Fuel Test Astm d396

BNL-73601-2005-IR
A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE

UNDERSTANDING HEATING OIL PROPERTIES,
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS, AND REMEDIES
The NORA Fuel Quality Technical Manual

Authored by Wai-Lin Litzke, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Prepared for the National Oilheat Research Alliance, Alexandria, VA 22314
Released August, 2004
NATIONAL OILHEAT RESEARCH ALLIANCE

I Acknowledgments
The author greatly appreciates the support given by the following individuals who have contributed
to the many requirements of this project in order for this manual to be published.
Don Allen (E.T. Lawson), NORA Chairman

John Huber, NORA President
Fuel Performance Project Steerin? Committee
Tom Santa (Santa Energy) - Chairman
Ray Albrecht (NYS Energy Research and Development Authority)
David Bates (Hoffman Fuel)
Dr. Tom Butcher (Brookhaven National Laboratory)
Ralph Cherrillo (Shell Global Solution (US), Inc.)
Dr. David Daniels (Octel Starreon, LLC)
Bill Davenport (Heritagenergy)
Bob Hedden (Oilheat Associates)
Dr. Christian Kuchen (IWO, Hamburg, Germany)
Chris Keyser (Owner Services)
Tim Laughlin (NC Petroleum Marketers Assoc.)
John Levey (Oilheat Associates)
Lindy Lindtveit (Westwood Products)
Vic Turk (R.W. Becket?)
Rich Mohrfeld (Mohrfeld)
John Wilcox (Moyer & Son)
Doug Woosnam (SIC0 Go.)
Brookhaven National Laboratorv Staff

Yusuf Celebi
Roger McDonald
George Wei
I Disclaimer
This manual was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the National Oilheat Research
Alliance (NORA). Neither NORA, the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor
any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees makes
any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or
represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific
commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise,
does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by NORA,
the United States Government or any agency, contractor or subcontractor thereof. The views and
opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of NORA, the United
States Government or any agency, contractor, or subcontractor thereof.
w n o w OILHEATRESEARCH ALLIANCE
@ 2004 All Rights Reserved
National Oilheat Research Alliance
Alexandria, VA 22314
I www.nora-oilheat.org
2 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL
A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
2 . Overview of Heating Oil ................................................................................................................. 6
3 . Purchasing Fuels.............................................................................................................................. 8
Specifications ............................................................................................................................................ 8
What to buy ............................................................................................................................................... 8
4 . Understanding Fuel Properties...................................................................................................... 10
Fuel Properties and PerFormance............................................................................................................ 10
How Properties are Defined .................................................................................................................... 11
Fuel Stability ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Cold Flow Properties of Heating Oil ....................................................................................................... 14
Using Additives for Improved Storage and Handling ............................................................................. 17
Blending with Kerosene .......................................................................................................................... 17
How t o Evaluate Cold-flow Additives ..................................................................................................... 19
Cost of Fuel Additive Treatment vs . Kerosene Blending ........................................................................ 20
5 . Common Fuel Problems................................................................................................................ 22
Fuel Cleanliness ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Water ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
Products of Fuel Degradation ................................................................................................................. 25
Microbial Contamination ......................................................................................................................... 27
6 . How to Diagnose Fuel Problems................................................................................................... 30
Clear and Bright Test .............................................................................................................................. 31
Fuel Sampling ......................................................................................................................................... 35
How to Sample Incoming Fuels from Barge ........................................................................................... 36
Specification Testing and Labs ................................................................................................................ 37
How to Sample Bulk Storage Tanks ........................................................................................................ 38
How to Sample Transport Trucks ............................................................................................................. 40
How to Sample Home Tanks ................................................................................................................... 41
Testing for Microbial contamination ....................................................................................................... 42
7 . Assessing Problem Home Tanks .................................................................................................... 45
Water and Sludge Accumulation ............................................................................................................. 45
Fuels Degrading in Storage .................................................................................................................... 47
Tank Bottom Samples (BS&w) ................................................................................................................ 48
What t o Do if the Fuel is Deficient .......................................................................................................... 49
8 . How to Prevent Fuel Problems ...................................................................................................... 50
Monitoring Home Tanks .......................................................................................................................... 50
How to Store Fuel Oil .............................................................................................................................. 51
Tank Considerations ................................................................................................................................ 51
Piping Considerations ............................................................................................................................. 51
9 . About Fuel Oil Additives ............................................................................................................... 52
Types of Additives and How t o Test ....................................................................................................... 52
Antioxidants/ Metal Deactivators............................................................................................................ 54
Dispersmts .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................................................................................................. 55
Biocides ................................................................................................................................................... 55
Cold Flow Improvers ............................................................................................................................... 57
Appendices ....................................................................................................................................... 58
List of Commercial Petroleum Test Labs
List of Petroleum Testing Equipment Suppliers
A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 3

c
I.
Introduction
Heating oil, as its name implies, is intended for end use heating consumption as its primary
application. But its identity in reference name and actual chemical properties may vary based on a
number of factors.
By name, heating oil is sometimes referred to as gas oil, diesel, No. 2 distillate (middle
distillate), or light heating oil. Kerosene, also used as a burner fuel, is a No. 1 distillate.
Due t o the higher heat content and competitive price in most markets, No. 2 heating oil
is primarily used in modern, pressure-atomized burners. Using No. 1 oil for heating has the
advantages of better cold-flow properties, lower emissions, and better storage properties. Because
it is not nearly as abundant in supply, it is often markedly more expensive than No. 2 heating oil.
Given the advanced, low-firing rate burners in use today, the objective is for the fuel to be
compatible and achieve combustion performance a t the highest achievable efficiency of the
heating systems - with minimal service requirements.
Among the Oil heat industry's top priorities are improving reliability and reducing service costs
associated with fuel performance. Poor fuel quality, fuel degradation, and contamination can
cause burner shut-downs resulting in "no-heat" calls. Many of these unscheduled service calls are
preventable with routine inspection of the fuel and the tank.
This manual focuses on No. 2 heating oil - its performance, properties, sampling and testing.
Its purpose is to provide the marketer, service manager and technician with the proper guidelines
for inspecting the product, maintaining good fuel quality, and the best practices for proper storage.
Up-to-date information is also provided on commercially available fuel additives, their appropriate
use and limitations.

2. Overview of Heating Oil
When crude oil is distilled as a key part of the refining process, gasoline, heating oil, jet
fuel, and numerous other products are produced which contain mostly carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbons) which provide a lot of energy. Other compounds in petroleum products are sulfur,
nitrogen, and oxygen. The heavier products, or fractions, may contain small amounts of metal and
salts. Most of these impurities along with water are later removed in the refining process. Under
mandates of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the amount of sulfur in the fuel is being
reduced.
Oil refining is the process of separating the vast mixture of hydrocarbons of different lengths
(number of carbons) by their differences in boiling point. This distillation or straight-run process
is only the beginning. Other processes are needed t o convert longer chains into shorter ones, t o
remove impurities and to combine mixtures of different fractions t o make the desired products.
The desired products (including diesel and heating oil) are all defined by their specifications
(Chapter 3). The specifications are established by the American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) and are uniformly respected by the petroleum industry.
In a modern refinery, the volume of high-value products that can b e derived from a barrel of
crude oil can be maximized by adding other processes. These processes take the distilled bottom
products (the heaviest hydrocarbons with the highest boiling points) and convert them t o lighter
products. Thermal cracking, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking are some of conversion processes that
break down the long-chain hydrocarbons.
Diesel fuel and heating oil coming out of distillation are similar products. It is the post
distillation process and further treatment t o reduce sulfur content that differentiates the use of
one product for heating, the other for the transportation market. Both heating oil and diesel fuel
are a blend of products from various process streams: straight-run product, light cycle oil, and
hydrocracked stock. Some cracked products can vary and exhibit low quality and performance.
Figure 2-1 An oil refinery is a combination of all of these units [I].
Gas and Light Gasoline
h Gasoline
Distillation Kerosene, No. 1 Heating Oil
Diesel, No. 2 Heating Oil
Lubricating Oil
Heavy Gas Oil
I I
Residual Oil
Coker
treater

In the U.S. about one third of the distillate fuel comes from hydrocracked stock (FCC and
coker). These cracked components generally have high sulfur content and are inherently less
stable than the straight-run products. To produce low-sulfur diesel, sulfur is further removed
through additional hydrotreating and blending with lower sulfur blending streams. Light cycle oil
is an intermediate product produced in a catalytic cracker and is commonly used as a blending
component in diesel fuel and heating oil.
Figure 2-2 Flow-chart of how low-sulfur fuel is typically produced in the U.S. [2]
-'
-
Straight Run, 12.4%
2.000 DDm s
SULFUR
-- " . "_.
Straight Run, 51.8%
-
5,000 ppm S 500 ppm
-" HYDROTREATER (0.05 wt%)
i FCC Stock, 22.5%
15,000pprnS 1 -
- -- 95% Sulfur Removaf

I-Coker Distillate, 92%
1 20,000 DDm s I
I I 300 ppm
I
A major difference between diesel fuel used for vehicles (on-road or highway) and heating oil
is its sulfur content. Highway diesel, defined as low-sulfur, must presently have a sulfur content a t
or below 0.05 wt % (500 parts per million, stated as 500 ppm). Beginning in 2006, the diesel fuel's
sulfur content will be reduced to "ultra-low sulfur" level, such that it will be at a maximum of 0.001 5
wt% or 15 ppm. This is being mandated by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
reduce pollutant emissions from vehicles. Regulation of diesel for off-road vehicle use will follow;
sulfur limits are being promulgated as this piece is being written. As sulfur content of diesel fuel is
reduced to much lower levels as compared with heating oil, the amount of hydrocracked stock that
can be blended into diesel fuel becomes more limited.
The EPA does not regulate heating oil used for residential appliances. It may be purchased
as No. 2 (0.5 wt% sulfur max / 5000 ppm), or No. 2 Low Sulfur (0.05 wt% max/ 500 ppm)f though
recent experience shows that most residential heating oil consumed today falls below 2500 ppm.
State and local environmental regulations often limit the maximum sulfur content allowable in
burner fuels.
References:
[ 1] http://science. howstuffworks.com/oiI-refin ing4. htm
This website offers additional information on the subject of oil refining and other reference
sources such as American Petroleum Institute, Institute of Petroleum, Chevron Learning Center.
[2] Sutterfield, F. D., Olsen, D. K., "Technologies fgr Meeting Low-Sulfur Fuel Specifications
in the United States, p. 41 1, Proceedings of the 7 International Conference on Stability and
Handling of Liquid Fuels, January 2001.
A Note on Units:
To convert from weight percent (wt%) to parts per million (ppm), multiply by 10,000
Example: 0.05 wt% Sulfur = 500 ppm Sulfur
3. Purchasing Fuels
Specifications
The terms "heating oil" and "diesel fuel" describe the fuels that are used for home heating.
They are very similar, although diesel is often cited when referring t o vehicle fuels and heating oil
when talking about burner fuels. In the U.S. Grade No. 2-D is the most common diesel fuel for
trucks, with Grade No. 1-D and Grade No. 4-D also commercially available. The primary difference
in the specifications is that diesel fuel has a cetane and a sulfur limit. Cetane is an important
component for diesel engines and affects how smoothly the fuel burns, however, it is not relevant
for burner fuels.
Burner fuels include No. 1 (kerosene), No. 2, and No. 6. These grade designations are
established by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The grades are numbered in
order of increasing density and visc.osity, with No. 1 the lightest and No. 6 the heaviest.
Fuel specifications and associated test methods are established by committees. They are
developed by consensus among refiners, equipment manufacturers, and users in order t o ensure
that the fuel provides satisfactory performance and reliable operation. The ASTM Committee D-2
(Petroleum Products and Lubricants) is responsible for diesel and burner fuel specifications, ASTM
D 975 and ASTM 0-396 respectively. Refer t o Table 1 for their properties.
In these specifications, there are requirements or limits for the values of fuel properties.
Standard test methods that are used to measure the values of the properties are also listed. These
properties and methods are described in Chapter 4.
What to buy
When purchasing bulk fuels it is always recommended that you ask for the specifications. Look
t o see that its properties are suitable for their intended use. For example, if you purchase low-sulfur
heating oil, be sure that the specifications show the sulfur content is less than 0.05 percent by
weight (wt%).
If you buy heating oil in the summer for use later during the heating season be sure t o review
the cloud and pour points of the fuel (Chapter 4 discusses these cold-flow properties in detail). In
locations where the winter is very cold or there are occasional cold snaps, certain fuels may not be
suitable for use as they could gel. Considerations must then be taken to either blend with cold-flow
additives or kerosene as appropriate to counter gelling problems before they occur.
Some heating oil retailers periodically sample to verify the specifications of the fuel. Others
rely on the sampling and testing of their suppliers. Chapter 6 explains how t o sample fuels being
received by barge or transporter trucks a t the bulk terminals, or those fuels picked u p b y the
delivery trucks a t the rack. The sample of the fuel taken should represent an entire load or batch of
fuel. A commercial lab specializing in petroleum testing will be needed t o analyze the properties
listed in Table 1 using the standard test methods. This is called "specifications testing" and it may
take about a week for the lab to report the results. You need not test for all the properties every
time. Randomly test the incoming fuels as a means of quality control.
A commercial lab specializing in petroleum testing will be required to analyze the properties
listed in Table 1 using the standard test methods. You need not test for all the properties every
time. You should determine how often you test based on the cost of testing and the reliability
of your supplier. A list of commercial test labs can be found in the Appendix. Chapter 3 explains
further what the properties mean.

