 4 ×3.791+ 30  0.621+ 7  2.487  0.621
= 17.7
5.335
C Model II every four years
40 + 6 ×3.170
= 18.6
3.170
D Model III every six years
70 + 3.5× 4.355
= 19.6
4.355

46 C
PV (CU000) = 150 + 20  0.909 + 30  0.826 + 40  0.751 + 20  0.683
= 236,660
CU236,660
Equivalent annual cost =
3.170
= CU74,656
CU74,656
Payment in advance =
1.10
= CU67,869
 CU67,900 rounded
47 B
CU150,000  CU25,000  0.233  CU5,000  2.106  CU8,000  2.991 0.579
NPV =
3.837
= CU43,900 equivalent annual cost
48 MR DIPSTICK
Note CU CU
Minimum tender price
1 Material A 1,000 kgs @ CU2 – CU300 1,700
1,000 kgs @ CU10 10,000
11,700
2 Material B 1,000 kgs @ CU15 15,000
3 Material C 500 kgs (opportunity cost) 8,000
4 Material D 50 litres @ CU50 (2,500)
5 Skilled labour 1,000 hrs @ CU25 25,000
6 Semi-skilled labour 500 hrs @ CU22.50 11,250
7 Unskilled labour 500 @ CU12 (opportunity cost) 6,000
Minimum tender price 74,450
Notes
(1) Presumably the 1,000 kgs in inventory would otherwise be sold at a net gain of CU1,700. This
gain is therefore forgone as a result of using this material in the contract. (Note, however, that
the gain forgone is less than the cost of buying the extra 1,000 kgs.)
(2) As this material is constantly needed, the relevant cost is the cost of replacing it at the current
purchase price.
(3) How would this material be used if it were not required for the contract?
Option 1 – Sell it for CU6,000.
Option 2 – Use it as a substitute and save CU8,000.
Option 2 is preferable. This is therefore the opportunity cost of using it in the contract. (Also
note that this opportunity cost is much less than the cost of buying it and is therefore the correct
decision.)
(4) The cost of disposing of 50 litres will be saved (@ CU50/litre, i.e. CU2,500). Saving this cost is a
relevant benefit.
(5) The incremental cost of paying for the labour needed.
(6) The assumption is that the 1,500 spare hours have already been paid for as the workforce are on
annual contracts. The additional cash flow is therefore the extra 500 hours that are needed at
time and a half.

(7) For each hour diverted from their normal jobs contribution of CU2 will be forgone.
This together with the cost of paying the workers on the project amounts to a relevant cost of
CU12 per kg. They would not be hired at CU20 per hr as this is more expensive.
Alternatively
This typical problem can be looked at from the point of view of incremental cash flows.
Cash flow Cash flow
normally with project
CU CU
Revenue per hour 12 –
Labour per hour (10) (10)
Contribution 2 (10)
Therefore difference in cash flow is from positive CU2 to negative CU10, i.e. a negative cost of
CU12 per hour.
(8) Fixed overheads can be ignored as they are not incremental.
(9) Costs of preparing the tender are all sunk costs and hence must be ignored.
(10) Profit element should be ignored.
49 TINOCO LTD
(a) NPV of new production
Time Cash flow 15% factor Present value
CU CU
0 Cost of site (270,000) 1 (270,000)
1 Factory, stage payment (1,250,000) 0.870 (1,087,500)
2 Balance for factory (1,250,000) 0.756 (945,000)
2 Deposit for machinery (250,000) 0.756 (189,000)
3–4 Instalment on machinery (500,000) 1.230 (615,000)
2 Advertising (150,000) 0.756 (113,400)
3 Advertising (250,000) 0.658 (164,500)
4 Advertising (100,000) 0.572 (57,200)
3–12 Variable costs (1,600,000) 3.795* (6,072,000)
3–12 Fixed costs (300,000) 3.795 (1,138,500)
7 Scrap proceeds 250,000 0.376 94,000
7 Deposit for new (250,000) 0.376 (94,000)
8–9 Instalment on new (500,000) 0.611 (305,500)
12 Scrap proceeds 250,000 0.187 46,750
12 Value of factory 3,000,000 0.187 561,000
(10,349,850)
3–12 Sales revenue 3,000,000 3.795 11,385,000
Positive net present value 1,035,150
* DF1–12 – DF1–2 = 5.421 – 1.626
(b) Minimum selling price
Product Z is viable provided the present value of sales revenue is at least CU10,349,850.
CU10,349,850
Annual sales revenue must be at least = CU2,727,233
3.795
2,727,233
Selling price must be at least = CU6.82
400,000

50 SHAW SECURITY SYSTEMS LTD

(a) Investment appraisal schedule – Apollo project
t0 t1 t2 t3
Item CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Sales revenue (W1) 2,160 2,208 1,104
Materials and components (W2) (756) (773) (386)
Incremental labour costs (incl overtime) (W3) (97) (99) (50)
Management salaries (W4) (48) (48) (48)
Lost contribution (W5) (432) (442) (221)
Redundancy costs (W6) 120 (140)
Taxable cash flows 120 827 846 259
Tax (30%) (36) (248) (254) (78)
Production costs (1,000)
Working capital requirements (W7) (243) (5) 124 124
Tax saved on TDAs (W8) 75 56 42 127
Relevant cash flows (1,084) 630 758 432
DCF (8%) 1 0.926 0.857 0.794
Present values (1,084) 583 650 343
NPV of project = CU492,000
WORKINGS
(1) Expected sales – units at CU200
20X6 (0.6 x 10,000) + (0.4 x 12,000) 10,800 units
20X7 Expected sales (units)
1,440
8,000
0.3
10,000 10,000
0.7
4,200
10,000 2,400
12,000
0.4
0.5
15,000
0.5
3,000
11,040
20X8 11,040 x 50% 5,520 units

(2) Materials and components
CU'000
t1 10,800  CU70 756
t2 11,040  CU70 773
t3 5,520 x CU70 386

