CHAPTER 17

The Evolution of Plant and Fungal

Diversity

Chapter Objectives
Opening Essay
Explain why fungi have been important to the evolution of plants.

Plant Evolution and Diversity

17.1–17.2 Describe the key plant adaptations to life on land.
17.2 Compare the bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, and
angiosperms.

Alternation of Generations and Plant Life Cycles

17.3 Compare the alternation of generations life cycle in a moss and a fern, noting
similarities and differences.
17.4 Explain how coal is formed. Explain why coal, oil, and natural gas are called
fossil fuels.
17.5 Explain and compare seed production in gymnosperms and angiosperms.
17.5 Describe the stages of the gymnosperm life cycle.
17.6 Describe the parts of a flower and explain their functions.
17.7 Describe the stages of the angiosperm life cycle.
17.8 Describe the angiosperm adaptations that promote seed dispersal.
17.9 Describe the significance of angiosperms to the human diet.
17.10 Explain how flowers are adapted to attract pollinators.
17.11 Describe the human impact on plant diversity. Explain the significance of this
loss for humanity.

Diversity of Fungi
17.12 Describe the main traits of fungi and their ecological roles.
17.13 Describe the generalized life cycle of a fungus. Explain how molds and yeast
reproduce.
17.14 Distinguish between the five groups of fungi.
17.15 Describe the positive ecological roles of fungi.
17.16 Describe the practical uses of fungi.
17.17 Describe the structure and characteristics of lichens.
17.18 Describe the evidence that suggests that mycorrhizae have helped plants
colonize land.
17.19 Explain how parasitic fungi harm plants and animals.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 229

Lecture Outline
I. Introduction
A. Mutually beneficial symbioses between plants and fungi began millions of years ago
when plants first occupied land.
1. These intimate associations allow the plant to tap a vast underground network of
fungal filaments into which water and mineral nutrients flow.
2. Plants supply mycorrhizae with sugars and other organic molecules.
3. At least 80% of all plants form such relationships.
II. Plant Evolution and Diversity
A. 17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land
1. More than 500 million years ago, the algal ancestors of plants may have carpeted
moist fringes of lakes and coastal salt marshes.
2. Plants and green algae called charophytes
a. are thought to have evolved from a common ancestor,
b. have complex multicellular bodies, and
c. are photosynthetic eukaryotes.
3. Some species accumulated adaptations that enabled them to live permanently above
the water line.
4. Life on land offered many opportunities for plant adaptations that took advantage of
a. unlimited sunlight,
b. abundant CO2, and
c. initially, few pathogens or herbivores.
5. But life on land had disadvantages, too. On land, plants must
a. maintain moisture inside their cells, to keep from drying out,
b. support their body in a nonbuoyant medium,
c. reproduce and disperse offspring without water,
d. anchor their bodies to soil, and
e. obtain resources from soil and air.
6. Unlike land plants, algae
a. generally have no rigid tissues,
b. are supported by surrounding water,
c. obtain CO2 and minerals directly from the water surrounding the entire algal body,
d. receive light and perform photosynthesis over most of their body,
e. use flagellated sperm that swim to fertilize an egg, and
f. disperse offspring by water.
7. Land plants maintain moisture in their cells using
a. a waxy cuticle and
b. cells that regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
8. Land plants obtain
a. water and minerals from roots in the soil,
b. CO2 from the air and
c. sunlight through leaves.
9. Growth-producing regions of cell division, called apical meristems, are found near
the tips of stems and roots.
10. In many land plants, water and minerals move up from roots to stems and leaves using
vascular tissue.