If possible, it is always a good idea to do some basic inspection of the fuel for cleanliness and
haze, which could indicate the presence of water or wax (in cold weather). Suspended water in fuel
may result in water in your customers' tanks which will cause future problems. This should b e done
regularly with all bulk quantities of fuel before accepting it. The purpose of this visual inspection
is t o prevent picking u p fuel that may contain contaminants or water. Chapter 6 gives more
information on preventing contamination of bulk tanks, delivery trucks and customer tanks with a
bad batch of incoming fuel.
Table 3-1 ASTM Fuel Specifications for Burner Fuels and Diesel
Heating Oil Diesel ASTM

Property ASTM D396 ASTM D975 Test Method
Flash Point OC. min 38 I 52 D 93
Water and sediment, % vol, max 0.05 I 0.05 D 2709
Distillation temperature "C D 86
90% volume recovered, min 282 I ~
282
90% volume recovered, rnax 338 338
Kinematic viscosity at 40"C, mm2/s D 445
min 1.9 1.9
rnax 3.4 4.7
Ramsbottom carbon residue %
mass, rnax
0.35
I 0.35 D 524
Ash % mass, max - I 0.01 D 482
Sulfur, % mass, rnax
D 129
Grade No. 2 0.50 0.50
Grade No. 2-l o w Sulfur
Copper strip corrosion rating, max,

0.05 I 0.05
D 2622
D 130
- Cetanenumber, min. - I 40 D 613

Density at *15OC, kg/m" max. 876 - D 1298
Pour Point OC, max* -6 - D 97
Cetane, index, min (Note 2) - 40 D 976
or
Aromaticity, % vol, max (Note 2) - 35 D 1319
Cloud Point, OC max - Depends on
D 2500
or Location
- Depends on D 4539/
LTFT/CFPP, "C max
Location D 6371
Red Dye Note I Note I
Note 1. By federal regulation, these grades of heating oil and diesel sold for tax-exempt
purposes are required t o contain the red dye solvent (ref 40 CFR Part 80 and 26 CFR Part 48).
Note 2. Applies t o No. 2 low sulfur diesel.

4. Understanding Fuel Properties
Good heating system performance requires that the fuel supplying the burner should have
specific characteristics that are important for its proper operation. The fuel properties can be
interrelated or sometimes cause similar effects. When the properties are beyond its range,
or out-of-specification, operating problems can occur.
Knowing what to look for is a first step in diagnosing and solving fuel-related operating
problems. This section covers fuel properties in greater detail.
Fuel Properties and Performance

Heating oil is a mixture of different refinery process streams blended t o meet the manufacturing
specifications, such as ASTM D 396 or pipeline requirements. Its properties should b e related to
its performance as a burner fuel, and specific standard tests have been designed t o measure these
properties. Considerations for performance must also include storage properties - cleanliness,
stability, and cold-flow characteristics, t o ensure ease of handling and fuel delivery.
Factors that affect the fuel flow, filter clogging tendency, or nozzle clogging include:
Low Temperature Operability or Cold Flow Properties
Fuel stability
Fuel cleanliness (water, dirt)
Viscosity
Factor that affects efficiency, fouling of boilers, flue gas emissions:

Sulfur content
Factors that affect clarity

Red dye
Fuel cleanliness
Wax
How Properties are Defined
Ash ( 2) content may be defined as the carbonaceous residue that remains

after combustion of the oil in air a t a specified high temperature. It is determined by igniting a
sample of fuel in a vessel and allowing it to burn until only ash remains. Ash in distillate fuel oil is
. usually negligible; however, during transportation from the refinery, ash contributors may be picked
up. Water transportation, in particular, presents many opportunities for fuel oils t o be contaminated
with ash producers such as sea water, dirt, and scale rust.
Cetane number (AST 13, 1 is typically used in diesel fuel specification
and determined with a test engine and is a measure of the ignition quality of the fuel (Method
D 61 3). When a test engine is unavailable, cetane number is estimated by calculating the cetane
index using a formula dependent on specific gravity and mid-point (50%) boiling temperature
(D 976).
Cloud point ( 2500)is specified in ASTM specifications for diesel fuels, but not
heating oil. It is the te a t which a cloud or haze of wax crystals first appears in the fuel. A t
or below this temperature, the wax crystals (paraffinic constituents of the fuel) settle out and may
clog filter systems. The temperature a t which the precipitation occurs depends upon the origin,
type, and boiling range of the fuel. The specification for diesel fuel states that satisfactory operation
should be achieved, in most cases, if the cloud point is specified at 6°C above the tenth percentile
minimum ambient temperature for the area in which the fuel will be used.
) is designed t o assess the relative
ess of a petroleum product. Corrosion of various metals can occur, depending
on the types of sulfur compounds in the fuel. Although most sulfur compounds in crude oil are
removed during refining, heating oil has between 500 and 5000 ppm of sulfur. This qualitative test
measures the possible problems with copper and brass or bronze park of the fuel system.
i s t i l ~ a t ~ran
~n ) indicates the vaporizing tendencies of the fuel, and
generally characterizes liquid petroleum fuels. The procedure measures the amount of liquid
vaporized and subsequently condensed as the temperature of the fuel in the distillation flask
is raised a t a prescribed rate. The 90% point is the temperature a t which 90% of the liquid has
evaporated. For atomizing burners, fuels must contain sufficient volatile components t o ensure that
ignition and fuel vaporization is accomplished consistently.
) is the lowest temperature at which the vapor above
s point can be measured with a test flame under controlled
specified conditions, such as by the Pensky-Martens Closed Tester (Method D 93) or by the Tag
Closed Tester (Method D 56), which are normally used for fuel oils. Flash point is used in shipping
and safety regulations t o define "flammable" and "combustible" materials. Contamination with
more volatile products, such as gasoline (1% or 2%), can substantially lower the flash point of the
fuel.
) is a measure of the energy available from the fuel when
t content is determined using a bomb calorimeter under specified
conditions and is usually expressed as British Thermal Unit (Btu)/lb. It may also be calculated with
sufficient accuracy from other known data, such as specific gravity, sulfur content, and aniline
point. Typically, the heat content is not quoted in most fuel oil specifications since it is not directly
controllable during manufacture, and as kerosene is added for winter reasons the Btu value often
falls.
1
is the temperature a t which the fuel gels under standard test
conditions; below this temperature, the oil stops flowing. Pour-point limits should be considered,
based on the anticipated storage conditions and fuel application.
4) carbon residue is the amount of carbon residue left after
nditions. The value provides some indication of the relative
coke-forming tendency of the oil. High-carbon residue appears t o cause a rapid buildup of carbon
and nozzle fouling in small heating units.
Relative density or s 1 is the ratio of the mass
of a given volume of liquid (fue re water, both a t the same
reference temperature (15°C or 60°F). API gravity is a different way of expressing specific gravity
.
(sp gr a t 60/60F reference temperature) and is calculated by:
API gravity, deg - (141.5/ sp gr) - 131.5
A fuel with a lower API gravity generally has a higher heating value. For example, kerosene
(No. 1 oil) has a higher API gravity than No. 2 oil, and therefore, a lower heating value. The API
gravity scale generally is used in the United States.
Stability of heating oil may be defined as a measure of a fuel's resistance to change. The
composition of all fuels changes over time; however, in an unstable fuel the changes occur more
rapidly in terms of color, formation of gummy or insoluble materials, and deposition of sludge on
the bottom of storage tanks. The storage stability of fuel oils may be influenced by many factors
including the origin of the crude oil, refinery treatment, and compatibility of fuels when blended.
The mechanism of sludge formation is very complicated and not well understood. Although
stability is not specified in D396 heating oil, methods have been developed to predict fuel oil
stability to ensure satisfactory performance where applications are critical. A common test is ASTM
Test for Stability of Distillate Fuel Oil (Accelerated Method, D 2274), which measures the stability
of distillate fuel oils under accelerated oxidizing conditions. Another similar test often used by the
industry is the Dupont/Octel F-21 (D 6468). As with any accelerated method, correlation between
the test results may vary significantly with actual field conditions. Empirical methods are available t o
assess stability, but there is no universally accepted procedure for determining the tendency of fuel
t of the fuel affects corrosion and the formation of deposits

uel oil can be determined by several methods. This ASTM
Test for Sulfur in Petroleum Products (General Bomb Method) has long been established, but
other more rapid techniques are available. Combustion of sulfur-containing fuels also produce
sulfur oxides which contribute to atmospheric pollution. High-sulfur fuels also can accelerate the
ent in the fuel during storage.
determines the flow of the oil t o the burner nozzle or atomizer.
perature and is higher a t lower temperatures. The accepted
procedure for determining viscosity is kinematic, and is expressed in units of centistokes (cSt) or
1 in the fuel can cause corrosion of equipment

and plugging a system with tight spaces (such as burner nozzles and filters). A high content of water
and sediment usually results from poor handling and storage of the fuel.

The following sections cover more fully those properties that have an important effect on
product storage, stability and handling of liquid fuels. When fuel cleanliness (or tank cleanliness)
becomes unacceptable, or cold-flow properties are out of range for normal operation, or the fuel
becomes very unstable, problems with fuel flow, filter clogging and oil line plugging can occur.
Fuel Stability
The stability of heating oil depends a great deal on the crude oil sources from which it was
derived, severity of processing, use of additives and any additional refinery treatment. Different
refineries may produce distillate fuels that vary in composition and stability properties. Normally
produced fuels have adequate stability properties to withstand normal storage and use. However,
fuels that are stored for prolonged periods or subjected t o high temperatures may form excessive
amounts of sediment and gums that can overload filters or plug nozzles. It is therefore necessary t o
consider a fuel's storage and thermal stability.
The fuel's storage stability should be assessed a t the time of manufacture. That is, the fuel
should have some performance criteria in the purchase specification. Test Methods ASTM D 2274
and D 5304 are commonly used accelerated stability tests. It should be noted, however, that
positive results from laboratory tests does not guarantee that there will be no operational problems
in the field due to varying tank conditions and mixing of fuels. Nevertheless, adhering t o some
performance criteria assures some level of protection.
Fuels tend to degrade with time in storage, and its effects are only compounded with added
handling and transport due to the potential for contamination. If you start off with an unstable fuel,
it does not improve.
If the fuel fails a stability test, it does not mean that the fuel cannot be used. It is merely a
warning that the fuel only has a limited shelf life before it forms excessive particulates.
Table 4.7 Stability Tests Commonly Used for Distillate Fuel
Test Test Acceptable

Method Conditions Limits
Oxygen overprzssure 1.5 mg/1OOml
ASTM D 5304 (100 p i g ) at 90 C (194'F) (up t o 2.5 mg/1 00ml)
for 16 hrs sediment
Oxygen bubbledothrough 2.5 mg/lOOml
ASTM D 2274
fuel at 95'C (203 F) sediment
ASTM D 6468
I 90 min(3000F)
1500c
80% reflectance
(optical meter reading)

Cold Flow Properties of Heating Oil
Heating oils are typically refined so that its low temperature properties are fit for the area
and time of year it is t o be used. During brief periods of unseasonable cold weather, however,
operational problems may be experienced during transport and storage of fuel oil. The following
are some guidelines on how t o determine the cold flow characteristics of the fuel oil, the suitability
for its current use, and how t o remedy operational problems by fuel blending or additive use.
Using standard industry methods there are at least several properties that can be measured t o
determine the cold flow characteristics of fuel oil. Those most commonly used for No. 2 heating oil
(or diesel) include the following:
Figure 4-1 Cold Flow Temperatures
I I
I
Cloud and Pour Points (CP, PP)
As the fuel is cooled a temperature will be reached a t which the clear fuel begins to cloud. The
cloudiness is caused by the formation of wax (paraffin) crystals in the fuel. The highest temperature
a t which this occurs is referred t o as the cloud point. Below the cloud point these wax crystals
might become large enough t o plug the oil-line filter, pump strainer, and burner nozzle. As the
temperature is lowered further, gelling of the fuel occurs. At or below the pour point temperature
the fuel does not flow.
ASTM D 396 specification for heating oil limits the Pour Point a t a maximum of 21O F (-6 "C).
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)

This test was designed t o estimate or correlate with low temperature operability of vehicle fuel
(diesel). Under defined laboratory test conditions, this test gives the temperature a t which a test
filter becomes clogged by wax as the fuel is cooled.
In Europe multiple tests are used to define acceptable low-temperature behavior. For example,
in Germany the specification for heating oil (DIN 51603-1) considers both the CP and CFPP to
define acceptable low temperature behavior.