(3) Incremental labour costs and overtime

Labour hours Labour hours Overtime hours
required by Apollo released by Mercury required by Apollo
20X6 (10,800  3) 32,400 (5,400  4) 21,600 10,800
20X7 (11,040  3) 33,120 (5,520  4) 22,080 11,040
20X8 (5,520  3) 16,560 (2,760  4) 11,040 5,520
Therefore, incremental labour costs
CU'000
20X6 10,800  CU9* 97
20X7 11,040  CU9 99
20X8 5,520 x CU9 50
*(CU6 x 150%)
(4) Management salaries
CU(20,000 – 8,000*) = CU12,000 x 4 = CU48,000 pa
* Consultancy fees saved/avoided as result of project.
(5) Lost contribution from lost Mercury sales
Sales lost Gross * CPU CU'000
20X6 5,400 x CU80 = (432)
20X7 5,520 x CU80 = (442)
20X8 2,760 x CU80 = (221)
* Direct labour costs treated as a 'fixed' cost, since they will be paid whether or not Apollo
is produced. Therefore, effect on cash flow of lost Mercury sale is (100 – 20) = CU80 per unit.
(6) Redundancy costs
t0 CU120,000 saved at t0 if Apollo is produced
t3 CU140,000 incurred at t3 if Apollo is produced.
(7) Working capital requirements
Sales (CU'000) t0 t1 t2 t3
New – 2,160 2,208 1,104
Old – 540 552 276
– 1,620 1,656 828
15% 243 248.4 124.2 –
 Cash flow effects of changes in working capital requirements are:
t0 t1 t2 t3
(243) (5.4) 124.2 124.2
(8) Tax saved on TDAs
(30%)
Time Item Tax saved Timing
CU000 CU000
t0 Production costs 1,000.000
t0** TDA† (250.000) 75* t0
750.000
t1 TDA (187.500) 56* t1
562.500
t2 TDA (140.625) 42* t2
421.875
t3 Sale proceeds Nil
t3 Balancing allowance 421.875 127* t3
† TDA of 25% assumed.
* Figures to nearest CU1,000 as required by question.
** Payment of CU1m occurs at end of accounting period (i.e. 20X5); therefore first TDA
occurs at t0.

(b) Comments on the Apollo proposal

Based on the above cash flow projections, the project should be accepted as it has a positive NPV.
Reservations in connection with this recommendation
(i) Demand for Apollo is subject to great uncertainty. Sensitivity analysis could be carried out
to see how responsive the project’s NPV is to fluctuations in the expected sales volume.
(ii) The project’s sales are subject to uncertainty; consequently the Apollo project is risky and
should be appraised using a discount rate reflecting this level of risk. The company’s current
WACC is therefore highly unlikely to be appropriate. Moreover, a suitably risk-adjusted
discount rate may result in the project having a negative NPV.
(iii) How reliable are the estimates of costs? For example, Apollo sales may affect sales of the
Mercury more severely than anticipated.
(iv) The attitude to risk of the directors/shareholders needs to be considered. Despite having a
positive NPV the project may be considered too risky and hence be rejected.
(v) Have all costs associated with the project been identified and quantified? (Note that the
project has been appraised with reference to relevant costs only – sunk costs, e.g.
development and marketing costs, have been ignored.)
51 FIORDILIGI LTD
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Labour CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Skilled 10,000  0.5  Nil –
10,000  0.5  CU4.00 20.0 20.0
8,000  0.5  CU4.00 16.0 16.0
Unskilled 10,000  2  CU2.50 50.0 50.0 50.0
8,000  2  CU2.50 40.0 40.0
Materials
Ping 10,000  2  CU1.40 28.0 28.0 28.0
8,000  2  CU1.40 22.4 22.4
Pang 46,000  0.5  CU1.80 41.4
Pong 10,000  1.5  CU0.80 12.0 12.0 12.0
8,000  1.5  CU0.80 9.6 9.6
Overheads
Variable 10,000  0.5  CU1.40 7.0 7.0 7.0
8,000  0.5  CU1.40 5.6 5.6
Fixed
Rent 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Rates 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
83.4 100.0 120.0 112.0 96.6 62.6
Revenue
10,000  CU18 180.0 180.0 180.0
8,000  CU14 112.0 112.0
Costs (as above) (83.4) (100.0) (120.0) (112.0) (96.6) (62.6)
Purchase of plant (60.0)
Resale 6.0
Net cash flow (143.4) 80.0 60.0 68.0 15.4 55.4
Discount factors at 15% 1.000 0.870 0.756 0.658 0.572 0.497
Present values (nearest CU000) (143.0) 70.0 45.0 45.0 9.0 28.0
NPV = +CU54,000
Therefore, accept.

52 GIOVANNI LTD
(a) Tax depreciation
Tax saved Timing
at 30%
CU CU
Cost 5,000
Year 0 TDA (1,250) 375 t0
3,750
Year 1 TDA (938) 281 t1
2,812
Year 2 TDA (703) 211 t2
2,109
Year 3 TDA (527) 158 t3
1,582
Year 4 Sale proceeds –
Balancing allowance 1,582 475 t4
(b) Investment decision
Cash flows t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
CU CU CU CU CU
Purchase of machine (5,000)
Tax saved through TDAs 375 281 211 158 475
Net revenues 3,000 3,000 1,000 1,000
Tax on net revenues (900) (900) (300) (300)
(4,625) 2,381 2,311 858 1,175
Discount factors 1.000 0.909 0.826 0.751 0.683
Present value (4,625) 2,164 1,909 644 803
NPV = + CU895
Therefore accept the project.
(c) Different timing of initial purchase
PV of tax savings as shown above
CU
CU375 + CU281  0.909 + CU211  0.826 + CU158  0.751 + CU475  0.683 1,248
Hence PV if delayed by one year CU1,248  0.909 1,134
Difference 114
Hence, new NPV = CU(895 – 114)
= CU781, i.e. project still worthwhile
Wisdom – fine if there is a balancing charge (delay it!)
– not so if there is a balancing allowance
53 SHAREHOLDER VALUE
(a) Business decisions
The first statement supports the view that the governing objective of a business should be to
maximise shareholder value. A classic view in corporate finance, this belief has gained much
recent exposure with the rise of shareholder value analysis (SVA) as a business tool. SVA
suggests that all business activities, including strategic decisions and performance evaluation,
should be managed with the objective of maximising the present value of the firm.
The second statement suggests that a business has a wider duty of care to a group of
stakeholders who have an interest in the business. These needs should be balanced, rather than
maximising the needs of a single group such as shareholders.
Certain authors have suggested that these views of business lie at opposite ends of the spectrum.
This view arises from the belief that stakeholder needs conflict, and maximising one group will by
necessity mean that other groups will suffer. This view is supported by high profile cases such as
that of Railtrack, which has been accused of abandoning customer safety in the pursuit of
shareholder value.