230 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 11. Xylem
a. consists of dead cells and
b. conveys water and minerals.
12. Phloem
a. consists of living cells and
b. conveys sugars.
13. The cell walls of some plant tissues, including xylem, are thickened and reinforced by
a chemical called lignin.
14. The absence of lignified cell walls in mosses and other plants that lack vascular tissue
limits their height.
15. In all plants, the
a. gametes and embryos must be kept moist,
b. fertilized egg (zygotes) develops into an embryo while attached to and nourished by
the parent plant, and
c. life cycle involves an alternation of a haploid generation, which produces eggs and
sperm, and a diploid generation, which produces spores within protective structures
called sporangia.
16. Pines and flowering plants have pollen grains, structures that contain the
sperm-producing cells.
B. 17.2 Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom
1. Four key adaptations for life on land distinguish the main lineages of the plant
kingdom.
a. Dependent embryos are present in all plants.
b. Lignified vascular tissues mark a lineage that gave rise to most living plants.
c. Seeds are found in a lineage that includes all living gymnosperms and angiosperms.
d. Flowers mark the angiosperm lineage.
2. Early diversification of plants gave rise to seedless, nonvascular plants called
bryophytes, including
a. mosses,
b. liverworts, and
c. hornworts.
3. Bryophytes resemble other plants in having apical meristems and embryos retained on
the parent plant, but they lack
a. true roots,
b. leaves, and
c. lignified cell walls.
4. About 425 million years ago, vascular plants evolved with lignin-hardened vascular
tissues.
5. The seedless vascular plants include
a. lycophytes (including club mosses) and
b. monilophytes (ferns and their relatives).
6. The first vascular plants with seeds evolved about 360 million years ago.
7. A seed consists of an embryo packaged with a food supply within a protective
covering.
8. Vascular plants with seeds include
a. gymnosperms (including ginkgo, cycad, and conifer species) and
b. angiosperms (such as flowering trees and grasses).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 231
 9. Gymnosperms
a. have naked seeds that are not produced in special chambers and
b. include ginkgo, cycad, and conifer species.
10. Angiosperms
a. evolved at least 140 million years ago,
b. are flowering plants, and
c. include flowering trees and grasses.
III. Alternation of Generations and Plant Life Cycles
A. 17.3 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant
life cycles
1. Plants have an alternation of generations in which the haploid and diploid stages are
distinct, multicellular bodies.
a. The haploid generation of a plant produces gametes and is called the gametophyte.
b. The diploid generation produces spores and is called the sporophyte.
2. In a plant’s life cycle, these two generations alternate in producing each other.
a. In mosses, as in all nonvascular plants, the gametophyte is the larger, more obvious
stage of the life cycle.
b. Ferns, like most plants, have a life cycle dominated by the sporophyte.
c. Today, about 95% of all plants, including all seed plants, have a dominant
sporophyte in their life cycle.
B. 17.4 Seedless vascular plants dominated vast “coal forests”
1. Two groups of seedless plants formed vast ancient forests in low-lying wetlands
during the Carboniferous period (360–299 million years ago):
a. lycophytes (such as club mosses) and
b. pterophytes (such as ferns).
2. When these plants died, they formed peat deposits that eventually formed coal.
3. Coal, oil, and natural gas are fossil fuels.
a. Oil and natural gas formed from marine organisms.
b. Coal formed from seedless plants.
4. Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
which are now causing a warming climate.
5. As temperatures dropped during the late Carboniferous period,
a. glaciers formed,
b. the climate turned drier,
c. the vast swamps and forests began to disappear, and
d. wind-dispersed pollen and protective seeds gave seed plants a competitive advantage.
C. 17.5 Pollen and seeds are key adaptations for life on land
1. Gymnosperms and angiosperms have pollen grains that carry their sperm-producing
cells through the air.
2. The offspring of seedless plants are sent off into the world as haploid, single-celled
spores that must survive independently as gametophytes before producing the next
sporophyte generation.
3. Seed plants launch next-generation sporophytes that are ready to grow.
4. In seed plants, a specialized structure within the sporophyte houses all reproductive
stages, including
a. spores,
b. eggs,