Current Practices
Current practices used by the industry (i.e. pipeline companies) consider both cloud and pour
points t o denote the fluidity of the product based on time of year and location. A typical schedule
in the mid-Atlantic region could be,
st th
Pour Point: August 1 - March 14 Maximum: - 18°C (0°F)
th
Pour Point: March 15 -July 3Ist Maximum: -12 "C (+I
0°F)
. Cloud Point:
st
August 1 - March 14
th St
th
Maximum: - 9°C (+I
5°F)
Cloud Point: March 15 -July 31 Maximum: - 7°C (+20"F)
Although ASTM D 396 does not specify a range for cloud point, it is recommended that both
cloud and pour points be established and specified in all purchase specifications based on location.
There is no guarantee that satisfactory operation will be achieved on a broad basis where local
temperatures may be much lower than the above-specified temperatures, and so it is advisable to
use a typical temperature chart as shown in Table 4-2.
Recommendation
No single laboratory test can adequately predict the cold flow performance in all fuels and in
all storage systems. Storing fuel oil indoors, or providing insulation t o storage tanks and piping
minimizes problems associated with poor cold flow operation.
In general, satisfactory operation should be achieved in most cases if the Cloud Point is 6°C
above the 10th percentile minimum ambient temperature for the area in which the fuel will be
used. The 10th percentile temperature means that, on average, the ambient temperature is not
expected t o go below this value more than 3 days for a 30-day period. The temperatures are based
on historical data and depend on the local climate. They are listed on the chart in the following
pages by month and region during the winter.
For example, on Long Island, NY during December, the 10th percentile temperature is -1 4°C.
(See table 4.2 on next page, re: New York, South 42 deg. lat.) Six degrees above that is -8"C, so for
Long Island during December, the practical, maximum cloud point specified should be -8°C (18°F).
Appropriate low temperature properties should be agreed upon between
the fuel supplier and purchaser for the expected ambient temperatures.
See Table 4.2 on the next page.
A Note on Units
To convert from degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Fahrenheit (" F), multiply by 1.8 and add 32.
Examde 1
What is -15 "C?
(-15 x 1.8) + 32 = 5 o r 5 deg. F
To convert from deg. F to deg. C, subtract 32 then divide by 1.8

Examde 2
What is 20 deg. F?
(20 - 32)/ 1.8 = -7 or -7 deg. C

Table 4-2 10th Percentile Minimum Temperature "C ("F)
State Ocf. Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
"C "F 'C OF 'C OF 'C 'F 'C "F 'C OF
Alabama 4 39 -3 27 -6 21 -7 19 -3 27 -2 28
Alaska North -25 -13 -37 -35 -45 -49 -49 -56 -47 -53 -43 -45
South -11 12 -13 9 -18 0 -32 -26 -32 -26 -29 -20
SE -4 25 -11 12 -16 3 -19 -2 -13 9 -12 10
Arizona N. 34'lat. -4 25 -12 10 -14 7 -17 1 -16 3 -12 10
s. 34' lat. 7 45 0 32 -2 28 -4 25 -3 27 -1 30
Arkansas 2 36 -4 25 -7 19 -11 12 -7 19 -3 27
California N. Coast 3 37 0 32 -2 28 -2 28 -1 30 -1 30
Interior 2 36 -3 27 -4 25 -7 19 -6 21 -6 21
S. Coast 6 43 2 36 0 32 -1 30 0 32 2 36
SE 1 34 -6 21 -8 18 -11 12 -7 19 -5 23
Colorado E.105" long. -2 28 -12 10 -14 7 -19 -2 -15 5 -12 10
W.105"Iong. -8 18 -18 0 -25 -13 -30 -22 -24 -11 -16 3
Connecticut -1 30 -7 19 -16 3 -17 1 -16 3 -9 16
Delaware 2 36 -3 27 -10 14 -11 12 -10 14 -6 21
Florida N. 29' lat. 7 45 1 34 -2 28 -3 27 -1 30 2 36
S. 29'lat. 14 57 7 45 3 37 3 37 5 41 7 45
Georgia 3 37 -2 28 -6 21 -7 19 -6 21 -2 28
Idaho -4 25 -13 9 -18 0 -21 -6 -18 0 -13 9
Illinois N. 40' lat. -1 30 -9 16 -19 -2 -21 -6 -18 0 -11 12
S. 40" lat. 1 34 -7 19 -16 3 -17 1 -15 5 -8 18
Indiana -1 30 -7 I9 -16 3 -18 0 -16 3 -9 16
Iowa -2 28 -13 9 -23 -9 -26 -15 -22 -8 -16 3
Kansas -2 28 -11 12 -15 5 -19 '-2 -14 7 -13 9
Kentucky 1 34 -6 21 -13 9 -14 7 -11 12 -6 21
Louisiana 5 41 -1 30 -3 27 -4 25 -2 28 1 3 4
Maine -3 27 -10 14 -23 -9 -26 -15 -26 -15 -18 0
Maryland 2 36 -3 27 -10 14 -12 10 -10 14 -4 25
Massachusetts -2 28 -7 19 -16 3 -18 0 -17 1 -10 14
Michigan -2 28 -11 12 -20 -4 -23 -9 -23 -9 -18 0
Minnesota -4 25 -18 0 -30 -22 -34 -29 -31 -24 -24 -11
Mississippi 3 37 -3 27 -6 21 -6 21 -4 25 -1 30
Missouri 1 34 -7 19 -14 7 -16 3 -13 9 -8 18
Montana -7 19 -18 0 -24 -11 -30 -22 -24 -11 -21 -6
Nebraska -3 27 -13 9 -18 0 -22 -8 -19 -2 -13 9
Nevada N. 38'lat. -7 19 -14 7 -18 0 -22 -8 -18 0 -13 9
s. 38' lat. 8 46 0 32 -3 27 -4 25 -2 28 1 34
New Hampshire -3 27 -8 18 -18 0 -21 -6 -21 -6 -12 10
New Jersey 2 36 -3 27 -11 12 -12 10 -11 12 -6 21
New Mexico N. 34"lat. -2 28 -11 12 -14 7 -17 1 -14 7 -11 12
s. 34' lat. 4 39 -4 25 -8 18 -11 12 -7 19 -3 27
New York N. 42" lat. -3 27 -8 18 -21 -6 -24 -11 -24 -11 -16 3
S. 42'lat. -1 30 -5 23 -14 7 -16 3 -15 5 -9 16
North Carolina -1 30 -7 19 -10 14 -11 12 -9 16 -5 23
North Dakota -4 25 -20 -4 -27 -17 -31 -24 -29 -20 -22 -8
Ohio -1 30 -7 19 -16 3 -17 1 -15 5 -9 16
Oklahoma 1 3 4 -8 18 -12 10 -13 9 -8 18 -7 19
Oregon E.122"long. -6 21 -11 12 -14 7 -19 -2 -14 7 -9 16
W.122'1ong. 0 32 -4 25 -5 23 -7 19 -4 25 -3 27
Pennsylvania N. 41" lat. -3 27 -8 18 -19 -2 -20 -4 -21 -6 -15 5
S. 41' la. 0 32 -6 21 -13 9 -14 7 -14 7 -8 18
Rhode Island 1 34 -3 27 -12 10 -13 9 -13 9 -7 19
South Carolina 5 41 -1 30 -5 23 -5 23 -3 27 -2 28
South Dakota -4 25 -14 7 -24 -11 -27 -17 -24 -11 -18 0
Tennessee 1 34 -5 23 -9 16 -11 12 -9 16 -4 25
Texas N. 31' lat. 3 37 -6 21
-!
-9 16 -13 9 -9 16 -7 19
S. 31' lat. 9 48 2 36 -2 28 -3 27 -1 30 2 36
Utah -2 28 -11 12 -14 7 -18 0 -14 7 -8 18
Vermont -3 27 -8 18 -20 -4 -23 -9 -24 -11 -15 5
-3 27 -9 16 -11 12 -9 16 -4 25
1;:gton E.122'long. -8 18 -11 12 -18 0 -11 12 -8 18
W.122'long. -3 27 -3 27 -7 19 -4 25 -3 27
West Virginia -8 18 -15 5 -16 3 -14 7 -9 16
Wisconsin -3 27 -14 7 -24 -11 -28 -18 -24 -11 -18 0
Wyoming -15 5 -18 0 -26 -15 -19 -2 -16 3

Using Additives for Improved Storagel'and Handling
Additives that lower the fuel's pour point and the temperature a t which the fuel could cause
a filter t o plug are called flow improvers. Flow improvers are of polymer-type compounds. They
do not reduce the fuel's wax content, but limit the size of wax crystals t o reduce the potential for
filter plugging. Flow-improvers are used in small concentrations and can lower the CFPP by several
degrees. Cold-flow additives can effectively depress pour point, but will not change the fuel's
cloud point.
Additives may be expensive and therefore they must be shown to be effective by careful
evaluation before and during their use. Additives may offer a range of effects on different heating
fuels. The following chart provides an example of the effects of three commercial cold-flow
additives on depressing pour point temperatures. The effects are compared to the base fuels,
which do not contain additives. Data is provided for two different heating fuel samples that have
been treated with the additives a t the same treat rate.
Figure 4-2 Additive response to pour point temperatures
Pour Point Depression

Using Three Different Additives
Treat Rate of 1000 ppm (300 pounds/ 1000 barrels)
Additive 1A Additive 1B Additive I C
r:
-$ -15
v)
e!
-20
n
$
c
!?ia,
E -30
I-
-25
-35
u pt q
Sample A
I
Samde B I
-40 .I" -. -- ... " ... "
It is important to test your additive against the base fuel you use to find the
most effective additive to depress pour points.
Blending with Kerosene

Blending heating oil with substances containing lower wax content, such as kerosene, could
effectively lower the cold-temperature operability limits, including both cloud and pour points.
Kerosene is a solvent that dissolves wax by changing its solubility in the fuel. How much kerosene
or flow improvers used must be judged on the base fuel and the additive that you may be using.
Careful analysis ba-sed on testing is the most effective method of determining the most cost
effective approach. You will have t o analyze whether blending with kerosene or with additives is
more economical based on the costs of those two products and their effectiveness. (See Figures 4-3
and 4-4 on the next page.)

The following charts provide an example of the effects of kerosene blending on two different
heating fuel samples. The base fuels were blended a t 30, 50, and 70% by volume of kerosene.
Reported here is how much the pour point was reduced by adding kerosene as compared t o the
base heating oil sample (without kerosene). This is called the pour point depression and will be
different for different fuel samples.
Figure 4-3 How kerosene affects pour point temperatures
Pour Point Depression Using Kerosene Blending
Kerosene
30 vol.% 50 vol.% 70 vol.%
0---
-5 -
d,
-10 -
s
S
0
'5 -15 -
v)
2
g- -20 -
n
rn
Q
5
U
-25 -
! -30 -
Sample B
E
I- -35 -
Example: If the Temperature Depression is -2O"F, with a blend of 50% kerosene, this
means that if the base fuel had an initial pour point of +5"F the blend will now have a
pour point of -15°F. At this point the fuel can't flow.
Figure 4-4 How kerosene affects cloud point temperatures
Cloud Point Depression Using Kerosene Blending
Kerosene
30 vol.%. 50 vol.%. 70 vol.%.
0-
h
L -5 -
d,
:-10
Y -
S
0
.ijj -15 -
In Sample A Sample B
2
g- -20 -
n
2
S
-25 -
m
Y
-30
I- -35
Note: This chart gives temperature depression, or temperature reduction, for cloud paamit.
This is a comparison of the different blends when compared t o the base fuel (no kerosene).