It is true that companies have in the past made short-term, uneconomical decisions in an attempt
to enhance share price that have resulted in other stakeholder groups suffering. Cost-cutting and
employee downsizing decisions would be examples.
However, and as long as the long-term effects of business decisions are considered, the picture
changes. Companies that consistently destroy shareholder value will find themselves starved of
capital as their investors move elsewhere. Without capital they will not be able to invest in the
future of their customers, employees, etc, and these groups will suffer. To deliver value to these
stakeholders, long-term value will need to be delivered also to shareholders.
(b) Shareholder value analysis
Shareholders value the future cash returns that their investments will generate, and will also be
concerned with the level of risk inherent in those investments.
The discounted cash flow (DCF) model is consistent with this type of value. It focuses on future
cash flows and, by discounting them at an appropriate rate, it takes into account the investors’
view of risk.
Many people believe that growth in earnings per share (EPS) is the best external measure to
track shareholder value creation. This is not necessarily the case, for the following reasons.
(i) Profit is not necessarily the same as cash flow, and cannot be 'spent' by investors.
(ii) Profit can be manipulated by use of different accounting policies.
(iii) EPS is historic focused, sunk as far as investors are concerned.
(iv) EPS growth does not incorporate an adequate risk hurdle. Value is created if businesses
earn more than the cost of equity. The only hurdle to be overcome before positive profit is
obtained is the debt bill.
The SVA approach to business focuses on identifying 'value drivers' which, if managed correctly,
can increase the PV of the firm and therefore increase shareholder value.
These drivers are as follows (choose three from six).
(i) Sales growth rate – increasing the growth rate should generate larger future cash inflows
which could translate into greater value.
(ii) Operating profit margin – increasing this, perhaps via better cost control, will generate
more net cash flow from each extra sale.
(iii) Investment in non-current assets – if this outlay can be reduced without limiting
effectiveness, cash will be saved and value added.
(iv) Investment in working capital – reducing working capital releases cash back into the
business. If this can be done without compromising effectiveness, value will be added.
(v) Cost of capital – reducing the cost of capital, perhaps via use of debt finance, will increase
the PV of the cash flow stream and therefore value.
(vi) Life of projected cash flows – if the life of a potential cash flow stream can be extended (e.g.
via patent protection), the larger its potential to generate value.
54 PACKERS LTD
NPV of contract
Final receipts = CU235,000  (1.10)2
= CU284,350
Second year labour = CU60,000  1.125
= CU67,500
Value of inventory of D = 2,000  CU1.50
= CU3,000
Cost of more D = 2,000  CU20  1.15
= CU46,000

Time 0 Time 1 Time 2

CU CU CU
Machinery (75,000)
Redundancy 2,000
Labour (60,000) (67,500)
Advertising 5,000
Material D 3,000 (46,000)
Receipts 284,350
(70,000) (106,000) 221,850
DF @ 15% 1 0.870 0.756
PV (70,000) (92,220) 167,719
Net present value = CU5,499
 Proceed.
55 AINSDALE LTD
(a) Incremental NPV of moving the factory
Existing premises
450,000
Lease = 450,000 + = 4,950,000
0.1
4,950,000 × 0.3
After tax = 4,950,000 – = CU3,600,000
1.1
New premises
Cash flows
At 31 December 20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Premises (10,000)
Machinery (1,000) 300
Labour (W1) 1,000 (3,000) (4,000) (3,000)
Materials (W2) 7,750 (23,250) (17,000) (12,750)
Sales (W3) (8,750) 26,250 35,000 26,250
Redundancies (200)
Retraining (100)
Tax (W4) 30 60 – (4,200) (3,150)
Tax depreciation (W5) 75 56 42 32 5
(11,195) 116 42 9,832 7,655
Discount factor @ 10% 1 0.909 0.826 0.751 0.683
Discounted cash flows (11,195) 105 35 7,384 5,228
Total NPV = CU1,557,000
Overall NPV
CU'000
NPV of lease 3,600
Per DCF statement 1,557
5,157
WORKINGS
(1) Labour costs
Unit
New Old labour Labour
factory factory Incremental cost cost
000 units 000 units 000 units CU CU'000
20X1 5,000 6,000 (1,000) 1.00 (1,000)
20X2 9,000 6,000 3,000 1.00 3,000
20X3 10,000 6,000 4,000 1.00 4,000
20X4 9,000 6,000 3,000 1.00 3,000
After 20X4 the sales are equivalent, so no incremental costs arise.

(2) Material costs

Unit
New Old material Materials
factory factory Incremental cost cost
000 units 000 units 000 units CU CU'000
20X1 5,000 6,000 (1,000) 7.75 (7,750)
20X2 9,000 6,000 3,000 7.75 23,250
20X3 10,000 6,000 4,000 4.25 17,000
20X4 9,000 6,000 3,000 4.25 12,750
After 20X4 the sales are equivalent, so no incremental costs arise.
(3) Sales
40% margin on sales is equivalent to a 66.67% mark-up on cost.
Unit
material Material Labour Total Margin Sales
cost cost cost cost (66.67%)
CU CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
20X1 4.25 (4,250) (1,000) (5,250) (3,500) (8,750)
20X2 4.25 12,750 3,000 15,750 10,500 26,250
20X3 4.25 17,000 4,000 21,000 14,000 35,000
20X4 4.25 12,750 3,000 15,750 10,500 26,250
(4) Corporation tax
20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Labour 1,000 (3,000) (4,000) (3,000)
Materials 7,750 (23,250) (17,000) (12,750)
Sales (8,750) 26,250 35,000 26,250
Redundancies/training (100) (200)
Taxable profit (100) (200) 0 14,000 10,500
Tax payable (excl TDAs) 30 60 0 (4,200) (3,150)
(5) Tax depreciation
If move premises
Year TDA Tax @ 30%
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
20X0 1,000 250 75
20X1 750 188 56
20X2 562 141 42
20X3 421 105 32
20X4 316
Proceeds (300)
Balancing allowance 16 16 5
(b) Calculation of the payback period
20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4 20X5
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Cash flows (11,195) 116 42 9,832 7,655
Lease 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500
Lease tax (1,350) (1,350) (1,350) (1,350) (1,350)
(6,695) 3,266 3,192 12,982 10,805 3,150
Thus the payback period is three years (assuming year end cash flows).
Tutorial advice
The likelihood of producing precisely the correct answer for requirement (a) is low, because there are
many opportunities to make errors, major and minor. There are however plenty of easy marks in this
question and you should be able to earn them.

