Organizational Behavior

Comprehensive Lecture Notes

MISS AMBREEN BILAL

MBA (Finance)
MSC (Eeconamics)

For Questions: 0333-5885711

By keeping in mind the outline for Organizational behavior MBA III of university of Azad
Kashmir, I put my knowledge and research into work to compile these comprehensive notes.
These will prove a good source of knowledge and preparation of exam.

Please support & appreciate my effort by not trying to reproduce my work without any prior
permission.

Ms Ambreen Bilal
MBA Finance, University of AJK

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 CONTENTS

Out line 01 introduction

Q1.1 what is organization? --------------------------------------------------------------------------07

Q1.2 Organizational behavior / challenges and opportunities-------------------------------10
Q1.3 Why to study O.B / challenges / opportunities of O.B? --------------------------------12
Q1.4 Contributing disciplines to OB field----------------------------------------------------------15

Outline 02 Values and attitudes

Q2.1 Values----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
Q2.2 Types of values-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
Q2.3 Attitude---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Q2.4 Implication of performance and satisfaction----------------------------------------------32

Outline 03 personality
Q3.1 Personality---------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Q3.2 Major Determents of personality-----------------------------------------------------38
Q3.3 Personality characteristics in organization ----------------------------------------41
Q3.4 Defensive behavior-------------------------------------------------------------------------50

Outline 03 Perception
Q4.1 Perception and its importance in OB -------------------------------------------------------53
Q4.2 Factors influencing perception---------------------------------------------------------------54
Q4.3 Personal perception making judgment about others-----------------------------------59

Motivation Outline 05
Q5.1 What is motivation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
Q5.2 Individual needs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
5.3 Theories of motivation---------------------------------------------------------------- 67

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 CONTENTS

Outline 06 Learning

Q6.1 Learning--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
Q6.2 Relevance of learning---------------------------------------------------------------------------97

Outline 07 Groups and groups

Q7.1 Definition-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
Q7.2 Classification of groups-------------------------------------------------------------------------100
Q7.3 why people join groups-------------------------------------------------------------------------103
Q7.4 Stages of group development------------------------------------------------------------------104
Q7.5 Key group concepts-----------------------------------------------------------------------------105
Q7.6 Foundation of group behavior----------------------------------------------------------------108

Outline 08 Power

Q8.1 Power definition---------------------------------------------------------------------------------111

Q8.2 Types of power-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
Q8.3 Sources of power---------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
Q8.4 Power tactics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
Q8.4 Political implications of power----------------------------------------------------------------104

Outline 09 leadership

Q9.1 what is leadership--------------------------------------------------------------------------------119

Q9.2 Theories of leadership--------------------------------------------------------------------------120

Outline 10 Communication

Q10.1 Communication process------------------------------------------------------------------------126

Q10.2 Barriers to effective communication--------------------------------------------------------128
Q10.3 Non verbal communication--------------------------------------------------------------------132
Q10.4 Communication network-----------------------------------------------------------------------136

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 Outline 01

Introduction

Q1.1...What is organization?

 The basics of management

 Management roles

Q1.2…. Organizational behavior / challenges and opportunities

 Organizational behavior
 Defination
 Importance of O.B
Q1.3…Why to study O.B / challenges / opportunities of O.B?
 Responding to Globalization
 Managing Workforce diversity
 Improving quality and productivity.
 Responding to the labor shortage
 Improving customer services
 Improving people skills..
 Empowering people
 Coping with ‘’’Temporariness’’’
 Stimulating innovation and changes
 Helping employees balance work / life conflict
 Improving ethical behavior
Q1.4…Contributing disciplines to OB field

 Political science
 Anthropology
 Social psychology
 Sociology Psychology

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 1.1...What is organization?

Organization
Organization involves division of work among people whose efforts must be co-ordinate
to achieve specific objectives and to implement pre-determined strategies. Organization is the
foundation upon which the whole structure of management is built? It is the backbone of
management. After the objectives of an enterprise are determined and the plan is Prepared,
the next step in the management process is to organize the activities of the Enterprise to
execute the plan and to attain the objectives of the enterprise.
Definition
It is a consciously co-ordinate social unit, composed of two or more people, that function
on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.
The basics of management

Management typically requires the condition of several vital components that will call
function. The main /basic function of management is...

Planning

HRM STAFFING

Controlling  Strategic HRM Organizing

planning
 Recruiting
 Selection

Leading

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1-Planning

A management functions focusing on setting organizational goals establishing strategy

and developing plans to coordinate activities.

2-Organizaing

A management function that deals with determining what job are to be done, by whom,
where decisions are to be made, and how to group employees

3-Leading

Function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most
effective communication channels and resolving conflicts.

4-Controlling

Monitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and correcting
any significant deviation.