How to Evaluate Cold-Flow Additives
Cold-flow additives may be referred t o by many different terms, the more commonly used
within the industry include:
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) additives
Pour point depressants
Cold Flow Improvers (CFI) - generally a CFPP and pour point additive combination
Low Temperature Flow Test (LTFT) additives
Nucleators
Wax modifiers
Wax dispersants -Wax suspension agents
Cloud point depressants
The following lists some of the more common performance tests used t o evaluate the fuel's
response t o cold-flow additives.
Performance Test Method
Cloud Point ASTM 02500

This test indicates the temperature when wax becomes
visible in the fuel. Operability problems may occur when
ambient temperatures fall below the fuel's cloud point (CP)
temperature.
Pour Point ASTM 097

This test measures the gel (or freezing) point of the fuel. To
prevent blockage of the fuel line the operability temperature
limit is always higher than the pour point (PP).
~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~
Cold Filter ASTM D6371, IP 309, CEN 116

Plugging Point This test was developed t o find the lowest temperature that
CFPP a diesel fueled vehicle could start and operate. This is the
industry standard for vehicular fuel in Europe and is commonly
used in the U.S. In Germany, the specification for heating
oil (DIN 51603-1) considers both the CP and CFPP t o define
acceptable low temperature behavior.
Additives should be used only when needed to prevent or solve a problem. When comparing
additives consider the following:
The fuel response t o a given additive must be measured to determine the amount of
additive needed.
Additives are fuel specific (varies with crude type) and may perform well in one fuel and
poorly in another. It is therefore recommended to test several different batches of,fuel.
In order t o make an informed decision, comparison tests should be done where all
conditions are controlled and the only variable is the additive. This requires laboratory
analyses in order to measure effectiveness a t various additive concentrations. The costs can
be compared with the various options to improve cold flow.
0 A comparison of additive response may be made with kerosene blending t o achieve the
same response.
Mixing
Additives will not fix the product in tanks that have already formed wax crystals. For a cold-flow
improver t o work it must be mixed thoroughly with the fuel so there must be no undissolved wax
present. It should be added t o a tank before the fuel is put in so that mixing takes place. When
adding a cold-flow improver the fuel must be a t least 5 t o 10°C above its cloud point. Pouring it in
the top of a tank in which the wax has dropped out of the fuel is a waste of time and money. This is
not true for kerosene which can help t o dissolve the wax.
Ap plication
Where there is a potential problem with gelling in fuel lines, such as with outdoor tanks or
exposed piping, the cold-flow additives are effective to prevent fuel delivery problems. It is
important t o know whether these additives are already present in the fuel as received from the
supplier. The first increment of additive is most effective, and if the fuel marketer is planning to use
the same type, additional amounts may produce little or no improvement.
Commercially available cold-flow improvers are often combined with detergents and other
additives sold as fuel conditioners. If such additives are used in bulk tanks the detergent in
the additive can strip rust and dirt from tanks, which may then lead t o reduced filter life. It is
recommended t o remove water and loose dirt from tanks before dosing with the product or check
for detergency effects on a few small tanks.
Cost Analysis of Fuel Additive Treatment vs. Kerosene Blending

The cost of additive treatment will vary depending on the performance required. A comparison
can be made to the cost of kerosene blending for the same performance. A cost analysis will help
the fuel marketer make a n informed decision on the most cost effective way t o ensure adequate
winter operability performa nce .
Fuel additive treat costs should be compared on a cost per gallon basis. Typical costs for an
additized "winter" fuel will be between 1 t o 5 cents per gallon. The actual cost depends on the
level of additive needed. The fuel marketer or consumer should get enough supporting data from
the additive supplier t o assure that they are receiving adequate improvements a t the specific
additive treat rate and cost.

To compare the costs of blending with keroshe and treating with a cold-flow additive use
the following example:
Additive Treatment or Blending with Kerosene?

STEPS to CALCULATE COSTS
(1) Determine the cost of kerosene and No. 2 heating oil ($/gallon)
Let's say we will be treating 42,000 gallons of fuel (or 1000 barrels of oil).
Assume that kerosene costs $0.08 per gallon more than No. 2 oil.
(2) Determine the kerosene blend ratio needed based on your fuel properties and cold-flow
requirements. (i.e. 50/50, 70/30, etc.)
Let's say that we wish to blend a t a ratio 50/50 to reduce the pour point by up t o -23°F.
(Note: You will need to know the pour point of the fuel you wish t o treat. You can get this
from the specifications provided with the fuel or else send a sample to an analytical lab t o
determine this value.)
(3)Determine the amount of kerosene needed (gallons) and its cost.

The 50/50 blend costs: 21,000 gallons x $0.08 = $1680.
(4) Determine the treat rate and cost of additive ($).

Given our sample data on pgs 23-24, "Additive B" will do the job a t a treat rate of
1000 ppm or 300 pounddl 000 barrels.
Assume additive treat cost t o be $2.00 per pound,
300 pounds t o treat 42,000 gallons of No. 2 oil x $2.00 = $600.
(5) Calculate the cost differential (kerosene cost - additive cost)

The cost difference is $1080. per 42,000 gallons of fuel.
The result is a net savings of $0.025 per gallon using a cold-flow improver instead of the
50/50 kerosene blend. A higher kerosene blend (i.e. 70/30), if needed, would cost even
more, thus making the additive treatment the better option.

.
5. Common Fuel Problems
Fuel Cleanliness
The most common heating oil burners in the U.S. and Europe are the high-pressure atomizing
gun burners. The nozzles in these burners are designed t o spray fine droplets of oil a t pressures
100-175 psi for good combustion. The nozzle also meters the oil a t specific firing rates; generally
these burners operated a t or above 0.5 gallon per hour. Because the passages are small the
tendency for particulate contamination is greater a t low firing rates. As new technologies emerge
with highly efficient boilers and furnaces, fuel cleanliness and proper filtration become more
important t o allow for the lower firing rates.
Clean fuels will also reduce the tendency for oil line and filter prematurely clogging. Filters are
used to prevent fine particles from getting t o the pump, clogging strainers and the nozzle.
Water
Water and dirt can lead t o filter plugging and tank corrosion. The water in the fuel can promote
the growth of bacteria, yeast, and fungi (also known as microbes).
One of the most effective ways t o keep the fuel clean is to minimize the water that accumulates
in the tank. There are several pathways that water can get into the tank:
Broken or loose fittings on the tank;
Moisture from the air can condense on the walls of the tank;
Water in the fuel itself (dissolved and free water);
Rain water or snow entering the tank during fill-up
By far the most common entryway, especially for outdoor tanks, is through the fittings. Finding
the right location and proper installation are the keys t o reducing water accumulation in this way.
Stick the tank with water-indicating paste a t every service interval t o get an estimate of how much
is a t the bottom of the tank. This can quickly tell you if this is the cause for burner shutdowns. You
may need t o stick the tank in more than one location t o assess the problem. For tanks with a top-
feed oil line from the tank it may b e necessary to remove the line and stick the tank from this bung.
In a tank that maybe sloped slightly, you may find that the water has collected a t the intake of the
suction line. Pumping out the tank or replacing it are the only solutions.
How much water do we collect from condensation in tanks?

Condensation of moisture in the air can occur on the interior walls of the tank when it is empty
or partly filled. The space above the fuel level is filled with air that can move in and out of the vent
pipe due t o differences in temperature or pressure. Free water that collects on the walls runs down
the side of the tank and settles t o the bottom.
A small-scale test was setup t o estimate the amount of water that can accumulate in tank
bottoms that is associated with condensation of moist ambient air and natural tank breathing. A
"greenhouse" was setup to simulate broad-range conditions that might be experienced during hot
and humid summers by day and night. Electric heaters, and humidifiers provided air temperatures
of about 90°F (day) and 68°F (night), and relative humidity about 85% - 90%. Lights were installed
to provide additional radiant energy during the day.

Individual 5-gallon cans were filled with heating S;il t o different levels from 10% to 90% of
total volume. Smaller fuel samples filled pint-sized glass jars for observations. Open "vents" were
installed on the fill openings t o allow for natural air movement as we cycled between day and night
time temperatures. This test was conducted over 4-month storage period.
Figure 5-1 Condensation Test in Small Tanks
Samples in 500 rnl glass jars.
Figure 5-2 Condensation In Partially Filled Tanks.

These photos show the internal walls of the 5-gallon cans that were 10% and 90% full.
In the partly filled tank at 10% full, there is some surface corrosion where water
condensation occurred.
Surface corrosion above fuel level Tank bottom

During this test period small amounts of water were found in some of the small glass jars
particularly those that were partly filled. The photos below show a comparison between the 10%
and 90% full jars. The nearly full jar had little water. '
The amount of condensation collected was small during this test period and amounted t o
about 0.1% of the total volume of the container (l-pint jar). Assuming similar conditions for an
empty 275-gallon home tank located outdoors, you may collect about 1 quart of condensed
water in this type of hot and humid environment over 4 months. ,
Where there are lower humidity levels, generally in the Northeast of the country, this amount of
condensation could take longer to accumulate (i.e. over 2 or 3 summers).
Figure 5-3 Water condensation test over 4 months
10% FULL 90% FULL
Keeping outdoor tanks full will help to minimize water condensation in tanks.

Products of Fuel Degradation
Certain fuel components are reactive and will oxidize t o form other components that are not
soluble in the fuel. Varnish or gums are oxidation products that can coat piping, fuel pumps, and
burner nozzles. The term sludge usually refers t o the heavy, dark-colored deposits that settle to the
bottom of the tank. The rate of decomposition of fuel through various degradation processes is
related t o its stability.
Over time gum, dirt, water, and rust will accumulate a t the bottom of the tank, and this is
commonly referred t o as Bottom Sediment and Water (BS&W). This mixed layer of sludge can lead
t o plugging of fuel lines and filters.
The nature of the sludge components could be identified by infrared analyses (FTIR).
Representative samples collected from various home tanks were analyzed in this manner.
The most significant components of sludge are heavy fuel components (such as gum)
caused by the oxidation and degradation of fuel, water, traces of dirt and rust. These
components foul tanks, filters, and piping.
What to do about clogged fuel lines?

Taking a tank bottom sample is the best way to find out how much sludge has accumulated
in your tank and if this is what is causing your burner to shut down. Refer to Chapter 6 and the
section on How t o Sample Home Tanks. If the oil intake is located near the sludge build-up then all
this sediment can easily be drawn into the oil supply line. If these contaminants are stirred up after
a recent fill-up of the tank the burner can also shut down.
The following photos show the condition of a fuel supply line found in a test home that had
problems with repeated burner shutdowns. The tank is about 25 years old and is set up as a single-
pipe system with fuel drawn from tank bottom outlet. There is a history of line clogging problems a t
this site.
Figure 5-4 Clogged copper fuel line in a I-pipe system
This is a bottom-draw oil supply from the tank that is intended t o minimize sludge accumulation
within the tank. The water and contaminants however tend to get sucked into the oil lines and
deposit inside the lines. Over time this would prevent oil from getting to the burner.
The next page contains recommendations for clearing clogged lines.

Recommendations for clearing clogged lines.
Clear the lines by using a hand-pump to draw out the sludge away from the tank as
opposed t o blowing the line back into the tank with compressed air or COZcartridges.
Pushing the contaminants back into the tank will only allow it t o get drawn
back into the oil line; this then becomes a chronic problem.
Replace all fuel lines when replacing an old tank. Both l-pipe and 2-pipe systems
are susceptible t o clogging.
A coarse filter with a water separator near the tank would help t o keep water
and sediment out of the lines.
Keep fuel oils stable by keeping the fuels clean and maintaining the tanks:
Ensure that the fuels you are supplying t o your customers are clean and free of water.
Inspect your fuel supply. Check for water and sediment in your bulk storage tanks.
Check the cleanliness of your delivery trucks.
Check home tank bottoms by sticking for water or taking sample.
Pump out tanks that have sludge build-up.
Locate tanks away from direct exposure t o the sun t o minimize high
temperatures and degradation of fuel.

c
Microbial Contamination
Heavy microbial contamination can lead t o costly service problems and is a concern for the
petroleum industry from crude oil production, through product transfer, storage, and finally
consumer use (Figure 5-6). The potential losses include not only equipment failure and downtime
for repairs, but also customer satisfaction.
Throughout the distribution system there are many possible routes where water can enter
the system and be transported along with the fuel. Microbes may be introduced into fuels as
products cool in refinery tanks. Bacteria and fungi (microbes) carried on dust particles and water
droplets could enter tanks through tank vents. Barges often use sea water as ballast, and this can
contaminate stored product if compartments are not adequately emptied before refilling. Water
can enter tanks through broken fittings and improper installation.
The costs for decontaminating facilities or tank cleaning are high. Prevention of problems
by good housekeeping and regular monitoring is more cost effective than the treatment of
microbial problems after they occur.
Figure 5-5 Blue arrows show sites where water and microbes tend to accumulate.
Pipeline
I
I
(low points
trap water)
a”&
TERMINL 2
-. i.
Refinery Refinery
Product tanks Bulk Consumer
Plant Tank
Loading ,f
Rack
Wherever water tends t o accumulate, even in small amounts, microbes (such as bacteria,
yeast and fungi) can grow. There is often enough water in the bottom of large storage tanks, fuel
tanks on trucks and consumer tanks for some microbial growth to occur. The microbes tend t o be
most active between the water and fuel layers, and also on internal tank and fuel delivery system
surfaces. When the tank contents are disturbed, for example when the tank is refilled, the microbes
become suspended in the bulk fuel where they cause fouling and may be passed on down the
distribution chain to contaminate facilities downstream. In a homeowner’s tank these microbes can
clog fuel lines, filters and nozzles causing burner shutdowns.
It is recommended that fuel supplies be checked for suspended water before being accepted
and transferred into a bulk storage plant. The barge operator should not only sound the tank t o

verify the amount of fuel to be delivered, he should also verify whether or not there is any water
a t the bottom, and also be able t o provide you with a tank bottom sample. These procedures
are quick to do and would provide the retailer an indication of the cleanliness of the fuel when it
is received. If contamination exists filtration and separation of water from the fuel by settling may
be necessary t o prevent transferring any contamination t o your delivery trucks or customers' tanks
downstream. Chapter 6 gives guidelines on how t o sample fuels from a barge, bulk storage tank
and truck, and how to diagnose problems.
Microbial Effects on Tanks and Fuels

Microbes need water and a source of food. The fuel itself serves as a source of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus; other elements found in fuel storage systems
such as calcium, sodium, iron, nickel, copper, and other metals feed the microbes.
Biological material, which appears as a slimy mass, can get trapped in the fuel delivery
system and clog the filter restricting the flow to the burner.
Figure 5-6 Microbial growth observed in container previously storing fuel oil.
Most bacterial growth takes place a t the boundary between the fuel and water. This usually
occurs a t the tank bottom, although microbes also can stick t o tank walls. They can produce a slimy
layer called a biofilm that adds t o the bottom sludge and sediment. The byproducts of microbial
activity, or wastes, cause the fuel t o degrade and physical damage t o the fuel delivery system.
Under the right conditions, usually hot and humid conditions, their uncontrolled growth leads t o
problems such as filter clogging and fuel lines plugging.
Microbes can cause corrosion of metals including steel, iron, copper, nickel, aluminum, and their
alloys. They can even affect the integrity of nonmetals such as plastics and composites. Microbially
induced corrosion, or MIC, of metals is caused by various direct and indirect mechanisms. The best
known, direct mechanism involves the action of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) that grows in water
and sludge in the bottoms of tanks. SRB can cause pitting corrosion in steel tanks. In this process
SRB uses the sulfates found in the fuel t o develop an electrochemical corrosion cell, altering the
condition on the metal surface and enhancing corrosion that would not occur in the absence of
these microbes. This usually occurs along the bottom centerline of the tank where water tends to
accumuIate.