Requirement (a). Make sure you approach the requirement in a logical and methodical way, as this will
help build up a good total of marks. A common pitfall in this question relates to the lease of the old
premises. This is perpetual, yet it is often treated as if it only lasts as long as there are incremental
operating cash flows from the move. Another common though more minor error relates to the tax
payment timing. The question made clear that tax should be assumed to be paid at the end of the year
to which it relates so be careful not to lag the payment a year.
56 ARCADIAN PRODUCTS LTD
(a) Retain existing equipment or buy new
Year 20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
New plant (12,000) 2,000
TDAs (W3) 900 675 507 380 539
Old plant 3,000
TDAs (W3) 788
(422) (316) (237) (178) (534)
Maintenance cost
(money terms) (W1) 515 1,591 2,185 2,814
Tax thereon (155) (477) (656) (844)
(7,734) 719 1,384 1,731 3,975
Discount factor (W4) 1.0000 0.8826 0.7790 0.6875 0.6067
Present values (7,734) 635 1,078 1,190 2,412
Net present value = CU(2,419)
Thus retaining the existing equipment would be preferable to buying new.
WORKINGS
(1) Maintenance costs
20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Maintenance (real) 500 1,500 2,000 2,500
Maintenance (money) 515 1,591 2,185 2,814
(2) NP14 contributions
20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Contributions (real) 2,500 3,500 3,500 2,500
Contributions (money) 2,575 3,713 3,825 2,814
(3) Tax depreciation
New plant
Year Tax @ 30%
CU'000 CU'000
20X0 Cost 12,000
TDA 3,000 900
20X1 9,000
TDA 2,250 675
20X2 6,750
TDA 1,688 507
20X3 5,062
TDA 1,266 380
20X4 3,796
Disposal 2,000
Balancing allowance 1,796 539

Old plant
Year Tax @ 30%
CU'000 CU'000
20W8 Cost 10,000
TDA 2,500 750
20W9 7,500
TDA 1,875 563
20X0 5,625
Disposal 3,000
or
Year Tax @ 30%
CU'000 CU'000
20X0 WDV b/f 5,625
TDA 1,406 422
20X1 4,219
TDA 1,055 316
20X2 3,164
TDA 791 237
20X3 2,373
TDA 593 178
20X4 1,780
Disposal 0
(4) Discount factors
1
Year 1 = 0.8826
(1+ 0.10)(1+ 0.03)
1
Year 2 = 0.7790
(1+ 0.10) (1+ 0.03)2
2
1
Year 3 = 0.6875
(1+ 0.10) (1+ 0.03)3
3
1
Year 4 = 0.6067
(1+ 0.10) (1+ 0.03)4
4
(b) Viability of the NP14 product

Year 20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3 20X4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Old plant (3,000)
TDAs (W3) (788)
422 316 237 178 534
Contributions
(money terms) (W2) 2,575 3,713 3,825 2,814
Tax thereon (773) (1,114) (1,147) (844)
Maintenance costs
(money terms) (W1) (515) (1,591) (2,185) (2,814)
Tax thereon 155 477 656 844
Working capital (257) (114) (11) 101 281
(3,623) 1,644 1,711 1,428 815
Discount factor (W4) 1.0000 0.8826 0.7790 0.6875 0.6067
Present values (3,623) 1,451 1,332 982 494
Net present value = CU636,000
Thus using the existing equipment to produce NP14s would be viable.

Tutorial note
A common pitfall on this question is confusing 'real' and 'money' values in the same assessment. Either
approach is equally correct, but it must be applied consistently in the same assessment. In practice the
'money' approach tends to be less difficult to apply.
In part (a), be careful not to overlook the balancing allowance that would arise should the existing
equipment be sold.
57 JUNO PRODUCTS LTD
(a) Modification decision
Timing
31 December 20X8 20X9 20Y0
0 1 2
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Modification costs (8,000)
Extra contribution (excluding one
bought-in part) 200 units per
annum x CU25,000 per unit (W1) 5,000 5,000
Extra parts to be bought
(400 x 1,000) (W1) (400)
(8,000) 5,000 4,600
Tax effect at 30% 2,400 (1,500) (1,380)
(5,600) 3,500 3,220
Discount factors @ 5% 1 0.952 0.907
Present value (5,600) 3,332 2,921
NPV = 653 > 0
The modification should take place.
(b) Relevant CFs if continue
Timing of cash flows
31 December 20X8 20X9 20Y0 20Y1 20Y2
0 1 2 3 4
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Modification costs (8,000)
Contribution (excluding 11,500 11,500 5,200 3,900
bought-in part) (W2)
Cost of extra parts (400) (400) (300)
Opportunity cost of parts (600)
Overheads that would be
avoided if production
ceased (lease cost
unavoidable) (2,000) (2,000) (2,000) (2,000)
Annual taxable net revenues (8,600) 9,500 9,100 2,800 1,600
Tax @ 30% 2,580 (2,850) (2,730) (840) (480)
Plant and equipment
Disposal proceeds avoided (6,000)
Balancing allowance
avoided (W3) (450)
Tax re TDAs if
continue (W3) 563 422 316 237 712
Net CFS (11,907) 7,072 6,686 2,197 1,832
DF @ 5% 1 0.952 0.907 0.864 0.823
PV (11,907) 6,733 6,064 1,898 1,508
NPV = 4,296 > 0 therefore continue

WORKINGS
(1) Contribution per unit for modification decision
CU
Selling price 35,000
Labour (4,000)
Materials (excluding the component type that is in inventory) (6,000)
25,000
There are enough bought-in parts in inventory to make 1,000 units. This will cover the first
two years of production if no modifications are made in the first year, and 300 units worth
of production in the second year if modifications are made. Thus an additional 400 units of
parts would have to be bought in year 2 if modifications were to take place.
(2) Contributions per unit (excluding bought-in part)
Years 1 and 2 First 500 units – need to take into account lost contribution from other
products that could have been sold.
CU
Selling price 35,000
Labour (4,000  4) (16,000)
Materials (6,000)
13,000
Additional 200 units do not affect sales of the other product, therefore
use contribution per unit of CU25,000 as in (1) above.
Years 3 and 4 All units have contribution of CU13,000 per unit as calculated above.
Therefore contribution figures in total are:
CU’000
Year 1 500  13 + 200  25 11,500
Year 2 500  13 + 200  25 11,500
Year 3 400  13 5,200
Year 4 300  13 3,900
(3) Balancing allowance if sold on 31 December 20X8
Accounting period Narrative CU000 Tax relief Timing
20X7 Bought 10,000
TDA @ 25% (2,500)
20X8 7,500
Disposal proceeds 6,000
Balancing allowance (1,500) Tax saving @
30% = 450 t0
TDAs if kept
Accounting period Narrative CU000 Tax relief Timing
@30%
20X8 B/f 7,500
TDA @ 25% (1,875) 563 t0
20X9 5,625
TDA @ 25% (1,406) 422 t1
20Y0 4,219
TDA @ 25% (1,055) 316 t2
20Y1 3,164
TDA @ 25% (791) 237 t3
20Y2 2,373
Disposal proceeds 0
Balancing allowance (2,373) 712 t4