232 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 c. sperm,
d. zygotes, and
e. embryos.
5. In gymnosperms such as pines and other conifers, this structure is called a cone.
6. In the male reproductive structures of seed plants, haploid spores develop into pollen
grains, which are male gametophytes enclosed within a tough wall.
7. If a pollen grain lands on a compatible female structure, an event known as
pollination, it undergoes mitosis to produce a sperm.
8. In seed plants, the sperm is reduced to a nucleus.
9. Haploid spores in female reproductive structures develop into ovules, which contain
the egg-producing female gametophytes.
10. If pollination has occurred, the pollen grain grows a tiny tube that enters the ovule and
releases the sperm nucleus.
11. Only then does fertilization occur—pollination and fertilization are separate events.
12. The ovule and its surrounding tissues mature into a seed consisting of
a. an embryo,
b. a food supply to sustain it until it is capable of photosynthesis, and
c. a tough seed coat.
D. 17.6 The flower is the centerpiece of angiosperm reproduction
1. No organisms make a showier display of their sex life than angiosperms.
2. Flowers are the sites of
a. pollination and
b. fertilization.
3. Flowers house separate male and female sporangia and gametophytes.
4. Flowers usually consist of
a. sepals, which enclose the flower before it opens,
b. petals, which attract animal pollinators,
c. stamens, which include a filament and anther, a sac at the top of each filament that
contains male sporangia and releases pollen, and
d. carpels, the female reproductive structure, which includes
i. the stigma,
ii. the style, and
iii. the ovary, a unique angiosperm adaptation that encloses the ovules.
5. Ovules develop into seeds.
6. Ovaries mature into fruit.
E. 17.7 The angiosperm plant is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers
1. Key events in a typical angiosperm life cycle:
a. Meiosis in the anthers of the flower produces haploid spores that undergo mitosis
and form the male gametophytes, or pollen grains.
b. Meiosis in the ovule produces a haploid spore that undergoes mitosis and forms the
few cells of the female gametophyte, one of which becomes the egg.
c. Pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on the stigma. A pollen tube grows
from the pollen grain to the ovule.
d. The tube carries a sperm that fertilizes the egg to form a zygote.
e. Each ovule develops into a seed, consisting of
i. an embryo (a new sporophyte) surrounded by a food supply and
ii. a seed coat derived from the integuments.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 233
 f. While the seeds develop, the ovary’s wall thickens, forming the fruit that encloses
the seeds.
g. When conditions are favorable, a seed germinates, which means it begins to grow.
F. 17.8 The structure of a fruit reflects its function in seed dispersal
1. Fruits are
a. ripened ovaries of flowers and
b. adaptations that disperse seeds.
2. Seed dispersal mechanisms include relying on
a. wind,
b. hitching a ride on animals, or
c. fleshy, edible fruits that attract animals, which then deposit the seed in a supply of
natural fertilizer at some distance from the parent plant.
G. 17.9 CONNECTION: Angiosperms sustain us—and add spice to our diets
1. We depend on the fruits and seeds of angiosperms for much of our food.
2. Corn, rice, wheat, and other grains are dry fruits.
a. Apples, cherries, tomatoes, and squash are fleshy fruits.
b. Spices such as nutmeg, cinnamon, cumin, cloves, ginger, and licorice are also
angiosperm fruits.
c. Pepper fruits are harvested before ripening, then dried and ground into powder or
sold whole as “peppercorns.”
H. 17.10 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Pollination by animals has influenced angiosperm
evolution
1. About 90% of angiosperms use animals to transfer their pollen.
a. Birds are usually attracted by colorful flowers but not scent.
b. Most beetles are attracted by fruity odors but are indifferent to color.
c. Night-flying bats and moths are usually attracted by large, highly scented flowers.
d. Wind-pollinated flowers typically produce large amounts of pollen.
I. 17.11 CONNECTION: Plant diversity is vital to the future of the world’s food supply
1. Early hunter-gatherer humans made use of any edible plant species available at the
time.
2. Modern agriculture has narrowed the pool of food plant diversity by creating a select
few genotypes possessing the most desirable characteristics.
3. Most of the world’s population is now fed by varieties of rice, wheat, corn, and
soybeans that require specific cultivation techniques.
4. Agriculture has changed the landscape.
5. Some new crops may come from the hundreds of species of nutritious fruits, nuts, and
grains that people gather and use locally.
6. As plant biodiversity is lost through extinction and habitat destruction, we lose
a. potential crop species and
b. genetic diversity.
IV. Diversity of Fungi
A. 17.12 Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies
1. Fungi
a. are heterotrophic eukaryotes,
b. secrete powerful enzymes to digest their food externally, and
c. acquire their nutrients by absorption.
2. Most fungi consist of a mass of threadlike hyphae making up a mycelium.