Microbes can affect the integrity of the fuel storage system by leaving behind waste products of
its activity. Byproducts containing organic acids accelerate corrosion through indirect mechanisms
that chemically etch the metal. Certain bacteria produce hydrogen sulfide, usually detectable as
a foul odor that sours the fuel and affects its stability. Other wastes called surfactants produced
by microbes can promote the suspension of water in the bulk fuel causing it to become hazy, and
making it difficult for fuel-water separators to work properly. This results in increased water content
in the fuel and potentially causing further corrosion problems in pumps downstream.
ldentifvina- Microbial Corrosion

Microbially induced corrosion on steel surfaces can be identified based on three types
of evidence :
SurFace appearance of the corrosion damage. SRB causes slope-walled pits within pits.
Biological cell counts of SRB, and general bacterial population.
Chemical identification of corrosion products and other deposits. This usually includes soft,
black corrosion products rich in iron sulfides overlying severe pitting.
Refer t o Chapter 6 for guidelines on how t o use field test kits to determine microbial
contamination.

60 How to Diagnose Fuel Problems
Monitoring the fuel is an essential part of maintaining good fuel quality. The following are
guidelines for evaluating and accepting fresh fuels, and monitoring of stored fuels. Stored fuels will
age over time and form sediment that contributes t o sludge a t the bottom of the tank. There are
basically two ways by which fuel quality can degrade: (1) by contaminants introduced during fuel
delivery and storage, and (2) sediment formation from unstable fuels.
The only way to identify if there is a fuel quality problem that could lead t o service problems
downstream is to know the condition of the product. Sampling and analyses should be done to
quality control the fuel oil as it is received from the supplier, while it is stored a t your bulk terminal,
and during transport in the delivery trucks. Once the product is delivered t o the customer and
stored in his tank, all service problems should begin with a diagnosis of the fuel in the home tank,
the condition of storage and fuel delivery system (oil supply lines t o the burner, fuel pump/ strainer,
filter, nozzle).
The types of contamination that could occur during distribution and storage:
Other products - gasoline
Water, dirt (leading t o filter plugging and tank corrosion)
Off-specification fuel (high cloud, pour points)
Trace metals - copper, zinc (accelerates oil degradation)
Microbes/ microbial growth (filter plugging, corrosion of metal tanks)
Contamination with other petroleum products can affect flash point (with gasoline), or viscosity
and boiling range (with heavy oils).
It is important to continuously monitor the condition of the tank so that any accumulation
of water and sediment at the bottom is removed periodically. Inspection and water draining
should be done at least annually. Water promotes corrosion and bacterial growth at the fuel-
water interface.

Simple Tests to Quickly Evaluate Fuel
Clear and Briuht Test (ASTM Method D 4176)

This is a quick and easy test that allows you to visually inspect the fuel supply you are buying
in the field. You can determine if there is suspended free water (haze) and contamination with
solid particles.
You need: 1-quart clear glass jar, 4-oz. bottles
Bar chart and haze rating photos (Example shown on the following 2 pages)
Method:
Take a sample of the fuel from the tank or truck and fill about 90% of the jar.
Place the bar chart behind the jar. Compare the appearance of the bar chart through the
sample with the standard photos. Look a t the comparison of the lines and how they fade
gradually. Ignore the color differences. However, if the fuel is too heavily dyed or the fuel is
too dark t o allow you t o see through the jar, pour a smaller amount of fuel into the 4 oz.
bottle.
Record the number on the photo that the sample resembles most. This is the rating.
Hold the sample up to the light and check for haze or clarity. Swirl the sample t o produce a
vortex and examine the bottom of the vortex for particles.
Record the following observations:
- Was it clear and bright? Or not?
- Were there particles?
Record the outdoor temperature or the fuel sample temperature if different.
Record your observations if the fuel appears darker than usual.
The fuel should have no water or particles, and this is considered "clean and bright." When
compared t o your observations of typical fuels, the haze rating could give you an indication of an
- unusual batch of contaminated or off-specification fuel.
If a sample is taken when the outdoor temperature is cold, small amounts of wax particles may
settle out and cloud the fuel; this should not be confused with a water haze. These wax crystals
will clog filter systems in your fuel delivery system. Check for the Cloud Point (ASTM D 2500) and
Pour Point (ASTM D 97) temperatures of the fuel. The fuels you store and use should have cloud
and pour points well below the outdoor temperatures in your geographic region. If they are not,
you can expect cold-weather operability problems. Refer to the previous section on Cold Flow
Properties of Heating Oil.

Figure 6-1 Bar Chart for Clear and Bright Test
:. ................................. ................................... ....... ........... ..... ..... ......
I
I
I 5 I
i 2
L. ......... .... .... -- ....... -. . !

r
Copies may be obtained from:

American Society for Testing and Materials
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
ASTM Designation: D4176
PCN: 12-44176012

Figure 6-2 Haze Rating Standard for Clear and Bright Test
. .-... B-'
@
..

How can you do a visual inspection of heating oil with the dye?
The Clear and Bright Test method for "Free Water and Particulate Contamination in Distillate
Fuels," ASTM D 41 76, is a very quick and easy tool t o estimate the presence of water and
contaminants by visual inspection. This is an accepted method for "clear" fuels (amber) like diesel
fuel. Using a 1-quart, clear glass jar all one needs to do is to examine the fuel for clarity. The
procedure comes with a chart and haze (water) rating photos for comparison.
In heating oil, the dye, which can appear dark in some fuels, makes this visual test hard
to do. However, if a smaller sample is used and placed in a 4 oz. bottle, some water, haze, or
contaminants may be more easily observed. For low levels of contamination it may still be difficult
t o detect. Nevertheless, it is highly recommended that the quality of your fuel supply be inspected
on a consistent basis.
Figure 6-3 Checking heating fuel for clarity.
SLIGHT HAZE
-ICE
Base fuel Base fuel with water

below freezing point
If you see a haze, there is something wrong with the fuel. There is either water in the fuel
or wax settling out of the fuel if the outdoor temperature is below its cloud point.

Fuel Sampling
The integrity of a fuel sample is critical t o getting useful information from the fuel's analysis.
If the sample is not properly taken and stored, the results you get may not be representative of
the actual condition of the bulk fuel or give the correct indication of a potential problem. Detailed
procedures for proper sampling can be found in the procedure, ASTM D 4057 - Standard Practice
for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum Products.
The basic principle of this procedure is to obtain a sample or a mixture of several samples
that represent the material in a truck or storage tank. Depending on where you are sampling from
and for what purpose, there are several different types of devices that can be used t o collect a fuel
sample. Guidelines for manually obtaining spot samples of fuel oil are described in detail in the
following sections.
Sampling Tips
Use clean sampling devices and new sample containers.
Check to make sure how much total volume of sample is needed to conduct all the tests
before a sample is taken. A 1-to-5 gallon total sample size may be necessary, depending on
the number of tests. Determine the appropriate type of sample containers needed.
A 1-gallon epoxy-lined can would be ideal for most tests on bulk samples; a 1-quart plastic
(Nalgene) bottle for bottom samples will do for sediment tests.
Sample containers should be filled t o minimize headspace, but no more than 95% full
t o allow for expansion.
Use the appropriate device for pulling bottom samples. The devices should be cleaned after
each sample has been taken to prevent contaminating each successive sample. A little
rubbing alcohol will do.

How to Sample Incoming Fuels from Barge
The following describes a procedure for checking the quality of the product delivered. The
most common and cheapest way of obtaining a representative fuel sample is by using a drip-type
sampler. This sampling procedure is often done on a bunker offshore for fuels brought in by ship
or barge. It would also be applicable for onshore terminal tanks. The best location t o install the
sampler is a t the end of the delivery hose a t the manifold t o the tank.
The figures below show samplers that are commercially available. This is an example of how
t o position the sampler with the minimum working clearance required. The fuel is collected in a
cubitainer. This plastic container, with a capacity of about 1 gallon, is attached to the needle valve
of the sampler.
Figure 6-4 Drip Sampler Located Between the Manifold and Delivery (Kittiwake)
inside of bolt ring
Needle valve
to control
flow of fuel
into Cubitainer
I450rnrn
:working
:clearance
II +- “Save all”
ondeck
plates
Figure 6-5 Examples of Manual Drip Samplers (Kittiwake or DNV)

Operatinu Drip Sampler
The tube within the sampler and sample valve should always be cleaned before use. This can
be done by removing the tube, simply flushing it with a clean distillate fuel (such as kerosene) and
allowing it t o drain thoroughly before installing. The tube should always be installed with the holes
facing the direction of the incoming fuel.
When fuel transfer starts, place a container under the sampler, open the sampler valve fully and
flush the sampler with fuel. Close the valve and attach a cubitainer onto the valve as shown. If the
sample is required only for testing on site, then it is possible t o substitute a single sample bottle in
place of the cubitainer.
Adjust the needle valve t o give a slow and steady drip. Time the fill rate to estimate that it will
provide for sufficient sample over the expected delivery period. Place an empty cubitainer on the
sampler and continue t o draw a sample. -On completion of the bunkering, remove and seal the
cubitainer, fully open the sampler valve and allow the sampler to drain.
Always close the sampler valve before blowing through the fuel lines on completion of
bunkering.
Close the sampler valve if pumping stops, t o prevent the sample being drawn back, under
vacuum, into the fuel line.
Always get the barge operator t o witness removal and sealing of the cubitainer. If this request is
refused, or if no witness is provided, then note this in the delivery log.
Specification Testinq
Section 3 on purchasing fuels lists the fuel properties and tests that should be done for these
samples. Private testing laboratories that specialize in analyzing petroleum samples can perform
tests for fuel properties specified in ASTM D 396 for burner fuels. ASTM International maintains
a Directory of Testing Labs on-line with full text search for services and locations of testing
laboratories. The information on the types of tests performed, specific tests performed, materials
analyzed, or other services offered has been provided by the laboratories. Refer to this most useful
website,
http://astm.365media.com/astm/la bshndex.html

..
How to Sample Bulk Storage Tanks
For large distributors sampling the fuels in the bulk tanks a t your terminal gives you an idea
of the condition of the fuels as stored, and what is being delivered to your customers. If you
have already checked the quality of the incoming fuels, b e aware that any potential contaminants
existing in your storage tank can affect the overall quality of the fuel supply.
Bulk Samples
To look a t the condition of the fuels in the bulk tanks, take samples from a variety of levels in
the tank, including a bottom sample. Access to the fuel in the bulk tank may be from a hatch a t the
top. To get a representative sample of the bulk fuel from a tank, take samples from different levels
(i.e. top sample, middle, lower) and combine them into one sample. This will give information on
the general quality of the product. Taking a sample from the tank's bottom allows you t o determine
how much contaminants (water, sediment, sludge) may be accumulating. It will also give an
indication of potential problems with the tank. For example, rust could indicate corrosion of the
internal tank surface.
Figure 6-6 Sample locations in a bulk tank.
/
- Hatch
6"
X-----Top
I Sample
X-----Upper Sample Upper Third
X-----Middle Sample Middle Third

_____-____-----
X-----Lower Sam le Lower Third
7 X-----Clearance ample
X-----Bottom Sample
Figure 6-7 Sampling from a bulk storage tank

Clear
Acrylic
Tube
.
,,,-Check Valve
Bottle cage to
be used with
Boston Round
Bottle
Zone Samplers made of clear acrylic tube or stainless steel
These bulk samples give valuable information on the general condition of the fuel. A moderate
t o large sample size is required dependant upon the test matrix. Analyses of these samples should
be done when you suspect contamination in the tank, contamination with other products, or cold
flow properties are off-specification.
Samples can be obtained by bottle sampling using a bottle cage with a glass, Boston round
bottle (16 or 32 oz.). Brown glass bottles protect the sample from light, which may affect results.
Zone samplers (shown above) are also simple t o use and versatile for sampling product from
stationary tanks, tank vehicles, and tank ships. This sampler can take all level samples of liquid
products. This type of "fuel thief" is typically 1 in. diameter or larger, and varies in length. A check
valve or a ball valve a t the bottom of the thief remains open as the sampler is lowered. When the
sampler is held stationary near the bottom of the tank, the check valve closes, effectively containing
a column of fuel.
Line Samples
A line sample is another way to sample a tank if accessing the tank interior is difficult. Clean
sample containers can be filled directly from a pipe or spout. For samples taken during loading
(such as into the bulk tank and a t the rack) allow for about 300 gallons of fuel t o be dispensed
before filling sample container. Fill container to within 1/2 inch of the top then cap immediately.
Figure 6-8 Line sample from bulk tank collected in epoxy-lined can.
,

Bottom Samde for Water and Sediment
Check tank bottoms for settled water, sludge or microbes (bacteria, yeast, fungi) taking a
sample with a Fuel Thief, or Bacon Bomb sampler. Only a small sample size is required. This
consists of a stainless steel cylinder tapered a t both ends and fitted with an internal, plunger type
valve. The valve opens automatically when the sampler strikes the bottom of a tank and closes
when lifted.
Figure 6-9 Bacon Bomb with extension rods to sample from tank bottoms.
The (4 02.) 1” diameter one is also referred to as the Pencil Bomb.
This is preferable to using the water indicating paste on a stick, as a sample can more easily be
inspected visually. Unless there is more than about 1/2-1 ” depth of water, it is hard t o detect it on
the stick. An emulsion a t the bottom (water and sludge mixture) can also displace the water from
the paste, which may appear as spots on the paste. This does not mean there is an insignificant
amount of water, as it does not take much t o cause corrosion or support bacterial and fungal
growth. A sample may give evidence of rust flakes or a slimy type of microbial growth.
How to Sample Transport Trucks

If there is suspected contamination of fuel during transport, a bulk sample and/or bottom
sample from a large transporter truck or small delivery truck may help t o diagnose the source of the
problem. The same types of manual samplers used for bulk tanks will be useful here.
Figure 6-10 Sampling a delivery truck with Bottle Cage Sampler.