(c) Discount rate

The long-term after-tax borrowing rate is not a suitable discount rate for the following
reasons.
 It completely ignores the views and requirements of shareholders. The role of
directors is to make the shareholders wealthy, so a discount rate should be used that
incorporates their required return or cost of equity. Most firms do this by using a
weighted average cost of capital (WACC).
 It is a risk-free (or at least a very low risk) discount rate. The project cash flows are
uncertain, so a higher discount rate should be used to reflect this. In particular,
changes in risk – due to changes in the type of activity undertaken or due to changes in
gearing – need to be incorporated. Again, looking at the cost of equity could help.
Tutorial note
A good answer would correctly deduce whether it would be economically beneficial to modify a
product which would have the effect of increasing market demand for it (requirement (a)). It would
then correctly assess a decision on the cessation of manufacture of the products, taking account of the
decision in requirement (a) (requirement (b)). It would then go on to comment appropriately on the
suitability of the discount rate suggested in the question (requirement (c)).
For requirement (a) one complicated way of attacking the requirement is to carry out two sets of
calculations, one assuming the modification would take place and the other assuming that it would not.
This is a complicated way of dealing with the modification question which is more likely to lead to
errors. Simply picking up the cash flow differentials between each of the cases is a more
straightforward approach.
A common pitfall in this question is to omit the cash flows associated with operating costs and/or tax,
both of which varied with the decision.
In requirement (b) if you organise your answers in a logical way you should correctly pick up the
relevant areas of cash flows. Make sure that if you (correctly) concluded in requirement (a) that
modification should take place, don't ignore this in part (b).
58 REXAL LTD
(a) Net present value calculations
Option 1
Time 0 1 2 3
31 December 20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3
CU CU CU CU
Capital outlay (80,000)
Scrap proceeds 8,000
Net cash inflows 60,000 74,000 88,000
Tax on net inflows (18,000) (22,200) (26,400)
Tax depreciation
allowances (W1) 6,000 4,500 11,100
Working capital (6,000) (1,400) (1,400) 8,800
Net cash flow (86,000) 46,600 54,900 89,500
Discount factor (W2) 1 0.791 0.636 0.522
(86,000) 36,861 34,916 46,719
NPV = CU32,496

Option 2
Time 0 1 2 3
31 December 20X0 20X1 20X2 20X3
CU CU CU CU
Opportunity cost –
disposal proceeds
forgone (W3) (30,000)
Balancing charge
avoided (W3) 9,000
Net cash inflows (W4) 35,000 46,600 58,776
Tax on inflows (10,500) (13,980) (17,633)
Working capital (3,500) (1,160) (1,218) 5,878
Net cash flow (33,500) 32,340 31,402 47,021
Discount factor (W2) 1 0.791 0.636 0.522
(33,500) 25,581 19,972 24,545
NPV = CU36,598
Both projects show a positive NPV. Since they are mutually exclusive, option 2 should be
preferred since it has the higher NPV.
(b) Reservations
Reservations in basing an investment decision on these figures concern the accuracy of the data
and the inherent assumptions.
(i) How reliable are the estimates of operating cash flows?
(ii) Are estimates of scrap proceeds appropriate?
(iii) Is the working capital requirement sufficient?
(iv) Operating cash flows have allowed for inflation. These values can change significantly if the
estimates of inflation are incorrect.
(v) The real cost of capital is 15%. How reliable is this figure and should it remain static over
the life of the project?
(vi) All cash flows are assumed to arise at the year end. Is this appropriate?
(vii) Will the tax rates assumed and the available tax depreciation materialise in the future?
Clearly it is difficult to predict with certainty the Government’s future budgets.
(viii) The ultimate NPVs are fairly similar and make any decision taken between the projects
somewhat marginal.
WORKINGS
(1) Option 1 – TDAs
A/c period ended CU CU Time
31 Dec 20X1 Investment 80,000
TDA at 25% (20,000) Tax saved at 30% 6,000 1
60,000
31 Dec 20X2 TDA at 25% (15,000) Tax saved at 30% 4,500 2
45,000
31 Dec 20X3 Scrap proceeds (8,000)
Bal allowance 37,000 Tax saved at 30% 11,100 3
(2) Calculation of discount factors
Because the cash flows in the question are given in money terms (or, in the case of the machine
maintenance, costs that can easily be converted into money terms) the most efficient discounting
method is to discount net monetary values at a money cost of capital.
(Note An alternative is to convert all money terms into current terms and then discount at the
real rate, but this would be a far less efficient approach and is definitely not recommended.)
Using the relationship

1 + m = (1 + r)(1 + i) where m = money cost of capital
r = real cost of capital
i = inflation rate,
then, money cost for 20X1 = (1.15)  (1.1) – 1 = 0.265, i.e. 26.5%
for 20X2 = (1.15)  (1.08) – 1 = 0.242, i.e. 24.2%
for 20X3 = (1.15)  (1.06) – 1 = 0.219, i.e. 21.9%
for 20X4 = (1.15)  (1.04) – 1 = 0.196, i.e. 19.6%
The discount factors are as follows.
1
Time 1 (31 Dec 20X1) = 0.791
1.265
1 1
Time 2 (31 Dec 20X2)  = 0.636
1.265 1.242
1 1 1
Time 3 (31 Dec 20X3)   = 0.522
1.265 1.242 1.219
1 1 1 1
Time 4 (31 Dec 20X4)    = 0.437
1.265 1.242 1.219 1.196
(3) Option 2 – Capital cost
This option utilised an existing machine. The cost to the business is the opportunity cost of the
sale proceeds forgone at 1 January 20X1 (i.e. Time 0).
However, by not selling the machine a balancing charge of CU30,000  0.30 = CU9,000 is
avoided. This flow would have arisen on 31 December 20X1 (i.e. Time 1) and not 31 December
20X0, since the asset was to be sold on the first day of an accounting period.
(4) Option 2 – Net cash inflows
20X1 20X2 20X3
CU CU CU
Per question (Option 1) 60,000 74,000 88,000
Less Additional machine costs (5,000)  1.08 = (5,400)  1.06 = (5,724)
Lost contribution (20,000) (22,000) (23,500)
35,000 46,600 58,776
59 STICKY FINGERS LTD
(a) No rationing
Present values
Year 0 1 2 3 4
Time t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Discount factor 1 0.870 0.756 0.658 0.572
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Project A (1,500) (435) 907 395 172
Project B (2,000) (870) 1,890 1,645 1,430
Project C (1,750) 435 832 921 572
Project D (2,500) 609 680 855 172
Project E (1,600) (435) 151 1,842 1,316
NPV
CU'000
Project A (461)
Project B 2,095 Therefore, accepting all projects with a
Project C 1,010 positive NPV, accept projects B, C and E
Project D (184)
Project E 1,274
(b) Single-period capital rationing