Management roles

In the late 1960s a graduate student at MIT, Henry Mintzberg , undertook a careful
study of five executives to determine what these managers did on their jobs. On the biases of
his observation of these managers, Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different ,
highly interrelated roles or set of behaviors attributes to their jobs.

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 Management roles

ROLE DESCRIPTION

Interpersonal

Figurehead Symbolic head required to perform a number of routine duties of a legal or

social nature.

Leader Responsible for the motivation and direction of employees

Liaison Maintains a network of outside contacts who provide favors and information.

Informational

Monitor Receives wide verity of information, serves as nerve centre of internal and
external information of the organization.

Disseminator Transmits information received from outsiders or from other employees to

member of organization

spokesperson Transmits information to outsiders on org. plans, polices, action and results
serves as expert on organizations industry

Decisional

Entrepreneur Searches organization and its environment for opportunities and initiates
projects to bring about change.

Disturbance handler Responsible for corrective action when organization faces important,
unexpected disturbances

Resources allocator Make or approves significant organizational decision.

Negotiator Responsible for representing the organization at major negotiation.

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Management skills

Still another way of considering what managers do is to look at skills or competencies

they need to achieve their goals.

Robert Katz has identified three essential management skills, technical skills, and human skills.

Technical skills

Technical skills encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. When
you think of the skills held by professionals such as civil engineers or oral surgeons, you typically
focus on their technical skills, through extensive formal education, they have learned the
special knowledge and practices of their field.

Human skills

The ability to work wit , understand and motivate other people both individually and in
groups describes human skills. Many people are technically proficient but personally
incompetent. They might be poor listeners, unable to understand these needs of others, or
have difficulty managing conflicts. Because managers get thing done through other people,
they must have good human skills to communicate, motivate and delegate.

Conceptual skills

Managers must have the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations.
These takes require conceptual skills. Decision making for instances require managers to
identify problems, develop alternative solution to correct those problems, evaluate those
alternatives and select the best one.

Q1.2…Organizational behavior / challenges and opportunities

Organizational behavior
O.B is the study and application of knowledge about how people , individuals and
groups act in organizations. It does this by talking a system approach. That is , it interprets

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people- organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole groups, whole
organization , and social system. Its purpose to be build better relationships by achieving
human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.

Defination
Fred Luthens defines organizational behavior as
‘’’The understanding, predication, and management of human behavior in organization’’’

Another definition is given by Stephen P. Robbins is that?

‘’’Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups
and structure has a behavior with in organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge
towards improving an organization’s effectiveness’’

“According to this definition, organizational behavior

 Is a field of study with a common body of knowledge
 It studies three determinants of behavior in organizations. They are individuals, groups
and structures.
 It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure on
behavior in order to make organizations work more effectively.

Importance of O.B
The new work place, environmental changes such as advanced information technology,
globalization and management of diversity and ethics represent a paradigm shift. This shift is
characterized by new rules, new boundaries and importantly, new behavior that are essential
for organizations and managers to be successful or even survive. This new paradigm facing
management requires a new prospective and an application of the human behavior side of
management. Thus the field of organizational behavior becomes important and in future.
The study of O.B provides guidelines and then both managers and employees can use to
understand appreciate the many forces that affect behavior in organizations and to make

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correct decisions about how to motivate and coordinate people and other resources to achieve
organizational goals. O.B replaces intuition and gets feeling with a well-researched body of
theories and systematic guidelines for managing behavior in organizations.
The study of organizational behavior provides set of tools concepts and theories that
help to understand , analyze and describe what goes on in organizations and why. A second
thing to learn how to use and apply these concepts behavior so that individuals, groups and the
whole organization can better achieve their goals.

Q1.3…Why to study O.B / challenges / opportunities of O.B?

Understanding organizational behavior has never been more important for managers. A
quick look at a few of the dramatic changes now taking place in organizations supports this
claim. In short there are a lot of challenges and opportunities today for managers to use O.B
concepts.

1-Responding to Globalization
Organization is no longer constrained by national borders. The world has a global village.
In turn managers have to become capable of working with people from different cultures.
Skills in at least two ways.
First
If you are a manager, your are increasingly likely to field yourself in foreign assignment.
You may be transferred to your employers operating division or subsidiary in another country.
Once there you will have to manage a workforce that is likely to be very different in needs and
attitude from those you were used to back home

Secondly
Even in your own country you are going to field yourself working with bosses, peers, and
other employees who were born and raised in different culture. What motivates you will not
motivate them. Or your style of communication may be straight forward and open, but they

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may find this approach uncomfortable and threatening. To work effectively with those people,
you will need to understand their culture.

The issues include:

 The creation of a global village
 Work force diversity
 Improving quality and productivity to match global standards
 Improving people skills
 Moving towards employee empowerment
 Improving ethical behavior
 Multiculturalism and diversity.