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 3. In most fungi, the hyphae consist of chains of cells separated by cross-walls that have
pores large enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow from
cell to cell.
4. Fungal hyphae are surrounded by a cell wall made of chitin instead of cellulose.
5. Some fungi are parasites obtaining their nutrients at the expense of living plants or
animals.
6. Mycorrhizae
a. represent a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant root cells and
b. absorb phosphorus and other essential materials from the soil and make them
available to the plant.
7. Sugars produced by the plant through photosynthesis nourish the fungus, making the
relationship mutually beneficial.
B. 17.13 Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles
1. Fungal reproduction typically involves the release of vast numbers of haploid spores,
which are transported easily over great distances by wind or water.
2. A spore that lands in a moist place where food is available
a. germinates and
b. produces a new haploid fungus by mitosis.
3. Spores can be produced either
a. sexually or
b. asexually.
4. In many fungi, sexual reproduction involves mycelia of different mating types.
Hyphae from each mycelium release signaling molecules and grow toward each other.
a. When the hyphae meet, their cytoplasms fuse. But this fusion of cytoplasm is often
not followed immediately by the fusion of “parental” nuclei. Thus, many fungi have
what is called heterokaryotic stage, in which cells contain two genetically distinct
haploid nuclei.
b. Hours, days, or even centuries may pass before the parental nuclei fuse, forming the
usually short-lived diploid phase.
c. Zygotes undergo meiosis, producing haploid spores. The specialized structures in
which these spores form are used to classify fungi.
d. In asexual reproduction, spore-producing structures arise from haploid mycelia that
have undergone neither a heterokaryotic stage nor meiosis.
5. Imperfect fungi use only asexual reproduction for spore production; they include
many species commonly called molds and yeasts.
6. A mold is any rapidly growing fungus that reproduces asexually by producing spores.
7. Yeast refers to any single-celled fungus.
C. 17.14 Fungi are classified into five groups
1. There are over 100,000 described fungi species of fungi.
2. Suspected but as-yet-undescribed species may number as many as 1.5 million.
3. The lineages that gave rise to fungi and animals are thought to have diverged from a
flagellated unikont ancestor more than one billion years ago.
4. The oldest undisputed fossils of fungi, however, are only about 460 million years old.
5. Although a current hypothesis of fungal phylogeny has multiple lines leading to the
chytrids and the zygomycetes (which indicate that these groups are probably not
monophyletic), the classification still identifies five main groups of fungi.
6. Chytrids are the only fungi with flagellated spores and are thought to represent the
earliest lineage of fungi.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 235
 7. Chytrid fungi are
a. common in lakes, ponds, and soil and
b. linked to the widespread decline of amphibian species.
8. Zygomycetes, or zygote fungi, are characterized by their protective zygosporangium,
where zygotes produce haploid spores by meiosis.
9. This diverse group includes fast-growing molds that attack, for example,
a. bread,
b. peaches,
c. strawberries,
d. sweet potatoes, and
e. some animals.
10. Glomeromycetes form a distinct type of mycorrhizae, in which hyphae that invade
plant roots branch into treelike structures known as arbuscules.
a. About 90% of all plants have symbiotic partnerships with glomeromycetes, which
deliver phosphate and other minerals to plants while receiving organic nutrients in
exchange.
11. Ascomycetes, or sac fungi,
a. form saclike structures called asci, which produce spores in sexual reproduction,
b. live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats, and
c. range in size from unicellular years to elaborate morels and cup fungi.
12. Some ascomycetes live with green algae or cyanobacteria in symbiotic associations
called lichens.
13. Basidiomycetes, or club fungi,
a. include common mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi and
b. are named for their club-shaped, spore-producing structure called a basidium.
14. These fungi include
a. important forest decomposers and
b. particularly destructive plant parasites called rusts and smuts.
D. 17.15 CONNECTION: Fungi have enormous ecological benefits
1. Fungi
a. supply essential nutrients to plants through symbiotic mycorrhizae,
b. along with prokaryotes, are essential decomposers in ecosystems, breaking down
organic matter and restocking the environment with vital nutrients essential for
plant growth, and
c. may also be used to digest petroleum products to clean up oil spills and other
chemical messes.
E. 17.16 CONNECTION: Fungi have many practical uses
1. Fungi have many practical uses for humans.
a. We eat mushrooms and cheeses modified by fungi.
b. Yeasts produce alcohol and cause bread to rise.
c. Some fungi provide antibiotics that are used to treat bacterial disease.
d. Fungi figure prominently in molecular biology and in biotechnology. Yeasts, for
example, are often used to study molecular genetics of eukaryotes.
e. Fungi may play a major role in the future production of biofuels from plants.
F. 17.17 Lichens are symbiotic associations of fungi and photosynthetic organisms
1. Lichens consist of symbiotic associations of algae or cyanobacteria within a mass of
fungal hyphae.
a. Many lichen associations are mutualistic.