Project A B C D E
NPV (CU000) (461) 2,095 1,010 (184) 1,274
Investment, t0 (CU000) 1,500 2,000 1,750 2,500 1,600
NPV/CU – CU1.05 CU0.58 – CU0.80
Rank – 1st 3rd – 2nd
Therefore, accept B and 10/16 E.
(c) Single-period capital rationing – inflows and outflows, negative NPVs
NPV
Using benefit cost ratios
initial investment
Benefit/cost NPV per Ranking
CU1 invested
Project A *
Project B CU2,095/CU1,000 CU2.10 2
Project C *
Project D CU(184)/CU700 CU(0.26) **
Project E CU1,274/CU500 CU2.55 1
Notes
* Project A would never be accepted because it has a negative NPV and uses up funds in the
restricted year.
Project C would always be accepted since it has a positive NPV and releases funds in the
restricted year. A total of CU700,000 is then available.
** Project D has a negative NPV but releases funds at t1.
If project D is accepted, this makes an extra CU700,000 available at t1. However, in doing so
a negative NPV (–CU184,000) is incurred. Thus, it is necessary to examine whether the
extra positive NPV generated by the additional investment finance outweighs this cost.
(1) Available capital = CU200,000. Accept projects C, E and 20% B. Total NPV = CU2,703,000.
(2) If D is accepted the available capital becomes CU1,400,000 [CU200,000 + CU500,000 (from
project C) + CU700,000 (from project D)].
Accept projects C, D, E and 90% B. Total NPV = CU3,985,500. This is the optimal solution.
(d) Indivisible projects
Possible investment 'portfolios' are
B or C or E or (C and E)
The portfolio which has the highest NPV is C and E requiring an investment of CU3.35 million
and generating CU2.3 million.
60 IGLOO LTD
(a) No capital rationing
Accept all projects with NPV 0.
NPV
CU'000
Project A + 60
Project B + 40
Project C – 20 Therefore accept A, B, D and E
Project D + 110
Project E + 40
(b) Single period capital rationing

NPV
Using benefit cost ratios (NPV/CU)
initial investment
NPV/CU Rank
Project A + 60  100 = 0.60 3
Project B + 40  50 = 0.80 2
Project C – 20  200 = (0.10) 5
Project D + 110  100 = 1.10 1
Project E + 40  200 = 0.20 4
CU225,000 available, therefore accept D, B, 3/4A.

(c) Mutually-exclusive investments
This problem is solved by trial and error, using the rankings from (b) above.
The two alternative project combinations are as follows,
D, B, 371/2 % E: NPV (CU000) = 110 + 40 + 15 = 165
D, A, 121/2 % E: NPV (CU000) = 110 + 60 + 5 = 175
Therefore the better combination is D, A and 121/2 % E.
(d) Integer restrictions
Again trial and error is required.
Possible combinations, given the limited finance available, are as follows.
A and B; A and D; B and D; or any single project.
Examining all the different whole project combinations shows that A and D produce the maximum
amount of total NPV, the amount being CU170,000.
(e) Restrictions with inflows, outflows and negative NPVs
Recalculating the benefit-cost ratios, now using t1 outlays.
NPV/CU Rank
Project A + 60  100 = 0.60 3
Project B + 40  100 = 0.40 4
Project C – 20  (100) = 0.20* ?
Project D + 110  50 = 2.20 1
Project E + 40  50 = 0.80 2
It is worth simplifying the problem with some rational analysis.
In this case not much can be done. However, it may be that some projects can automatically be
eliminated (with negative NPVs and using up funds in the restricted year). It may also happen that
some projects can be automatically elected (with positive NPVs and providing additional funds in
the restricted year). Here the problem concerns C (negative NPV but providing funds for
time 1).
If project C is accepted, this makes an extra CU100,000 of investment finance available at t1.
However, in doing so a negative NPV (– CU20,000) is incurred. Thus one must consider whether
the extra positive NPV generated by the additional investment finance outweighs this cost.
CU150,000 of capital, accept D, E and 1/2 A. Total NPV = CU180,000.
CU150,000 + CU100,000 of capital, accept D, E, A, 1/2 B and C. Total NPV = CU(110,000 +
40,000 + 60,000 + 20,000 – 20,000) = CU210,000. This is the optimal combination.
Having found that, with CU150,000 available, the 'money dries up' half way through project A, it
is clear by comparing A’s NPV/CU of CU0.60 with C’s (strange) NPV/CU of CU0.20, that every
CU1 C provides at time 1 increases the NPV by a net CU0.40. It is also worth using C to supply
funds for project B.
61 STAN BELDARK
Optimal replacement period
The effects of increasing running costs and decreasing resale value have to be weighed up against
capital cost. Road fund licence etc can be ignored, since Stan will always pay CU300 per year per car.
The following table is one of the quickest ways to reach an answer.
Running PV Cum PV Resale PV of NPV of Cum EAC
cost of RC of RC value RV car discount
CU CU CU CU CU CU factor CU
Life 1 3,000 2,727 2,727 3,500 3,182 5,045* 0.909 5,550
Life 2 3,500 2,891 5,618 2,100 1,735 9,383 1.736 5,405
Life 3 4,300 3,229 8,847 900 676 13,671 2.487 5,497
* NPV = 5,500 cost + 2,727 running cost – 3,182 resale value = CU5,045
From the above table it can be seen that the optimal replacement period is every two years.
62 TALEB LTD
Summary showing the optimal replacement policy for Taleb’s Dot machines
Replacement cycle Annual equivalent
net revenue
CU'000
One year 8.0
Two years 11.1 *
Three years 9.8
Four years 10.3
* optimal policy. Replacement of the Dot machine every two years results in the greatest annual
equivalent net revenue for the company (i.e. CU11,100) and therefore is the recommended
replacement policy.
WORKINGS
Annual production/sales (units) 500,000 400,000
CU CU
Annual revenue (CU0.12 per unit) 60,000 48,000
Less Annual variable costs (CU0.04 per unit) (20,000) (16,000)
Contribution 40,000 32,000
(1) One year replacement
Year 0 Year 1
CU'000 CU'000
Machine outlay (60)
Scrap value 40
Running costs (6)
Contribution 40
Net cash flow (60) 74
Net present values = –60 + 74  0.909
= 7.266
Annual equivalent = 7.266  0.909
 CU7,993
(2) Two year replacement