2-Managing Workforce diversity

One of the most important and broad based challenges currently facing organizations is
adapting to people who are different. The term we use for describing this challenge is
workforce diversity. While globalization focuses on differences between people from different
countries, workforce diversity addresses differences among people within given countries.
Work force diversity definition
It means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race etc.
The challenge of organizations therefore, is to make themselves more
accommodating to diverse groups of people by addressing their different lifestyles, family
needs and work styles. The melting pot assumption is being replaced by one that recognizes
and value difference.

3-Improving quality and productivity

They are having to improve their organizations productively and the quality of the
product and services they offer. To improve quality and productivity they are implementing
programs such as quality management and process reengineering programs that require
extensive employee’s involvemen

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a) Quality management (Q.M)
It is driven by the constant attainment of customer satisfaction through the continuous
improvement of all organizational process.

b) Process reengineering
To reconsider how work would be done and their organization structured it they were
starting over.

4-Responding to the labor shortage

Labor shortage is a function of two factors
 Birth rates
 Labor participation rates

5-Improving customer services

Many organizations have failed because its employees failed to please the customer. So
management needs to create a customer- responsive culture and O.B can provide considerable
guidance in helping managers create such cultures- cultures in which employees are friendly
and courteous, accessible, knowledgeable , prompt in respond to customer needs and willing
to do what’s necessary to please the customer.

6-Improving people skills

Managerial effectiveness is important to people skills. In this subject explain the
behavior of people at work. In addition we also gain insight into specific people skills that you
can use on the job , for instances you will learn way to design motivating jobs, techniques for
improving your listening skills and how to create more effective teams

7-Empowering people
We will find managers being called coaches, advices, sponsors or facilitators. In some
organizations employees are how called associates.

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Some question arises
What’s going on?
What’s going on is that managers are empowering employees. They are putting
employees in charge of what the do.

8-Coping with ‘’’Temporariness’’’

Most managers and employees face today in on of the permanent temporariness. The
actual job that workers perform are in a permanent state of flux, so workers needs to update
their knowledge and skills continually to perform new job requirements.

9-Stimulating innovation and changes

Today’s successful organizations must foster innovation and master the art of change
victory will go to the organizations that maintain their flexibility , continually improve their
quality and their competition to the market place with a constant steam of innovative products
and services

10-Helping employees balance work / life conflict

Employees are increasingly complaining that the line between work and non work time
become blurred, creating personal conflicts and stress. A number of force have contributed to
blurring the lines between employees work life and personal life.

11-Improving ethical behavior

Number of organizations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical dilemmas
situation‘s in which they are required to define right and wrong conduct.

Q1.4…CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO OB FIELD

Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contribution from
number of behavioral disciplines. The most common areas are psychology, sociology, social
psychology, Anthropology, and political science. The psychology’s contribution have been

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mainly at the individual or micro level of analysis, the other four disciplines have contributed to
group or macro concepts in an organization,

1-Psychology

It is the science that is used to measure, explain and some time change the behavior of
humans and other animals. Psychologist study about the individual behavior. The persons who
continue to add the knowledge of OB are learning theorists, personality theorists, consisting
psychologists and most important industrial and organizational psychologists concern with
learning, perception, personality , training, leadership , effectiveness needs and motivational
forces, job satisfaction , decision making process, performance appraisal , attitude
measurement, employee selection techniques, working design and job stress.

2-Socialogy Psychology

Sociology is the study of people in relation to their fellow’s human beings. Sociologists
study the social system in which individuals fill their rules. Sociologists have made their greatest
contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in organizations. Especially in formal
and complex organizations. Sociologists contributes or concern with the group dynamics design
of work teams , organizational culture, formal organizational theory and structure ,
organizational technology, communications, power , conflict and inter group behavior.

3-Socail psychology

It is area with in psychology , but it blends concepts from psychology and sociology and
focus on the influence of people and other social psychologists are making significant
contribution in the areas of measuring, Understanding and changing attitudes , communication
group process , group decision making.

4-Anthropology

It is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
Anthropologists work on cultures and environments and help us to understand differences in

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fundamental values, attitudes and behavior between people in different countries and with in
different organizations.

5-Political science

It is the study of the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment.
Political scientist explains the behavior of individuals and group in organizations. They concern
with areas like conflict, organizational politics and power.
Political scientists study the behavior of individual and groups within a political environment.
Political scientists have become increasingly aware that organizations are political entities and if
we are able to accurately explain and predict the behavior of people in organizations, we need
to bring a political perspective to our analysis

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 Toward on O.B Discipline

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE CONTRIBUTION UNITS OF ANALYSIS OUTPUT

Learning
Motivation
personality
Training
Psychology Leadership effectiveness Individual
Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employees selection
Work design
Work stress

Group dynamics
Work team
Communication
Power
conflict
inter-group behavior
Study of OB
Sociology Group
Formal organization theory
Organizational technology
Organization change
Organizational culture