.
How to Sample Home Tanks
Sampling from small residential tanks requires an accessible bung with an opening of 2"
diameter minimum. A bottom sample is most useful to assess the cleanliness of the tank. For
customer accounts that have repeat calls, there may be problems with heavy sludge accumulating
a t the bottom of the tank. Take a sample with a fuel thief or a hand pump to look a t the condition
of the tank bottom. This will tell you how much water, sediment, or rust there is.
Figure 6-11 Bottom sample taken with a Pencil Bomb or Fuel Thief.
Check the level and pitch of the tank. Pull a bottom sample from the low end of the tank if
possible. You may wish to take additional samples near the fuel supply line or from the fill-pipe.
Tanks are sometimes installed with a slight tilt to allow water to collect in one end. Take note that
when a sample is drawn from a port not located at the low end of the tank, sludge or water may not
be detected. For large tanks it is recommended that samples be taken from more than one location
to ensure that water and any contaminants are detected.

Testing for Microbia I Conta mination
Tank bottom samples are best used for evaluating microbial contamination. These may either
be tested by a laboratory or in the field for biological activity. This section covers how t o use field
test kits to assess microbial contamination.
Water in the tank bottom promotes microbial growth and it is expected that slight infestation
is typical. However, under conditions when there is heavy growth, thick mats of materials that form
could lead to filter plugging problems and tank corrosion.
Estimating the amount of microbial growth can be conveniently done with the use of field test
kits available on the market. Several suppliers use solid test media on dip-slides and liquid media in
pre-measured vials. They contain sample bottles, the nutrient, and an indicator (dye or chart), and
results can take 2 to 5 days depending on the type of kit.
While laboratory testing for biological growth can give more precise results in terms of cell
counts (i.e. organisms/ml), they are usually more expensive. In addition, unless the samples are very
carefully packed in cold storage, the results may b e misleading because of the time lag between
taking the sample and getting it t o the laboratory.
These kits are much less expensive than laboratory analyses. Although they are not as accurate,
they require very small samples (about an ounce) and can effectively tell you if you have slight,
moderate, or heavy infestation of microbes. Essentially this is all you need t o know to determine
your next step of action. Some commercially available field test kits include:
Products:
1. HumaBug Detector@ Kit. (Hammonds Companies)
2. Liqui-Cult Microbial Test Kit (Metalworking Chemicals & Equipment Co. )
3. Microb Monitor 2 (ECHA Microbiology, Ltd.)
4. EasiCult (Orion Group)

Use your observations (color, odor, clarity) in addition t o the microbial tests t o help you t o
identify microbial problems.
Check for microbial mats or slime.
A blend of brown t o red, or black material in the fuel or water layer indicates the
presence of microbes.
Hydrogen sulfide has a rancid odor and indicates heavy microbial contamination.
Figure 6-12 Obtaining 5cc of bottom sample for microbial field test (left);
injecting sample into aqueous broth for detecting bacterial and fungal growth (right).
Figure 6-13 Example of fuel oil sample in a test vial a t the start of the test.

.
Figure 6-14 Examples of fuel oils after an incubation period of 30-hours (Liqui-Cult, MCE).
Color change in the broth medium (bottom layer) from clear t o pink indicates bacterial
growth.
S S d
r-
No Microbes Moderate Growth Heavy
: Low levels of microbial growth won't affect your fuel delivery system
be a problem site if materials can be drawn into
rowth: If you are getting repeated no-heat calls, burner shutdowns due to filter
and line clogging, then its time for mechanical cleaning and/or chemical treatment, or as a
last resort tank replacement.
Prevention and Control

Microbial control requires a strategy with consideration for tank system design, appropriate .
sampling and analysis protocols, monitoring, and remedial treatment.
The approach to prevention of corrosion in storage tanks is the following:
Good tank system design and operation t o minimize water entry. Proper installation and
tank location, having adequate inspection port for sampling, water removal, and cleaning
when necessary.
Remedial treatment includes fuel filtration, biocide treatment when needed, tank cleaning
and disposal of contaminated fuel.
Tank materials selection includes non-metallic materials to avoid corrosi,on, or coatings t o
isolate the steel surface from water. Cathodic protection (CP) can prevent corrosion, including
microbially induced corrosion. It should be noted that CP is generally applied t o external
surfaces; protecting inside surfaces requires CP t o be applied inside of tanks.
References:
1. ASTM D 6469 Standard Guide for Microbial Contamination in Fuels and Fuel Systems
2. ASM (The Materials Information Society) Handbook, Volume 1I , Thomas R. Jack, Biological
Corrosion Failures

7. Assessing "Problem" Home Tanks
Many "problem" tanks share common causes, which are identified below. These problems
greatly affect fuel quality and the reliability of heating system performance. Recommendations on
how to solve these problems are included.
Water and Sludge Accumulation in Tanks

? The primary entryway for water in outdoor tanks is through loose and broken fittings. Check
for these types of leaks and where possible consider installing new tanks indoors or in a
she1tered Iocation.
Consider where you locate a new tank, especially for outdoor tanks. Check that you do not
install under the edge of the roof where rainwater or snow can fall directly onto the top of
the tank. The rainwater tends t o seep through loose-threaded fittings; using pipe dope and
making sure that fittings are secure helps t o minimize these problems.
Condensation of hot, humid, air in the tanks can slowly add to the water collecting a t the
bottom of the tank. This occurs as a tank "breathes" through the vent during the filling
operation, drawing of fuel from the tank, and temperature changes experienced in outdoor
tanks. Without periodic water removal, the amount of water that could accumulate aljcer many
years could be appreciable. Using a long measuring stick and water-indicating paste will help
you to monitor the tank for water.
Figure 7-1 Detecting water using stick and water-indicating paste
Color change showing

presence of water
-- I _
e Be aware that water can be introduced into tanks from other ways; water can be delivered
along with the fuel if it was already contaminated. Periodically check for water and cleanliness
of the fuels received from your supplier. Sample t o check that your tanker truck and/or bulk
storage tanks are clean and dry.
Sludge is a mixture of water, gum formed from the aging of fuels, rust, and microbes (bacteria
and fungus). Repeat service calls due t o sludge build-up requires special attention. Sampling
the tank bottom using a fuel thief allows you t o assess its condition and how much build-up
there is.
Collect the bottom sample in a clear, glass jar and take note of what it looks like.

Does thle sample taken from the bottom of the tank look like any of these samples?
Figure 7-2 By the sample drawn above, this tank has a problem with excessive water
accumulation. You can also detect this much water with water-indicating paste on a stick.
Figure 7-3 This sample contains heavy amounts of degraded fuel produc.; and water.
With many years of accumulation, the only effective means of removing sludge is through
mechanical cleaning.
Physical cleaning or replacement of heavily contaminated tanks, and replacement of clogged
fuel supply lines, are the only effective means t o solve these types of service problems.
A floating suction device used on the fuel supply line may help t o reduce the amount of
sediment that gets picked up into the fuel delivery system. When a floating suction is used
it is essential to monitor and remove the water as it accumulates. This should be done t o
prevent internal corrosion of steel tanks and to minimize microbial growth.

Fuels Degrading in Storage I$;*
The most important factors affecting storage stability of the fuel are the condition of the tank,
the amount of existing sludge, water or microbial growth.
Most of the incoming heating fuels from major suppliers appear to have acceptable stability.
Pipeline sources of fuel tend t o be more stable; barged fuels tend to be slightly less stable
possibly due to the added handling and transport, longer storage times, and potential
contamination.
Generally, older tanks that have more overall accumulation of sludge show an increased
likelihood of service problems. When replacing a tank, do not transfer old fuel into the new
tank.
Newer tanks with little water or sludge have fewer problems with microbial growth and
provided better fuel storage stability.
High sludge content (measured as Bottoms Sediment and Water or BS&W, of 10% or more)
results in more clogging problems of the fuel line and filter. You can detect large amounts of
contamination at the tank bottom simply by sticking the tank and using water-indicator paste.
If the paste color appears spotty, you likely have a mixture of water and heavy components of
fuel (an emulsion).
Tanks with existing sludge problems do not improve with fuel stabilizing additives. Stabilizers
are typically designed for use with freshly refined, clean fuels t o slow down oxidation and
natural aging of fuels.
Some dispersant-type fuel additives show reduced sludge on filters and may help to maintain
cleaner fuel delivery system (supply line, filter, nozzle).
To minimize fuel degradation during storage, keep outdoor tanks away from direct sun; high
temperatures during the summer can accelerate the fuel aging process. Where possible install
tanks in shaded areas, or on the north side of homes.
A GUIDETO FUEL PERFORMANCE 47

What does a tank bottom sample tell you about its constituents?
A sample taken from the bottom of the tank can tell you how much overall sludge there is and
the nature of the problem. Using a method t o determine Bottom Sediment & Water (BS&W),such
as ASTM D2709, the components of a sample can b e separated by density using a centrifuge.
This is done with specialized equipment-glass containers and a centrifuge. If you don't own such
equipment you can send a sample t o a commercial laboratory that does petrochemical analyses.
They should also be able to make a determination of the components.
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 1
The photos above show examples of fuel bottom samples with different layers of contaminants.
The heaviest layers usually consist of sediment and water. The fuel is usually a t the top of the
sample container, below which there exists an emulsion (fuel by-products of ageing and water
mixture). Having some information about the sludge contents allows you t o focus your effort on
how to solve the problem.
In the above samples, Sample 1 shows water and contaminants as related t o fuel-breakdown
(an unstable fuel). A pump-out of the contaminants along with improved practices for minimizing
water build-up would help to improve the cleanliness and stability of the fuel. Sample 2 shows more
evidence of non-fuel contaminants, which indicates that debris may be getting into the tank during
filling.

What To Do If the Fuel is Deficient ‘ f
Fuel is off-specification
Periodically taking a sample of the bulk fuel and testing for its specified properties can give
you an indication of the overall quality of the fuel from your supplier. If there is a problem with a
fresh batch of fuel, then there are two options. The fuel should not be accepted from the supplier
if it is contaminated with water or debris. If there are acceptable ways to bring the fuel back into
specifications then the following methods may be considered.
Dilution and Blending. In some cases, when a fuel is off-specification, dilution with another
batch of fresh fuel can effectively bring the entire batch within acceptable limits. For example,
blending can lower a high cloud point or raise the flash point. Blending should always be done with
small test samples and analyzed before attempting mixing the entire stock.
Fuels that are contaminated with microbes, debris, or water should not be blended.
Contaminants in Tanks
Excessive no-heat calls are likely t o occur with large amounts of sludge in the tank. Field
experience shows that chronic problems occur in tanks having about 1/2” or more water/sludge
using the stick and paste indicator, or about 10% BS&W by analysis. Pumping out these most-
contaminated tanks and clearing out the oil line would eliminate these service calls.
Fuel lines that are piped from the bottom of the tank are more susceptible to line clogging if
there is no fiIter/water separator a t the tank. Where there is no filter a t the tank, any sludge or water
drawn from the tank would become trapped in the lines.
If water is the major constituent, then you will need t o determine where the water is coming
from. There may b e a broken or poorly threaded pipe, loose fill cap, or a crack in the tank. Keep
tanks filled during the summer t o minimize the air space above the fuel. This reduces the amount of
water accumulation in the tank that comes from condensation.