Year 0 Year 1 Year 2
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Machine outlay (60.0)
Scrap value 25.0
Running costs (6.0) (6.5)
Contribution 40.0 40.0
Net cash flow (60.0) 34.0 58.5
Net present values = –60 + 34  0.909 + 58.5  0.826

= 19.227
 CU11,075
(3) Three year replacement

Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Scrap value 10.0
Running costs (6.0) (6.5) (7.5)
Contribution 40.0 40.0 32.0
Net cash flow (60.0) 34.0 33.5 34.5
Net present values = –60 + 34  0.909 + 33.5  0.826 + 34.5  0.751

= 24.4865
 CU9,846
(4) Four year replacement

Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
CU'000 CU'000 CU'000 CU'000
Scrap value 0
Running costs (6.0) (6.5) (7.5) (9.0)
Contribution 40.0 40.0 32.0 32.0
Net cash flow (60.0) 34.0 33.5 24.5 23.0
Net present values = –60 + 34  0.909 + 33.5  0.826 + 24.5  0.751 + 23  0.683
= 32.6855
 CU10,311
Tutorial note
The notable feature of this question is that it involves revenues as well as costs in the replacement
decision. Several approaches can be taken but the above is probably the simplest. Other approaches,
including the opportunity cost of contribution forgone, are acceptable and, although they will produce
different figures, they should give the same ranking.
Answers to Interactive questions
Answer to Interactive question 1

(a)
Time Cumulative cash flow
CU
0 (500,000)
1 (430,000)
2 (360,000)
3 (280,000)
4 (180,000)
5 (80,000)
6 40,000  Payback = 5.67 years
(b) Profit calculation:
CU
Total cash flows from operations 540,000
Total depreciation (150,000)
Total profits 390,000
Average profits ( 6) = CU65,000 p.a.
Average investment calculation
500, 000 + 350, 000

= CU425,000
2
65
ARR = = 15.3%
425
(c) NPV @ 12%
Time Discount Factor PV
CU'000 CU'000
0 (500) 1.000 (500.00)
1 70 0.893 62.51
2 70 0.797 55.79
3 80 0.712 56.96
4 100 0.636 63.60
5 100 0.567 56.70
6 (350 + 120) 470 0.507 238.29
NPV 33,850
(d) NPV at 15% p.a.
Time Discount Factor PV
CU'000 CU'000
0 (500) 1.000 (500.00)
1 70 0.870 60.90
2 70 0.756 52.92
3 80 0.658 52.64
4 100 0.572 57.20
5 100 0.497 49.70
6 470 0.432 203.04
at 15% NPV = (23,600)

at 12% NPV = 33,850
33,850
IRR = 12 + (15 – 12)
33,850  23,600
= 13.8%

Payback period  Simple to understand  Unsophisticated Useful as an initial

filtering device
 Quick for initial  No account is taken
screening of projects of the time value of
money
 Considers risk (very
crudely)  Cash flows
received/paid after
payback are ignored
Accounting rate of  Use of profit  Not consistent with Unlikely to be useful
return consistent with wealth maximisation as a decision making
ROCE and EPS tool
 No account is taken
 Use of balance sheet of time value of
values (asset backing) money
 Relative score is easy  Percentage figure
to understand may give misleading
advice when
choosing between
alternatives
 Profits can be
manipulated
Net present value  Takes into account  The need to Technically superior
the time value of estimate a cost of technique
money capital
 Gives an absolute  Difficulty in obtaining
measure, allowing all relevant
for comparison of costs/benefits
projects
 Assumes cash flows
 Considers all cash occur at annual
flows of projects intervals
Internal rate of return  Takes into account  May conflict with Easier to use and
the time value of NPV decision communicate
money practically
 Assumes cash
 Represents a reinvested at IRR
breakeven point so
does not need an
exact cost of capital
 Considers all cash
flows of projects
The above example emphasises the idea of progression – the techniques introduced at knowledge level will
be applied here to solve real world problems.

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
CU CU CU CU CU
Sales 100,000 110,000 121,000 133,100
Working capital required 15,000 16,500 18,150 19,965 0
Cash flow (15,000) (1,500) (1,650) (1,815) 19,965

Now the only alternative use for the material is to sell it for scrap. To use 50 tonnes on the contract is to
give up the opportunity of selling it for 50  CU150 = CU7,500. The contract should therefore be charged
with this amount.

The relevant cost of 25 tonnes is CU150 per tonne. The organisation must then purchase a further 25
tonnes and, assuming this is in the near future, it will cost CU210 per tonne.
The contract must be charged with:
CU
25 tonnes @ CU150 3,750
25 tonnes @ CU210 5,250
9,000

What revenue is lost if the labour is transferred to the project from doing nothing? Nothing.
The relevant cost is zero.

Costs and revenues of proceeding with the project.
CU
(1) Costs to date of CU150,000 are sunk costs, therefore ignore.
(2) Materials – purchase price of CU60,000 is also sunk.
There is an opportunity benefit of the disposal costs saved. 5,000
(3) Labour cost – the direct cost of CU40,000 will be incurred regardless of
whether the project is undertaken or not – and so is not relevant.
Opportunity cost of lost contribution = 150,000 – (100,000 – 40,000) (90,000)
The absorption of overheads is irrelevant – it is merely
an apportionment of existing costs which do not change.
(4) Research staff costs
Wages for the year (60,000)
Increase in redundancy pay (35,000 – 15,000) (20,000)
(5) Equipment
Deprival value if used in the project = disposal value (8,000)
Disposal proceeds in one year 6,000
(All book values and depreciation figures are irrelevant)
(6) General building services
Apportioned costs – irrelevant
Opportunity costs of rental forgone (7,000)
(174,000)
Sales value of project 300,000
Increased contribution from project 126,000
Advice. Proceed with the project.