Behavioral change
Attitude change
Communication
Social psychology group process
Group decision making
Organizational
Comparative value system
Comparative attitudes
Cross cultural analysis

Anthropology
Organizational culture
Organizational environment

Political Conflict
science Intra-organizational politics
Power

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 Outline 02

Values and attitudes

Q2.1 Values

 Attributes of values
 Importance of values
 Sources of values

Q2.2…Types of values

Q2.3… Attitude
 Meaning of attitude
 Components of attitude
 Sources of attitude
 Types of attitude
 Attitude and consistency
 Attitude formation

Q2.4...Implication of performance and satisfaction

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Q2.1…VALUES
‘’basic convections that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of
existence’’

Attributes of values
Values have two types of attributes.
 Content
 Intensity

1-content
It means a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important.

2-Intensity
The intensity attributes specifies how’ ‘’important’’ is a specific mode of conduct or end-
state of existence.

Values system
Definition
‘’a hierarchy of values based on ranking of an individuals values in terms of their
intensity’’
This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom,
pleasure, self respect, honesty, obedience and equality.
Importance of values
Values are important to the study of organizational behavior because they help to,
1. Understand attributes of the employees
2. Understand how to motivate employees for better performance.
3. Influence our perception in positive way.

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 4. Influence on our behavior,
Behavior is the total number of ways how individual act and react. Values help us to make
ones behavior positive.

Sources of values
Values may come from following sources like,

1-socital influence
Our culture and language provide us with the experiences and boundaries for our initial
attributes. We are bought at a very early age that that certain attitudes and beliefs are more
acceptable then others. For example the attitudes of Americans concerning personal hygiene
(‘’cleanliness is next godliness’’) is quite different from those prevalent in many other cultures.
In area of international management and multinational organizational exchanges it is
important to understand the value system attitude framework of society or culture one is in
before making judgments or taking action. What seems appropriate in ones own culture nay be
totally unacceptable in other culture. For example in South America, attitudes toward
punctuality are not nearly as intense as they usually are in Urban America.

2-Major group membership

Within our own society, each of us is strongly influence by the major groups to which we
belongs. Our geographic region, religion, educational background, race, sex, age, and income
class all strongly influence how we view the world. Students familiar with marketing surveys
learn that target markets are generally based on these categories. Playboy. For example one
claimed to be the magazine of highest readership among males between the ages of 18 and 30
with annual incomes over $15000. If one were interested in influencing attitude of young adult
males toward a new product, and if playboy’s claim were valid, then playboy might be a good
place to advertise the product.

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3-The family
The family is the major influence on a person’s initial core attitude system. Obviously
the family influence early learning patterns and controls groups and media to which a person is
initially exposed.
4-Peer group
As we approach adulthood, we rely increasingly on our peer group for approval initially
other children, acquaintances, playmates and friends influence our attitudes. As we enter the
world of work our coworkers and other influence what we say , how we react etc

5-parent and teachers

Initial values come from patents and then we learn values and gain to our teacher. So
parents and teachers are main source of values.

Q2.2…Types of values
Values are of two approaches
1. Rokeach values survey
2. Contemporary work cohorts

Rokeach value survey

Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach value survey (RVS). The RVS consist of two sets of values.
1. Terminal values
2. Instrumental values

1-Terminal values
Describe en-state of existence the goals that persons would like to achieve during his or
her lifetime

2-Instumental values

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 Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving ones terminal values
For example, self respect (S.T) Honest (I.V) freedom (T.V) capable (I.V).
Several studies confirm that RVS values vary among groups one study compared corporate
executives. Union member, and activists so this study clear each group terminal values are
some but instrumental values are differ from different groups.

EXECUTIVES UNION MEMBER ACTIVISTS

Terminal Instrumental Terminal Instrumental Terminal Instrumental
1)Self respect Honest Self respect Independent Self respect Responsible
2)Family Responsible Family Responsible Family Courageous
security security security
3) Freedom Capable Freedom Honest Freedom Capable
4) A sense of Ambitious Mature love Independent A word of Helpful
accomplishment peace
5)Happiness Independent Happiness Freedom Equality honest

2-Contemprary work cohorts

In this approach the American work force has divided into four generation cohorts.
These four cohorts/ generation are explained behavior along with their dominate work values.
COHORTS ENTERED THE APPROXIMATE DOMINATE WORK VALUES
WORK FORCE CURRENT AGE
1) Veterans 1950s or early 60 + Hard working, conservative, loyalty to
1960s org.
2) Boomers 1965-1985 40-60 Success, events, ambition, authority,
loyalty to career.
3) Xers 1985-2000 25-40 Work/life balance. Team oriented
loyalty to relationship
4) Nexters 2000 to present Under 25 Conflict, financial services, team
oriented, loyalty to both self and

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 relationships.
Types of values
1- Veterans
The work force through 1950s and early 1960s we called them veterans.