236 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 b. The fungus receives food from its photosynthetic partner.
c. The fungal mycelium helps the alga absorb and retain water and minerals.
2. Lichens
a. are important pioneers on new land, where they help to form soil,
b. can withstand severe drought, and
c. are sensitive to air pollution because they obtain minerals from the air. The death
of lichens is often a sign that air quality in an area is deteriorating.
G. 17.18 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Mycorrhizae may have helped plants colonize land
1. Scientists have proposed that symbioses with fungi were crucial to the colonization of
land by plants.
2. To test this hypothesis, researchers have pursued three lines of evidence, including
a. present-day mycorrhizal relationships,
b. fossils of early land plants, and
c. molecular genetics.
3. About 80% of all plant species establish symbioses with glomeromycetes, mycorrhizal
fungi that form bushy structures called arbuscules in root cells.
4. The presence of mycorrhizal associations in almost all major lineages of present-day
plants suggests an ancient origin for plant-fungus symbioses.
5. Fossil evidence supporting the hypothesis comes from a rock formation in Scotland
known as the Rhynie chert.
6. Both plants and fungi have been preserved in exquisite detail, providing an
extraordinary look at a 400-million-year-old ecosystem.
7. Arbuscules identical to those found in living mycorrhizal associations are visible
within some of the cells.
8. Recent studies using molecular genetics have introduced another line of evidence.
9. Scientists have studied three of the genes, called sym (for symbiosis) genes, that
encode the plant’s side of the molecular “handshake” with mycorrhizae.
10. In a paper published in 2010, researchers reported that sym genes are found in all
major lineages of land plants.
H. 17.19 CONNECTION: Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals
1. Of the 100,000 known species of fungi, about 30% are either parasites or pathogens in
or on plants.
2. About 80% of plant diseases are caused by fungi.
a. Between 10% and 50% of the world’s fruit harvest is lost each year to fungal
attack.
b. A variety of fungi, including smuts and rusts, infect grain crops.
3. Only about 50 species of fungi are parasitic on animals.
4. Fungal diseases of the skin include
a. ringworm, named because it appears as circular red areas on the skin,
b. athlete’s foot, also caused by the ringworm fungus,
c. vaginal yeast infections, and
d. deadly lung diseases that produce tuberculosis-like symptoms in the lungs.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 237
Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources

Plant Evolution and Diversity (17.1–17.2)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in
which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides
good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first
moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity
already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that
produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage
over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs
of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed
advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. (17.1–17.2)
• The text identifies charophytes as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students
might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophytes were the direct ancestors of
plants. Instead, modern charophytes and plants share a common ancestor, but each has
been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering
the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common
ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions
may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be
confused. (17.1–17.2)

Teaching Tips
• Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial
ancestors. Students might contemplate the common changes in these organisms as they
returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged. (17.1)
• Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and
water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and
shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible.
(17.1)
• Consider an analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway,
with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the
widespread distribution of concentrated resources. (17.1)
• Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproduc-
tive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages of housing a developing
embryo with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully
regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease,
or predation.) (17.1)
• Consider an analogy between a chicken egg and the first seeds to evolve, although the
parallels are limited: each consists of a developing embryo enclosed in a water-resistant
packet, along with a store of food. (17.2)
• The support provided by many tightly packed mosses is analogous to the collective support
of the many fibers of plush carpeting. Each fiber of carpet and each individual moss plant
might easily collapse without the support of its neighbor. (17.2)

238 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Active Lecture Tips
• Before addressing plant evolution, have your students work in small groups and list the
demands of living on land versus in water. Asking them to consider the challenges that
plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting
adaptations in Chapter 17. In part, we all are made curious by such exercises to learn what
we figured out on our own! (17.1–17.2)

Alternation of Generations and Plant Life Cycles (17.3–17.11)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Students can easily confuse the animal and plant reproductive cycles. However, the unique
features of alternation of generations in plants (and certain algae) make analogies and
parallels challenging and potentially confusing when referencing animal life cycles. One
possible relevant exercise would be to compare the timing of mitosis and meiosis in plant
and animal life cycles. (17.3–17.4)
• Students often confuse global warming with the destruction of the ozone layer. This might
be a good time to discuss or clarify global warming. The carbon removed from the air
during the Carboniferous period has been locked up in coal (and other fossil fuels) for
about 300 million years. By burning fossil fuels, we are reintroducing carbon that has been
out of circulation for a significant time. Thus, there is a net gain in global carbon dioxide,
which may act like glass in a car to reflect back heat (or glass in a greenhouse). Note that
burning ethanol derived from corn does not directly contribute to global warming by
adding sequestered carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. (17.4)

Teaching Tips
• The authors describe key adaptations for life on land in Module 17.1. Modules 17.2–17.11
describe how these adaptations distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom. This is
consistent with good lecture advice: Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them,
then tell them what you told them (summarize). (17.3–17.11)
• Students might wonder if humans and other animals do not also qualify as having
alternation of generations. Although we do have haploid gametes, the haploid stage does
not include multicellular individuals. (17.3–17.4)
• The tremendous volume of pollen released into the air is apparent to anyone suffering from
allergies. You might wish to have your students find the pollen counts for your area, which
is commonly provided as part of weather reports. It might be interesting to track the pollen
counts as you go through the semester. (17.4–17.5)
• Depending on where your course is taught, coal may be an important part of the economy.
The geology of these coal deposits helps us interpret the rich history of life on Earth. If
you live in a coal region, consider devoting additional time to explain how coal was
deposited, why it is an important source of energy, and how the use of fossil fuels
contributes to global warming. (17.4)
• Much time can pass between pollination, fertilization, and the production of seeds in pine
trees. This entire process may take two years. This lengthy period, the alternation of
generations, and other specific details of the gymnosperm life cycle can create confusion.
Students with little experience in plant biology may need considerable support in fitting all
of these details into the life cycle. (17.4)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 239
 • As Francois Jacob suggested, evolution works as a tinkerer and not like an engineer. New
forms evolve by remodeling old forms. As the text notes, gymnosperm cones are modified
shoots and angiosperm flowers represent the remodeling of leaves. These examples of
remodeling might be a subject you may want to explore in additional detail as an important
lesson in evolution. (17.5–17.6)
• Floral shops frequently discard magnificent flowers that are just beyond their peak.
Teachers can obtain free discards by contacting local floral shops and noting their
educational needs. Having a variety of flowers on hand can brighten up any discussion of
angiosperms. (17.6–17.7)
• The inspiration for the invention of Velcro came from the attachment mechanism of seeds
to a dog like those in Figure 17.8. A wonderful exercise exploring seed biomimicry is
found at the Biomimicry Institute’s website
http://www.biomimicryinstitute.org/downloads/Velcro_Race.pdf (17.8)
• The symbiotic relationships between angiosperms and animals are extensive. Challenge
students to list all of the ways that plant reproduction benefits from animals (examples
include the role of nectar in attracting pollinators, seed dispersal in fruit, and hitchhiker
strategies such as that revealed in Figure 17.10). Not all animals benefit from these
relationships. (17.10)
• Referencing local examples of monoculture replacing a more diverse native ecosystem can
help reinforce the content of Module 17.11. Encouraging students to look around your
community and note where old-growth forest has been replaced with a single fast-growing
species, or where native prairies have given way to vast fields of corn, wheat, or soybeans,
will bring home the loss of plant diversity as modeled in their own backyard. (17.11)