8. How to Prevent Fuel Problems
A preventative maintenance program should be based on need, resources, and common sense.
A successful fuel quality surveillance program must include the following items: (1) specifications
when purchasing fuels; (2) sampling, testing and record keeping; and (3) good housekeeping.
Each company should have a set of procedures for the sampling and testing of their fuel supply
and bulk storage tanks, where applicable. For home tanks, checking for water should become a
routine part o f heating systems maintenance. Documentation should be set up so that these efforts
can be reviewed a t any time. The information on home tanks is valuable for tracking problem areas
and for assessing whether or not changes in procedures really worked. This will save money in the
long run when you can quickly identify and solve problems.
Good housekeeping requires minimizing dirt and water entering a tank. Water promotes the
growth of microbes, which use the fuel as a food source, and accelerates internal corrosion of the
tank. Water can enter a tank through cracked or leaking fill pipes and vents, and therefore, these
should be checked when water contamination is suspected. The change in air temperatures can
cause condensation within the tank. Dirt and debris are generally introduced into the fuel through
careless handling.
Technicians who maintain the heating systems and the delivery personnel should b e trained on
how to identify possible fuel quality problems. Fuels should b e checked from the receipt of fuel,
through delivery and storage.
Cleaning tanks that are less than 10 years old is not necessary as part of a preventative
maintenance program, but there could be circumstances that would make cleaning necessary or
desirable, such as a severe accumulation of sludge.
Monitoring Home Tanks

Install Suction Gauge on Filter Housing
A suction gauge can be installed on the filter housing t o monitor the condition o f the filter
insert. A high vacuum indicates when this becomes clogged. For every system the suction
gauge reading may be different from the start, when the filter is clean. You need t o note the
gauge reading when the burner is " o f f and when it is "on." Note this on the service t a g on the
equipment.
When the filter fills with sediment the gauge will read higher vacuum (in-Hg). This should
be read when the burner is "on." Comparing the readings of a system with previously recorded
readings can guide you as t o when you need to replace filters.
Count Your Service Calls

Start with your current service accounts. This is your baseline of information. Count the total
number of unscheduled service calls - No heat, no hot water (or not enough), and odor. Note
how many customers and how much volume is delivered t o these customers. You don't want to
count preventative maintenance inspections, new equipment installations, and plumbing or duct
problems.

Monitor the service calls each day (24-hr. period) for Jah-Feb when you may have the most calls
of the season. Use either:
- Number of service calls per customer, or
- Number of service calls per volume delivered
Put this information on a chart. The number of calls will vary throughout the year with more
calls during the heating season. You can compare these numbers on a monthly basis (for example
Jan-Feb) from year to year t o assess how you are doing with changes to your fuel maintenance
program.
t
How to Store Fuel Oil

Tank Considerations
An accessible bung should be provided a t the top of the tank to allow for periodic inspection
for water and sludge. Any accumulation a t the tank bottom should be removed on a routine
basis so that it will not clog filters or burner nozzles.
If tank pump-out or replacement is needed, then try to draw down as much of the oil as
possible by consuming it, then properly dispose of the bottom fuel. Do not transfer the
old fuel to a new tank. Accumulated water, sludge and bacteria will cause your new tank t o
quickly corrode. Flush out or replace fuel lines to the burner.
To avoid internal corrosion use non-corrodible tanks (plastic, fiberglass). Interior coatings
or linings used in steel tanks that are not completely sealed or bonded can make worse
corrosion in exposed areas or surface pitting.
Do not bury bare steel tanks or piping underground without corrosion protection or leak
detection.
Locate outdoor tanks in cool, shaded areas if possible. This minimizes the exposure of the fuel
t o high temperatures from direct sun.
Piping Considerations
Metals such as galvanized steel, zinc, and copper accelerate the breakdown (or oxidation)
of oil. Avoid long routings of copper lines between the tank and burner.
With an outdoor tank all piping should be well insulated from the cold weather. Under
extremely cold conditions, untreated No. 2 oil could gel and lead to burner shutdown.
A floating suction a t the fuel intake may help to reduce the amount of sediment drawn into
the supply line. mprove the cleanliness and stability of the fuel along with improved practices

9. About Fuel Oil Additives
Fuel oil marketers often use chemical additives to improve handling and storage of fuel. These
additives are blended into the oil a t the bulk plant storage tanks, in the trucks a t the loading rack,
or directly into the consumer tanks. Numerous types of additives are available for distillate fuels
and, therefore, it is necessary t o look closely at the needs and t o match them to the product.
Described below are categories of additives that perform various functions most relevant to heating
oil applications.
Additives should be used only when needed to prevent or solve a problem. Because of their
cost, additives must be shown t o b e effective by careful evaluation before and during their use.
Additive evaluation depends on a measurable change in fuel properties and performance. Also
discussed below is a generalized approach for evaluation by laboratory analyses.
Additives are fuel specific, which means that they may perform well in one fuel and poorly
in another. If an additive is used t o modify fuel properties, then specific laboratory test methods
should be used to measure the fuel's response t o a given additive a t the prescribed treatment
dosage. An evaluation may require sampling of a series of fuels t o represent the range of fuel
properties under actual operating conditions, and over a specific time period.
The key to effective additive treatment is to understand the following points:

What the additive is used for,
Treatment rate and effectiveness,
Its limitations,
Its costs,
Hazards and safety precautions,
Regulations on the usage, storage, and disposal
Types of Additives and How to Test for Their Effectiveness

The types of additives an oil marketer will typically encounter are classified as aftermarket fuel
additives. These are commercial products that are marketed for use with fully formulated fuels (such
as No. 2 heating oil and diesel). Additives should be purchased from reliable sources to ensure that
the products effectively meet the claimed benefits.
Multifunctional fuel additive packages classified as fuel stabilizers may contain a mixture of the
following compounds:
- oxygen inhibitor (antioxidant)
-
- dispersant
- corrosion inhibitor
- metal deactivator
- biocide
Multifunctional additives are generally more effective than individual additives in that they can
potentially resolve multiple fuel issues that exist with problem fuels.

A series of "screening test requirements" may be developed for aftermarket fuel additives.
The requirements should be derived from data obtained through standardized laboratory tests,
which enable objective assessments on whether the advertised claims of improved performance
can be partially or fully verified, and whether any adverse side effects will occur with use of the
additive due to incompatibility with other additives already present in the formulated fuel. All
additives should meet such requirements on compatibility, stability, filterability, minimum handling
4 temperature, and/or biocide activity t o b e qualified for use in a home heating system.
The components of an additive are usually proprietary and, therefore, it is essential t o
understand how they function and how t o measure their performance. The following table
summarizes the most common additive types used in No. 2 heating oil and their specific functions.
Stabilizers address the following fuel problems:
Control of color darkening
Minimize deposit buildup or sludge during storage of fuel
Improve resistance to fuel oxidation
Stabilizers cannot reverse the effects of fuel degradation such as color that has changed or
sludge that has been formed. It is important t o recognize their limitations and therefore stabilizers
should be considered only as preventative measures to reduced fuel problems. They are most
appropriately applied with fresh fuels. Additives will not clean tanks that contain existing water and
sludge. In general, fuel supplies that are already clean and stable d o not require additives.
Additive Type Function

Cold Flow Improvers- Polymers Depress cold temperature operability limit, reduces
filter plugging from wax crystals
Detergent/ Dispersants Prevent settling or separation
Antioxidants/ Sta biIizers Designed to prevent fuel degradation reactions
that form gums
Corrosion Inhibitors Prevents rust on metal surfaces due to moisture
and acids
Metal Deactivators Reduce fuel degradation reactions that are catalyzed
by fuel soluble compounds of metals such as copper
Biocides KiIIs sI ime-produci ng bacteria/ fungi

.
How to Select an Additive
The following are general guidelines and questions for the oil marketer t o keep in mind when
selecting an additive:
Define the problem and the type of performance needed.
Make sure that the fuel sample being tested represents the fuel t o be treated.
Will the additive be used once, or is continuous treatment required?
0 Does the additive perform more than one function?
Does the additive have the correct usage approvals for the intended use?
Does the additive have a comprehensive data package supporting its suitability? (Refer t o the
appropriate Performance Tests for the different additive categories described in the following
sections.)
Does the additive supplier have technical support if there are questions or problems?
Can the supplier provide a way to determine effectiveness in specific cases?
What are the safety and handling requirements?
-Are there instructions on labels?
- Do Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) accompany the product?
- How do you properly dispose of the additive containers?
- Know the local laws concerning disposal of sludge or water bottoms from storage tanks.
Antioxidants and Metal Deactivators

Function: Fuel degradation caused by oxidation or aging leads t o gum deposits. This process
can be slowed down by antioxidant additives and is best applied during the manufacturing of
heating oil. Dissolved metals, such as copper, can enhance degradation by accelerating aging
and producing mercaptide (sulfur-containing compounds) gels. To minimize these effects,
metal deactivators can be introduced into the fuel to combine with the metals and render them
inactive. In general, copper and copper-containing alloys should be avoided.
Common Names: Stabilizers, Gum Inhibitors
Types of chemicals to look for:

Compounds in the category of hindered phenols: 2,6-ditertiarybutyl phenol
Phenylenediamene compounds: N, N'-disalicylidene-I ,2 propanediamine, and
N,N'-disalicylidene-1,2- cyclohexanediamine are common metal deactivators;
Tertiary-alkyl primary amines: 1,I,7,7-tetramethyloctylamine
Performance Tests:
1. Accelerated Thermal Stability (ASTM D 6468)
2. Oxidation Stability Accelerated Method (ASTM D 2274)
3. Fuel Storage Stability -1 3 week test, 43 ' C (ASTM D 4625)

Dispersants
Function: Dispersants are used t o maintain insoluble residues suspended in the oil. Typically,
dispersants are used in multifunctional additives with other stabilizing and antioxidizing
additives. Dispersants are most effectively used before the fuel degrades. Once the gummy
deposits form and are amassed with dirt, biological organisms, and other debris, this sludge
r becomes much more difficult t o disperse.
J
A secondary function of dispersants is its corrosion-inhibiting effect. Some stabilizer dispersants

can form a thin film on metal surfaces of fuel systems to protect its surfaces.
Common Names: Detergent
Performance Tests: No standards exist for heating oil application.
Possible Side Effects:
Initial use of dispersant may cause fuel filter plugging problems as existing deposits, sludge,
and scale are picked up from the fuel storage system.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Function: Tank surfaces that come in contact with the fuel may rust due t o water that
accumulates or acids that could form in the fuel. Corrosion inhibitors can be used to prevent
the formation of rust.
Common Names: Anti-rust, Anti-erosion
Performance Tests:
1. Detection of Copper Corrosion by Copper Strip Tarnish Test (ASTM D 130)
2. Steel Corrosion (ASTM D 665)
Possible Side Effects: Some corrosion inhibitors can interact with the fuel and other lubricant
additives to form gums and sludge deposits. Suppliers should be able to demonstrate no-harm
performance (compatibility) when these additives come into contact with the fuel and other
additives.
Biocides
Function: Water accumulation a t the bottom of oil tanks and fuel handling systems is a
common problem throughout the fuel industry. Water in combination with hydrocarbon fuel can
support microbial growth. Certain species of microbes can survive a t the fuel-water interface of
the storage tank where there is no free oxygen. Some bacteria use the oxygen bound in fuel
sulfur compounds, and the hydrocarbon fuel as the nutrition source. By-products of microbial
activity such as hydrogen sulfide and organic acids can lead to storage problems such as ,
corrosion; the sheer amount of cell growth can lead to operational problems.
Microbiological organisms in fuel are commonly classified as bacteria, molds, or yeast. Certain
strains are frequently used to evaluate the effectiveness of additives, such as Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (bacteria), Cladosporium resinae, (mold), and Candida tropicalis (yeast).
A variety of biocides are commercially available to help control microbial contamination in
water. Biocide additives are regulated under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA), and the product must be registered with the federal Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) for specific applications. For example, a biocide that is registered for treating fuel
oil storage tank water bottoms cannot be used for treating gasoline storage tank water bottoms
Check that the product you are using has an EPA registration number, which is usually indicated

on the container's label as REG. NO. (6-digit number). A marketed product must perform as
claimed and be labeled with information, including product use, treatment rate, and human
exposure and hazards.
Common Names: Water-phase, Fuel-phase biocides
Types of Chemicals To Look For: Some common compounds that are approved as fuel-water
biocides include the following [Peyton]: i.
Biocide Bacterial Typical Dosage* Stability