2- Boomers
Entered the work force from 1960s through the mid 1980s. They place a great emphasis
an achievement and mental success. Boomers see the organizations that employ them merely
as vehicle for their success.

3- Xers
Lives have been shaped by globalization two career parents. MTV and aids. They value
flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction. Money in important an indicator of
career performance, but Xers are willing to trade off salary increases, titles, security and
promotions.

4-Nexters
The most recent entrants to the work force the Nexters grow up during prosperous
times. They tend to have high expectations, believe in themselves, and are confident about
their ability to succeed. They have lived most of their lives with CD players, VCR, cell phones
and internet. This generation is very money oriented and desirous of the things that money can
buy.

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 Q2.3…ATTITUDE

Introduction
Attitudes are individuals' general affective, cognitive and intentional responses toward
objects, other people, themselves, or social issues. Attitudes are evaluative statements - either
favorable or unfavorable - concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels
about something. As individuals, we respond favorably or unfavorably towards many things: co-
workers, bosses, our own appearances etc. The importance of attitudes lies in their link to
behavior. When an employee says, "I like my job" he or she is expressing their attitude about
work.

Meaning of attitude
Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predisposition of opinion, interest or
purpose involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and readiness with an appropriate
response. Attitudes are also known as "frames of reference". They provide the background
against which facts and events are viewed. It becomes necessary to know the attitudes of
members of an organization because they have to perceive specific aspects like pay, hours of
work, promotion etc., of their job life in the wider context of their generalized attitudes.
An attitude is also a cognitive element; it always remains inside a person. Everyone's
psychological world is limited and thus everyone has a limited number of attitudes. In business
organization, employees have attitudes relating to world environment, job security etc. The
individual's attitudes towards these factors are indicative of his apathy o enthusiasm towards
the activities and objectives of the organization.
‘’’Attitude are evaluated statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects people
or events’’’

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Characteristics of attitude
 An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some objects in a
favorable or an unfavourable manner.
 The most pervasive phenomenon is "attitude". People at work place have attitudes
about lots of topics that are related to them. These attitudes are firmly embedded in a
complex psychological structure of beliefs.
 Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow,
they are our feelings, thoughts and behavioral tendencies toward a specific object or
situation.
 Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.
 Attitudes are evaluative statements - either favorable or unfavorable concerning the
objects, people or events.

Components of attitude
The three components of attitudes are:
1. Cognitive component;
2. Affective component; and
3. Behavioral component.

Cognitive Component
This component includes the beliefs an individual has about a certain person, object, or
situation. The belief that "discrimination is wrong" is a value statement. Such an opinion is the
cognitive component of an attitude. Learned beliefs, such as "you need to work long hours to
get ahead in this job", lead to attitudes that have an impact on behavior in the workplace. The
cognition component of an attitude reflects a person’s perceptions or beliefs. Cognitive
elements are evaluative beliefs and are measured by attitude scales or by asking about
thoughts. The statement "I believe Japanese workers are industrious," reflect the cognitive

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component of an attitude. The cognitive component sets the stage for the more critical part of
attitude - its affective component.
Affective Component
This component refers to the person's feelings that result from his or her beliefs about a
person, object or situation. A person who believes hard work earns promotions may feel anger
or frustration when he or she works hard but is not promoted. The affective component
becomes stronger as an individual has more frequent and direct experience with a focal object,
person or situation. Affect is the emotional component of an attitude. It refers to an individual's
feeling about something or someone. Statements such as "I like this" or "I prefer that" reflect
the affective component of an attitude. Affect is measured by physiological indicators such as
galvanic skin response (changes in electrical resistance of skin which indicate emotional
arousal) and blood pressure. These indicators show changes in emotions by measuring
physiological arousal. If an individual is trying to hide his or her feelings, this might be shown by
a change in arousal.
Behavioral Component
This component refers to the individual's behavior that occurs as a result of his or her
feeling about the focal person, object or situation. An individual may complain, request a
transfer, or be less productive because he or she feels dissatisfied with work. The behavioral
component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something.
For example, our attitudes towards women in management may be inferred from an
observation of the way we behave toward a female supervisor. We may be supportive, passive
or hostile depending on our attitude. The behavioral component of an attitude is measured by
observing behavior or by asking a person about behavior or intentions.
Component Measured by
A) Affect Physiological indicators
Verbal Statements about Feelings
B) Behavioral intentions Observed Behavior
Verbal Statements about Intentions

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C) Cognition Attitude scales
Verbal Statements about Beliefs
Viewing attitudes as made up of three components - cognition, affect and behavior – is helpful
toward understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitude and
behavior. The object of an attitude is represented as a prototype in a person's memory. Then
an individual uses an attitude as a schema for evaluating an object. The person may assess the
object as good or bad, positive or negative, favored or not; then the person determines the
strategy to take toward it. The accessibility of an attitude, or ease with which it is activated,
affects its implementation. Personal experience with the object and the repeated expression of
the attitude increases it accessibility. In this way, attitude-related information helps process
complex information