Active Lecture Tips

• See the Activity, Concept Mapping the Alternation of Generations in Angiosperms, on the
Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor
resource area for a description of this activity. (17.3–17.11)
• Before lecturing on the examples of angiosperm and animal cooperation, let your students
work in pairs to try to name as many as they can. (17.8–17.10)
• You might have your students work in pairs to list the plant-derived materials in your
classroom. These will include cotton cloth, wood for pencils, paper in many forms, etc.
In addition, have students try to imagine how they could spend an entire day without
encountering plants or plant products. (17.11)

Diversity of Fungi (17.12–17.19)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them
exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin instead
of cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures to clearly distinguish
fungi as a separate group. (17.12–17.19)

240 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Teaching Tips
• The physical relationship between a fungus and its hyphae is generally analogous to a fire
hydrant and the underground water pipes. Only the fire hydrant emerges above the surface
of the ground. (17.12)
• Ask your students to distinguish between fungi and animals. Both are multicellular
heterotrophs lacking cellulose. Students will have to dig a little to discover that fungi have
cell walls primarily composed of chitin. You might further challenge them to identify
animals that also absorb their nutrients directly from their environments (for example,
tapeworms). (17.12)
• The mechanism of natural selection depends in part on the overproduction of offspring. A
single mushroom can release as many as 1 billion spores. In addition to facilitating
reproduction, such overproduction also increases the likelihood of dispersal. (17.12)
• The heterokaryotic stage is like the merger of two kingdoms in which both kings continue
to rule. (17.13)
• As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many
amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information
available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. (17.14)
www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/ampdis.htm is a website devoted to updates on
amphibian disease.
The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at
www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf.
The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/03-0804.htm.
• Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in natural environments, or in
causing human diseases, or the benefits of fungi to human society, including bioremedia-
tion and the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, baked goods, or fuel. To increase
student interest, consider starting your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of
fungi on human life. Also, consider outside of class student assignments to investigate
specific roles of fungi that may be of particular interest to students with medical,
agricultural, environmental, or industrial majors. (17.15–17.19)
• The website Fungi for the People has information on mushroom cultivation at
http://fungiforthepeople.org/. (17.16)
• Wonderful coverage of lichens can be found at the aptly named www.lichen.com/! (17.17)
• Module 17.19 describes a variety of examples of fungal disease, noting that 80% of plant
diseases are from fungi. Further, human diseases include athlete’s foot, ringworm, and
vaginal yeast infections. If certain fungal infections are particularly problematic in your
region, consider emphasizing them in your lecture. (17.19)
• Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process. Like
the elm trees described in Module 17.19, American chestnut trees were nearly driven to
extinction because they did not possess adaptations that would have helped them survive
the blight fungus. If evolution results from need, why then would the chestnuts or elm trees
suffer? (17.19)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 241
Active Lecture Tips
• The ecological and medical significance of fungi are often underappreciated by students.
Ask your students to work in pairs to create a list of the many medical and ecological
relationships fungi have with humans. Such assessments can generate increased student
interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. (17.12–17.19)