Activity
Glutaraldehyde Typically effective 100 ppm for a 50% Stable under
in 3-8 hours solution temperature and pH
against all bacteria. fluctuations; degraded
by hydrogen sulfide
Methylene-bis- May take up t o 12 200 ppm of a 10% Degrades slowly with
thiocyanate hours.to react; not solution increasing temperature
generally effective and pH
against sulfate
reducing bacteria
Sodium dimethyl Moderate 200 ppm of a 15% Stable under

dithiocarbamate/ effectiveness in 3-8 solution temperature and pH
disodium ethylene- hours against most fluctuations; reacts with
bis-dithiocarbamate bacteria dissolved iron to form
a precipitate
lsothiazoline type Typically effective 100-400 ppm of a Degrades slowly under

in 4-12 hours 1 2 % solution used temperature and pH
against all bacteria as needed fluctuations
Dibrominated Typically effective 100 pprn of a 20% Degrades readily in

proprionamide in 15 minutes t o 2 solution high-temperature,
hours against all high-p H conditions
bacteria
Hexahydro- 1,3,5- Typically effective 100 ppm of a 95% At pH valuesc6.5,

triethyl-S-triazine in 3-8hours solution activity increases but
against all bacteria lifetime diminishes
~~ ~~ ~ ~~~
*Actual treat rate and frequency of application depends on the level of contamination and the storage condition
(i.e., fuekwater ratio, turnover of the fuel, etc.). Contact the manufacturer for specific recommendations.
Heavily contaminated systems need to be physically cleaned to remove debris.
Performance Tests:
1. To be effective according to U.S. Military Specifications, MIL-S-53021, the biocide must kill or
inhibit the growth of the three organisms, listed above, based on concentration.
4
2. Common field test kits. Some commercially available ones- Liquid-Cult Fuel Test Kit (MCE
Inc.), EasiCult (Orion Corp.), Hum-Bug Detector Kit (Hammonds Co.)
L
Possible Side Effects: Interaction with other additives, fuel filter plugging due t o mass of
deterio rating m ic robes.
References: Peyton, Kim B., Ondeo/ Nalco Fuel Field Manual, McGraw-Hill Professional
Engineering series, 2002.
.
Cold Flow Improvers
Function: Flow improvers are designed to lower the cold temperature operability limit of diesel
and heating fuels, and to avoid wax formation in cold weather. Once wax has formed in the
fuel, an additive will not change the waxes already present. Although, if the temperature falls
lower, an additive will interact with, and modify, newly separating waxes.
To dissolve wax, a solvent such as kerosene must b e used. Unfortunately, kerosene cuts can be
expensive and of limited availability, and can reduce heat content.
Commercial cold-flow improvers or pour-point depressants effectively depress pour-point
temperatures. Its effects depend on the characteristics of the fuel as well as on the additive.
Different fuels exhibit different behaviors, even though they are all classified as heating oil.
Some additives are more effective than others a t the same concentrations. Much less chemical
additive is needed to reduce pour point temperature compared to the volume of kerosene
required for the same effect.
Common names: Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) additives, Pour Point Depressants, Low
Temperature Flow Test (LTFT) additives, Nucleators, Wax modifiers, Wax dispersants/ Wax
suspension agents, Cloud Point Depressants
Performance Tests:
1. Pour Point (ASTM D 97) -This test predicts the gel point in the fuel lines and fuel tanks. The
operability limit is always higher than the pour point.
2. Cloud Point (ASTM D 2500) This test indicates the temperature when wax becomes visible
in the fuel. The recommended cloud point temperature depends on the time of year and the
location of operation. These are specified in ASTM D 975.
Possible Side Effects: Adding too much cold-flow improver can thicken the fuel and reduce
CFPP response.
.,

Appendices
A. Commercial Testing Lawsfor Petroleum Pro( ucts
B. Petroleum Testing Equipment Suppliers 1
i
APPENDIX A
SOME COMMERCIAL TESTING LABS FOR PETROLEUM REFINED PRODUCTS,
PETROCHEMICALS, LUBRICANTS
Arizona Florida
Ama Igatec h Constellation Technology Corp
An a Iyze , Inc. Inter-City Testing & Consulting
Clinical Technologies, Inc. King Laboratories

PRI Asphalt Technologies, Inc.
California Quantac hrome Co rp.
Anachem Laboratories
Analysts, Inc. Georgia
DL Labs/ Calcoast Materials Analytical Services, Inc.
Herguth Laboratories, Inc.

Illinois
Inter-City Testing & Consulting Corp.
Advanced Materials Center, Inc.
Micro Photonics Inc.
Falex Testing Laboratory
RADCO Inc.
Intet-tek Testing Services
Ramtech Laboratories
Micro Measurement Laboratories
SGS Control Services
Phoenix Chemical Laboratory
Zymax Environtechnology
SGS Control Services, Inc.
Colorado
Louisiana
Trace Laboratories
ANA-LAB Gorp.
Connecticut Intet-tekTesting Services
Specialized Technology Resources Lubriport Laboratories, Inc.

Saybolt Inc.
Delaware SGS Control Services, Inc. *
Lewis Research, Inc. Sherry Laboratories
SPL, Inc.
sa THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

MaryIand New Jersey (continued)
ANA-LAB Baltimore-DC Oiltest, Inc.
Customs Science Services Saybolt LP
Martel Laboratories, JDS, Inc. SGS Control Services, Inc.
Penniman & Browne, Inc. Sor Testing Labs
SGS Control Services, Inc. Spectrum Laboratories, Inc.
Trace Laboratories
New Mexico
Massachusetts International Lubrication and Fuel Consultants, Inc.
Kidde-Fenwal, Inc.
Shuster Laboratories New York
Michigan Advanced Plastic & Material Testing
Biosan Laboratories, Inc.' Buck Analytical and Testing Labs
Bodycote Met-Chem, Inc. Edison Analytical Laboratories, Inc.
Ghesquiere Plastic Testing, Inc. Inter-City Testing & Consulting Corp.
Greening Testing Laboratories lthaca Materials Research & Testing
RTl Laboratories, Inc. Koehler Petroleum Testing Lab
The M&P Lab
Minnesota
Vo Iumetric Techniques, Ltd.
Aspen Research Corp.
VTEC Laboratories, Inc.
DDL, Inc.
Missouri North Carolina
Engineered Lubricants Co. PAR Laboratories, Inc.
New Hampshire Ohio

VHG Labs, Inc. Akron Rubber Development Lab, Inc.
American Electric Power
New Jersey
American Testing Company, Inc.
ABlC International Consultants Ashland Inc.
ANA Laboratories, Inc. ATC Laboratories
Atlantic Product Services, Inc. Bowser-Mo rne r, Inc .
ATS RheoSystems Momentu m Tech noIogies, I nc .
*
Bennett: Testing Service, Inc. S. D. Myers, Inc.
1
Camin Cargo Control, Inc. Smithers Scientific Services, Inc.

EMSL Analytical, Inc.
Gibra It a r Laborato ries, inc. Oklahoma
Hydroca rb on TechnoIogies, Inc . ANA-LAB Corp.
lntertek Testing Services Sherry Lab orat0ries
Laboratory Service, Inc. TRW Petroleum Technologies
Pennsylvania
Anter Laboratories, Inc.
C D S Laboratories, Inc.
Cannon Instrument Co.
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation
Tennessee
Galbraith Laboratories, Inc.
United Power Services, Inc.
Texas
A 8( B Labs
ANA-LAB Gorp.
Core Laboratories
Dixie Services, Inc.
Harris Testing Laboratories, Inc.
InterCorr International, Inc.
lntertek Testing Services
Lab Consultants and Marine Surveyors, LLC
Perkin Elmer Automotive Research
PoIyhedron Laboratories, Inc.
Saybolt, Inc - Petrochemical Div.
Southwest Research Institute
SPL, Inc.
Virginia
Hampton Roads Testing Labs, Inc.
Washington
Bio Research Laboratories, Inc.
Wisconsin
Fluid Power Institute
Structu raI Research, Inc.
Thomas A. Edison Technical Center

APPENDIX B
TEST1NG EQUIPMENT SUPPLlERS
The following is a list of American companies that may be able to provide the testing
equipment required in various reference methods. This listing was derived from the Thomas
Register on the Internet, a database consisting of American manufacturers classified under various
I products and services. A search through this database for "Petroleum Testing Equipment" and
"Instruments: Petroleum Testing" resulted in the following:
Petroleum Testing Equipment

CDS Analytical, Inc. Oxford, PA
ERDCO Engineering Corp. Evanston, IL
Falex Corp. Sugar Grove, IL
Humboldt Mfg., Co. Norridge, IL
Koehler Instrument Co., Inc. Edison, NJ
Lawler Manufacturing Corp., Inc. Bohemia, NY
Varlen Instruments Inc. Bellwood, IL
Instruments: Petroleum Testing

Alpha Resources, Inc. Stevensville, MI
Anton PAAR USA Ashland, VA
Asoma Instruments, Inc. Austin, TX
Atlantic Analytical Laboratory, lnc. Whitehouse, NJ
Automation Products, Inc. Houston, TX
Cannon Instrument Company State College, PA
Chandler Engineering Go., L.L.C. Tulsa, OK
Chase Instrument Co. College Point, NY
Cosa Instrument Corp., West Coast Div. Houston, TX
Costa Instrument Corp. Norwood, NJ
CSC Scientific Co., Inc. Fairfax, VA
Datalive Corp. Baltimore, MD
Devere & Lau Co. Anaheim, CA
Dewes-Gumb Die Go., Inc. Long Island City, NY
Dj ScientifidDickey-john Auburn, IL
J
1 Dual Manufacturing Co., Inc. Chicago, IL

ERDCO Engineering Corp. Evanston, IL
*
t Falex Corp. Sugar Grove, IL
First International Inc. Gaithersburg, MD
Future lmpex Corp. Granada Hills, CA
Gardner, Paul N., Go., Inc. Pompano Beach, FL

Instruments: Petroleum Testing (continued)
Gilson Company, Inc. Worthington, OH
Greer's Ferry Glass Works Quitman, AR
GTE Corp. Communications Systems Div. Taunton, MA
Haake Paramus, NJ
HB Instrument Go. Collegeville Trappe, PA
Humboldt Mfg. Go. Norridge, IL
Inventive Systems Inc. Lexington Park, MD
Kessler Instruments, Inc. Westbu ry, NY
King Refrigeration, Inc. Freeland, MI
Koehler Instrument Go., Inc. Bohemia, NY
Lancer USA, Inc. Longwood, FL
LaPine Scientific Co. Blue Island, IL
Lawler Manufacturing Gorp. Edison, NJ
Metorex, Inc. Bend, OR
Metorex, Inc. Hayward CA
Orbeco Analytical Systems, Inc. Farmingdale, NY
Paar Physica USA Edison, NJ
Petrolab Company Latham NY
Photographic Analysis Go. Wayne, NJ
Ruska Instrument Corp. Houston, TX
Scientific International, Inc. Bloomfield, NJ
Sensidyne, Inc. Clearwater, FL
Southeastern Liquid Analyzers, Inc. York, SC
Teledyne Brown Engineering
/Environmental Services Westwood, NJ
UVP Inc Upland, CA
Wedgewood Technology, Inc. San Carlos, CA
Weksler Instruments, An Operating Unit
of Dresser Instrument Div. Freeport, NY
WilkensAnderson Co. Chicago, IL
The above is only a partial listing of what is available under these product headings. To search
for other product he-adings or obtain future updated listings this database can be accessed through
their electronic address:
http://www.thomasregister.com
It should be noted that reference to any specific manufacturer here does not constitute or imply
its endorsement or recommendation. This listing has been published for convenience t o the reader
and was obtained from publicly accessible information.

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BNL-73601-2005-IR

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE

The NORA Fuel Quality Technical Manual

NATIONAL OILHEAT RESEARCH ALLIANCE

Don Allen (E.T. Lawson), NORA Chairman

Brookhaven National Laboratorv Staff

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 3

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 5

Gas and Light Gasoline

Heavy Gas Oil

6 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

- -- 95% Sulfur Removaf

8 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Heating Oil Diesel ASTM

Grade No. 2-l o w Sulfur

Copper strip corrosion rating, max,

- Cetanenumber, min. - I 40 D 613

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 9

Fuel Properties and Performance

Factor that affects efficiency, fouling of boilers, flue gas emissions:

Factors that affect clarity

Ash ( 2) content may be defined as the carbonaceous residue that remains

t of the fuel affects corrosion and the formation of deposits

1 in the fuel can cause corrosion of equipment

12 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Table 4.7 Stability Tests Commonly Used for Distillate Fuel

Test Test Acceptable

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 13

Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)

14 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

To convert from deg. F to deg. C, subtract 32 then divide by 1.8

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 15

16 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Pour Point Depression

Additive 1A Additive 1B Additive I C

Blending with Kerosene

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 17

Pour Point Depression Using Kerosene Blending

Figure 4-4 How kerosene affects cloud point temperatures

Cloud Point Depression Using Kerosene Blending

18 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Cloud Point ASTM 02500

Pour Point ASTM 097

Cold Filter ASTM D6371, IP 309, CEN 116

Cost Analysis of Fuel Additive Treatment vs. Kerosene Blending

20 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Additive Treatment or Blending with Kerosene?

(3)Determine the amount of kerosene needed (gallons) and its cost.

(4) Determine the treat rate and cost of additive ($).

(5) Calculate the cost differential (kerosene cost - additive cost)

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 21

How much water do we collect from condensation in tanks?

22 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL

Samples in 500 rnl glass jars.

Figure 5-2 Condensation In Partially Filled Tanks.

Surface corrosion above fuel level Tank bottom

A GUIDE TO FUEL PERFORMANCE 23

Figure 5-3 Water condensation test over 4 months

10% FULL 90% FULL

24 THE NORA FUEL QUALITY MANUAL