Sources of attitude

Attitudes are acquired from parents, teachers, and peer group members. We model our
attitudes after those we admire, respect or fear. We observe the way family and friends
behave, and we shape our attitudes and behavior to align with theirs. People also imitate the
attitudes of popular individuals and those they admire and respect. Attitudes are an integral
part of the world of work. It is important for managers to understand the antecedents to
attitudes as well as their consequences. Managers also need to understand the different
components of attitudes, how attitudes are formed, and the major attitudes that affect work
behavior and how to use persuasion to change attitudes

Types of attitude
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but most of the research in OB has been
concerned with three attitudes: Job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational
commitment.

1. Job Satisfaction

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 Satisfaction results when a job fulfils or facilitates the attainment of individual values
and standards and dissatisfaction occurs when the job is seen as blocking such attainment. This
attitude has received extensive attention by researchers and practitioners because it was at
one time believed to be the cause of improved job performance. The term "job satisfaction"
refers to an individual's general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job
satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job; a person who is dissatisfied with his or her
job holds negative attitudes about the job. Now, because of managers' concern for creating a
humane and high performance workplace, researchers continue to search for definite answers
about the causes and consequences of job satisfaction.

2. Job Involvement:
Job involvement is the degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively
participates in it and considers his or her performance important to self-worth. Employees with
a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work
they do. High levels of job involvement have been found to be related to fewer absences and
lower resignation rates.
The term job involvement is a most recent addition to the OB literature. The degree to
which a person identifies with his or her job, activity participates in it and considers his her
performance important to self-worth

3. Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a
particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
High organizational commitment means identifying with one's employing organization.
A state in which employee indentifies with a particular organization and its goals and
whishes to maintain membership in the organization.
So high job involvement means identifying with ones specific job, while high
organizational commitment means identifying which ones employing organization.

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 The research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational
commitment and both absenteeism and turnover.

Attitude and consistency

People change what they so it doesn’t contribute what they do.
Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their behavior.
When there is an inconsistency forces are initiated to return the individual to
equilibrium state where attitudes and behavior are again consistent.

Attitude formation
Attitudes are learned. Individuals acquire attitudes from several sources but the point to
be stressed is that the attitudes are acquired but not inherited. Our responses to people and
issues evolve over time. Two major influences on attitudes are direct experience and social
learning.

1. Direct Experience:
Attitudes can develop from a personally rewarding or punishing experience with an
object. Direct experience with an object or person is a powerful influence on attitudes.
Research has shown that attitudes that are derived from direct experience are stronger, are
held more confidently and are more resistant to change than are attitudes formed through
indirect experience. One reason that attitudes derived from direct experience are so powerful is
because of their availability. This means that the attitudes are easily accessed and are active in
our cognitive processes. When attitudes are available, we can call them quickly into
consciousness. Attitudes that are not learned from direct experience are not as available, and
therefore we do not recall them easily.

(a) Classical Conditioning:

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 One of the basic processes underlying attitude formation can be explained on the basis
of learning principles. People develop associations between various objects and the emotional
reactions that accompany them.

(b) Operant Conditioning:

Attitudes that are reinforced, either verbally or nonverbally, tends to be maintained.
Conversely, a person who states an attitude that elicits ridicule from others may modify or
abandon the attitude.

(c) Vicarious Learning:

In which a person learns something through the observance of others can also account
for attitude development particularly when the individual has no direct experience with the
object about which the attitude is held. It is through vicarious learning processes that children
pick up the prejudices of their parents.

2. Social Learning:
In social learning, the family, peer groups and culture shape an individual's attitudes in
an indirect manner. Substantial social learning occurs through modeling, in which individuals
acquire attitudes by merely observing others. For an individual to learn from observing a model,

Four processes must take place:

(i) The learner must focus attention on the model.
(ii) The learner must retain what was observed from the model.
(iii) Behavioral reproduction must occur; that is, the learner must practice the behavior.
(iv) The learner must be motivated to learn from the model.

Social learning can take place through the following ways:

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(a) The Family:
A person may learn attitudes through imitation of parents. If parents have a positive
attitude towards an object and the child admires his parents, he is likely to adopt a similar
attitude, even without being told about the object, and even without having direct experience.
Children also learn to adopt certain attitudes by the reinforcement they are given by their
parents when they display behaviors that reflect an appropriate attitude.

(b) Peer Groups:

Peer pressure moulds attitudes through group acceptance of individuals who express
popular attitudes and through sanctions, such as exclusion from the group, placed on
individuals who espouse (promote) unpopular attitudes.

(c) Modeling:
Substantial social learning occurs through modeling, in which individuals acquire
attitudes by merely observing others. The observer overhears other individuals expressing an
opinion or watches them engaging in a behavior that reflects an attitude, and the observer
adopts this attitude.