Key Terms
absorption germinates pollination
alternation of generations glomeromycete sac fungus
angiosperm gymnosperm seed
anther heterokaryotic stage seed coat
apical meristem hyphae seedless vascular plants
ascomycete imperfect fungus sepals
basidiomycete lichen sporangium (plural,
bryophyte lignin sporangia)
carpel mold spore
chitin mycelium (plural, mycelia) sporophyte
chytrids mycorrhiza (plural, stamens
club fungus mycorrhizae) vascular plant
embryophyte ovary vascular tissue
fossil fuel ovule xylem
fruit parasites yeast
fungus (plural, fungi) petal zygomycetes
gametangium phloem zygote fungus
gametophyte pollen grains

Word Roots
angio- = vessel; -sperm = seed (angiosperm: a flowering plant, which forms seeds inside a
protective chamber called an ovary)
anth- = a flower (anther: a sac located at the top of a flower’s stamen in which pollen grains
develop)
apic- = the tip; meristo- = divided (apical meristem: a region of cell division at the tip of a plant
root or in the terminal or axillary bud of a shoot)
asco- = sac; -myco- = fungus (ascomycete: a type of fungus that produces spores in sac-like
structures called asci)
basidio- = club; -myco- = fungus (basidiomycete: a type of fungus that produces spores in
club-like structures, called basidia)
bryo- = moss; -phyto = plant (bryophytes: one of a group of nonvascular plants, including mosses,
liverworts, and hornworts, that lack xylem and phloem)
carp- = a fruit (carpel: the female part of a flower, consisting of a stalk with an ovary at the base
and a stigma, which traps pollen, at the tip)

242 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
gamet- = a wife or husband; -angio = vessel (gametangium: a reproductive organ that houses and
protects the gametes of a plant); -phyto = plant (gametophyte: the multicellular haploid form in
organisms undergoing alternation of generations, which mitotically produces haploid gametes that
unite and grow into the sporophyte generation)
glomer- = a ball; myco- = fungus (glomeromycete: member of a group of fungi characterized by a
distinct branching form of mycorrhizae called arbuscules)
gymno- = naked; -sperm = seed (gymnosperm: a vascular plant that bears “naked” seeds not
enclosed in an ovary)
hetero- = different; -karyo = nucleus (heterokaryotic stage: a fungal life cycle stage that contains
two genetically different nuclei in the same cell)
lign- = wood (lignin: a chemical that hardens the cell walls of plants)
myco- = fungus; rhizo- = root (mycorrhiza: a close association of plant roots and fungi that is
beneficial to both partners)
phloe- = the bark of a tree (phloem: the portion of a plant’s vascular system, made up of sieve-tube
members, that conveys phloem sap throughout a plant)
-phyto = a plant (sporophyte: the multicellular diploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of
generations; it results from the union of gametes and meiotically produces haploid spores that grow
into the gametophyte generation)
sporo- = a seed (sporangium: a structure in fungi and plants in which meiosis occurs and haploid
spores develop; spore: in plants and algae, a haploid cell that can develop into a multicellular
individual without fusing with another cell)
stam- = standing upright (stamen: the pollen-producing male reproductive part of a flower,
consisting of a filament and an anther)
vascula- = a little vessel (vascular tissue: plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that
transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body)
xyl- = wood (xylem: the tube-shaped, nonliving portion of the vascular system in plants that
provides support and conveys xylem sap from the roots to the rest of the plant)
zygo- = fertilized cell; -myco- = fungus (zygomycete: a type of fungus that produces spores during
sexual reproduction)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 17 The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity 243