The recoverable amount is the CU900 NRV (which is higher than the CU800 economic value). As this is
lower than the CU1,000 replacement cost, CU900 is the deprival value.

t0 t1 t2
CU CU CU
Net trading revenue 5,000 5,000
Tax @ 30% (1,500) (1,500)
Asset (10,000) 6,000
TDA (W) 750 562.50 (112.50)
Net cash flow (9,250) 4,062.50 9,387.50
Working
Tax computation
PROFITS t0 t1 t2
IN PRIOR
YEAR
 Asset purchased 31 Dec 20X0  Asset scrapped 31 Dec 20X2

 First TDA will be set off against  No TDA in year of sale
profits earned in y/e 31 Dec 20X0 – balancing adjustment instead
 First tax relief at t0
Tax relief at Timing
CU 30%
31 Dec 20X0 Investment in asset 10,000
TDA @ 25% (2,500) 750 t0
7,500
31 Dec 20X1 TDA @ 25% (1,875) 562.50 t1
5,625
31 Dec 20X2 Proceeds 6,000
Balancing charge (375) (112.50) t2
 Asset value dropped 10,000 – 6,000 4,000

 TDA claimed 2,500 + 1,875 (4,375)
 Relief reclaimed ('clawed back') 375

t0 t1 t2
CU CU CU
Net trading revenue 5,000 5,000
Tax @ 30% (1,500) (1,500)
Asset (10,000)
Scrap proceeds 6,000
Tax savings on TDAs (W) 750 450
Net cash flow (10,000) 4,250 9,950
WORKING
Tax computation
t0 PROFITS t1 t2
IN
YEAR 1
 Asset purchased 1 Jan 20X1 which  Asset sold 31 Dec 20X2

is effectively (for discounting
purposes) the same as 31 December
20X0, i.e. t0
 First TDA will be set off against  No TDA in year of sale
profits earned in year 1 (t0  t1) – balancing adjustment instead
 First tax relief at t1
Tax relief at Timing
CU 30%
1 Jan 20X1 Investment in asset 10,000
31 Dec 20X1 TDA @ 25% (2,500) 750 t1
7,500
31 Dec 20X2 Proceeds 6,000
Balancing allowance (1,500) 450 t2

t0 t1 t2 t3
CU CU CU CU
Invest (10,000)
Returns inflated at 7% 5,350 5,725 6,125
Net CF (10,000) 5,350 5,725 6,125
DF @ 10% 1 0.909 0.826 0.751
PV (10,000) 4,863 4,729 4,600
NPV = CU4,192

(1) Calculate effective rate:
(1 + m) = (1 + e) (1 + is)
1.1 = (1 + e) (1.08)
e = 1.9%
(2) Discount perpetuity using the effective rate:
CU10,000
= CU526,316
0.019

Replace after two years
Cash Discount factor Present
Time Narrative flow @ 10% value
CU CU
0 Purchase (20,000) 1 (20,000)
1 Running costs (5,000) 0.909 (4,545)
2 Running costs (5,500) 0.826 (4,543)
2 Scrap proceeds 13,000 0.826 10,738
NPV = (18,350)
CU18,350 CU18,350
Annual equivalent = = = CU10,570
AF2 years @10% 1.736
Replace after one year

Cash Discount factor Present
Time Narrative flow @ 10% value
CU CU
0 Purchase (20,000) 1 (20,000)
1 Running costs (5,000) 0.909 (4,545)
2 Scrap proceeds 16,000 0.909 14,544
NPV = (10,001)
CU10,001 CU10,001
Annual equivalent = = = CU11,002
AF1year @10% 0.909
The machine should be replaced after two years because the cost is lower in NPV terms.

Project NPV ÷ outlay Rank
A 100,000 ÷ 50,000 = 2 3
C 84,000 ÷10,000 = 8.4 1
D 45,000 ÷15,000 = 3 2
Project B is rejected because of its negative NPV.
Plan:
NPV Funds
CU CU
Accept C 84,000 10,000
Accept D 45,000 15,000
25,000
Accept ½ A 50,000 25,000
179,000 50,000 available
The solution assumes it is possible to accept half of project A, i.e. projects are perfectly divisible so that half
the outlay gives half the NPV, etc.

Considering X, Y and Z independently
X 25,000 ÷ 100,000 = 0.25 1
Y 11,000 ÷ 50,000 = 0.22 2
Z 8,000 ÷ 40,000 = 0.20 3
 Project X using all CU100,000 available, NPV CU25,000.
Considering X and Y + Z
X 25,000 ÷ 100,000 = 0.25 2
Y+Z (11,000 + 8,000 + 4,400) ÷ (50,000 + 40,000) = 0.26 1
Plan:
NPV Funds
CU CU
Accept Y + Z 23,400 90,000
Accept one tenth of X 2,500 10,000
25,900 100,000
 Accept Y + Z + one tenth of X

Traditional accounting-based measures of management effectiveness, like the return on capital employed
ratio (ROCE) and the earnings per share value (EPS), have been criticised for not focusing sufficiently on
what businesses ultimately seek to do, namely to generate wealth for their shareholders.
The problems with the accounting measures is that they tend to focus on sales and profit increases, not on
value generation.
For example, it is always open to a business to increase its ROCE and EPS, at least in the short term, by
taking on more risky activities. Such activities may well have the effect of reducing value.
The increasing emphasis on the wealth of the shareholders as a corporate goal, has led to the emergence of
ideas like shareholder value analysis (SVA). SVA is based on the totally logical principle that the value of the
business overall is equal to the sum of the present values (PVs) of all of its activities. The shareholders'
financial stake in the business is the value of the business, less the value of its outstanding debt. Thus if the
value of the PVs of the various activities of the business can be increased, this should mean greater value for
shareholders, either to be paid out as dividends or reinvested in other projects that will, in turn, result in
still more shareholder value.

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chapter 2

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 19

Learning objectives Tick off

 To select and justify investment appraisal techniques

 To choose appropriate values for use in investment appraisal

 To take account of tax and inflation

 To consider relevant non-financial factors, including the limitations of the techniques

Stop and think

20 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 21

1 Ranking of investment appraisal techniques

1.1 Recap of investment appraisal techniques

Average annual profit from investment

Initial outlay  Scrap value

22 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

Interactive question 1: Revision of basic techniques [Difficulty level: Easy]

Interactive question 2: Ranking of techniques [Difficulty level: Easy]

Merits Demerits Rank

Net present value

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 23

Merits Demerits Rank

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

2 Relevant cash flows

2.1 Why cash flows rather than profits?

2.2 Profits to cash flows

24 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

Worked example: Working capital

Interactive question 3: Changing working capital [Difficulty level: Easy]

2.3 Relevant cash flows

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 25

The relevant cash flow is the difference between:

2.4 Opportunity costs and revenues

Worked example: Relevant cost of material

26 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

Interactive question 4: Material with no alternative use

Interactive question 5: Material with a scrap value [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Worked example: Relevant cost of labour

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 27

Interactive question 6: Relevant cost of surplus labour [Difficulty level: Easy]

Interactive question 7: Relevant costs [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

28 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

2.5 Deprival value

Worked example: Deprival value

This can be summarised as follows.

Replacement cost and Recoverable amount

ie the cost of replacing = higher of

ie the present value of ie the asset's worth if

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 29

Interactive question 8: Deprival value [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Worked example: Taxable profit

30 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009

Tax charged Tax relief

Tax Depreciation (TD)

3.3 Tax Depreciation (TDs)

3.4 Other assumptions

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009 31

Worked example: Tax Depreciation

32 © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, March 2009