Q2.4...Implication of performance and satisfaction

Job satisfaction

What is job satisfaction?

The term job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude towards his or her
job.

 High job satisfaction-------------------------------positive attitude

 Low job satisfaction -------------------------------negative attitude

Measuring job satisfaction

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 The employee’s assessment is necessary of how satisfied or dis-satisfied with his or her
job is complex elements. So then measure this concept in two approaches of job satisfaction

1. Single global rating

2. Summation score

Single global rating

Single global rating method is nothing more then asking individuals to respond to one
question such as ‘’all things considered how satisfied are you with your job?’’

Responding then reply individual selects one option like that.

1. Dis-satisfied
2. Just satisfied
3. Highly satisfied

Summation score

It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employees feelings about each. Job
fads are more sophisticated. Key elements / factors / included.

a) The work itself

The extent to which the job provides the individual with interesting tasks, opportunities
for learning and the chance to accept responsibility.

b) Pay

The amount of financial remuneration that is received and the degree to which satisfied
the human needs.

c) Promotional opportunities

The chances for advancement in the organization.

d) Supervision

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 The abilities of the supervisor to provide technical assistance and behavioral support.

e) Coworkers relationship

Example

Factors Satisfied Just satisfied Highly satisfied Dis-satisfied

1. Work itself × × ×
2. Pay × × ×
3. Promotion × × ×
4. Supervision × × ×
5. coworkers × × ×

What determines job satisfaction

Following four factors determine job satisfaction

1- Mentally challenging work

If the job will be mentally challenging for worker he will be more satisfied.

2- Equitable rewards

If rewards are being paid equally / promptly to employee on the basis of their
performance this will increase job satisfaction.

3- Supportive working conditions

Supportive working conditions will add to job satisfaction.

4- Supportive colleagues

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 If a person has supportive colleagues at his work place he will be more satisfied with his
job.

Job satisfaction and employee performance

Managers insert in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employees

performance. Researchers have recognized this interest, so find a large number of studies that
have been designed to assess the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity,
absenteeism and turnover.

1-Satisfaction and productivity

Satisfaction and productivity is directly proportional means satisfaction increase

productivity.

3-Satisfaction and absenteeism

Satisfaction and absenteeism is proportional means. Satisfaction of job reduces

absenteeism.

3-Satisfaction and turnover

Satisfaction and turnover is directly proportional which means a satisfied employee

work more Than a dissatisfied one

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 Outline 03

Personality

Q3.1...Personality

Q3.2...Major determents of personality

 Biological Factors
 Environment
 Situational Factors

Q3.3 Personality characterstics in organization OR Major personality attributes influencing

 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self esteem
 Self monitoring
 Risk taking
 Type a personality
 Diffensive behavior

Q3.4Defensive behavior

 Avoiding action
 Avoiding change
 Emotions

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 Q3.1...Personality
Introduction
The word personality has been derived from Latin words “per sonare” which translate as
“to speak through”. The Latin term was used to denote the masks worn by actors in ancient
Greece and Rome.
Personality traditionally refers to how people influence others through their external
appearances and actions.

Definition
Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an
individual’s behavior.

According to Floyd L. Ruch;

The human personality includes;
 External appearances and behavior or social stimulus values
 Inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force
 The particular pattern or organization of measureable traits, both inner and
outer.

Gordon Allport
Gave the most frequently used definition of personality nearly 70 years ago. He said personality
is “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.

According to Gluck;
“Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influences
his or her behavior towards goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of protecting these
states”.

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According to Fred Luthens;
Personality can be defined as “the internal and external characteristics of a person is
known as personality”

According to Stephen p. Robbins;

“The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others”

Explaination
From the above definitions we can say that personality is very diverse and complex
psychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behavior, self, measurable
traits, and situational interactions.

Q3.2 Major Determents of personality

1- Biological Factors
The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three
heads:

(a) Heredity:
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes,
energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from
one’s parents. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's
personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.
Research on animals has showed that both physical and psychological characteristics can be
transmitted through heredity. But research on human beings is inadequate to support this
viewpoint. However, psychologists and geneticists have accepted the fact that heredity plays an
important role in one's personality.

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(b) Brain:
The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in
personality. Though researchers make some promising inroads, the psychologists are unable to
prove empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing personality. The most recent
and exciting possibilities come from the work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
and split-brain psychology.
Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give indications
that better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from the study of the
brain. Work with ESB on human subjects is just beginning.
There seem to be definite pleasurable and painful areas in the human brain. This being true, it
may be possible physically to manipulate personality through ESB.

(c) Biofeedback:
Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such
as brainwave patterns, gastric secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin
temperature were beyond conscious control. Now some scientists believe that these
involuntary functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback. In BFT the individual
learns the internal rhythm of a particular body process through electronic signals feedback from
equipment that is wired to the body area. From this biofeedback the person can learn to
control the body process in question. More research is needed on biofeedback before any
definitive conclusions can be drawn. But its potential impact could be extremely interesting for
the future.

(d) Physical features:

A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual's external appearance, is biologically
determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence the
person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept. Practically all would agree
that physical characteristics have at least some influence on the personality. According to Paul

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H Mussen "a child's physical characteristics may be related to his approach to the social
environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their reactions to him. These, in turn, may
have impacts on personality development".
If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed at birth
and no amount of experience could alter them. But personality characteristics are not
completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors, which also influence personality.

2-Enviornment
Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in
which we are raise our early conditioning, the norms coming our family, friends and social
groups, other experiences.

I-Culture
Culture is a complex and symbols and artifacts that created by society and handed down
from generation to generation, determinants and regulators of the human behavior.
Culture establishes the norms, attitude and values that are passed from one generation
to next and create consistencies our time. Early training and the culture in which we are raised
are important environmental factors that shapes our personality.
Culture is very important in the environment because it

A-Idealogy System
Ideas, beliefs, attitude and concepts.

B-Technological System
What kind of technology is used and what kind of skill people posses.

C-Organizational System
Family and social class system; these are the things that are subject to change by man.

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D-Culture is learned
Child begins to learn his culture when he copies these acts and things according to the
behavior of their elders.

E-Culture is socially shared

Culture is not individually held it is shared by all person of society. When the numbers
share the values, customs, beliefs, ideas with other members of the society.

Culture is adoptive
Culture is generally changing with passage of time. But the rate of change in some
society is low and in some society is high by careful consideration of heredity and environment
it is cleared that both are important. Heredity set the parameters or outer limits, but an
individuals full potential will be determent by how well he or she adjust to the demands and
requirements of the environments.

3-Family Factors
Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is
the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture.
Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development.
A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment
created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality
development. For example, children reared in a cold, unstimulating home are much more likely
to be socially and emotionally maladjusted than children rose by parents in a warm, loving and
stimulating environment.
The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important
to the person's early development. According to Mischel, the process can be examined from
three different perspectives.

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 i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behavior including feelings and attitudes
between child and model.
ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be like the model.
iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes
of the model.
From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the understanding of
personality development. The home environment also influences the personality of an
individual. Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.

4- Social Factors
There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and
especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is commonly
called the socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires,
from the enormously wide range of behavioral potentialities that are open to him or her.
Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy,
other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends,
then the social group – peers, school friends and members of the work group, play influential
roles.
Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behavior because the process is not
confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one's life. In particular, evidence is
accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees behave
the way they do in today's organizations.

Situational Factors
Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is
quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important
modifications of behavior. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent,
does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth
different aspects of one's personality. According to Milgram "Situation exerts an important

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press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide push. In certain circumstances
it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that
determines his actions". We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.

Personality Traits
”Enduring means characteristics that describes an individuals behavior”
Popular personality characteristics includes shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, loyal and
ambitious. The more consistent the characteristics and the more frequently it occurs and
diverse situations. The more important that trait is in describing the individual.

Early Search for Primary Traits

In early times many researches search for primary traits. But the result was
identification of sixteen personality factors which are known as sources of primary traits.
These traits give prediction of individual behavior in some specific situation.

Sixteen Primary Traits

1. Reserved Vs Outgoing
2. Less Intelligent Vs More Intelligent
3. Affected by Feelings Vs Emotionally Stable
4. Submissive Vs Dominant
5. Serious Vs Happy
6. Expedient Vs Conscientious
7. Timid Vs Venture Some
8. Tough Mind Vs Sensitive
9. Trusting Vs Suspicious
10. Practical Vs Imaginative
11. Forthright Vs Shrewd
12. Self Assured Vs Apprehensive
13. Conservative Vs Experimenting

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 14. Group Dependent Vs Self Sufficient
15. Uncontrolled Vs Controlled
16. Relaxed Vs Tense

Myers-Brigs type indicator (MBTI)

A personality test that taps characterstics and classifies people in to one of sixteen
personality types.
It is essentially a `100-question
Personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations.
On the bases of the answers they are classified as (E or I ) Extroverted or introverted, (T
or F) Thinking or feeling. The classifications then combined in 16 personality types. These types
are different from the 16 primary.

For example
INTIS are visionaries
They usually have originate minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes

ESTIs
Are organized they are realistic, logical and analytical.

ENTP
Types is a conceptualize. He or she is innovative, individualistic, verstyle, and attracted
to the interpersonal ideas

Organizations using the MBIT include Apple Computer, AT & T , hospital, educational
institutions and armed forces.

The big five model

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 In recent years an impressive body research supports that five basic dimensions under
lie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality.
The five factors are,
1-Extroversion
Personality dimension describing some one who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.

2-Agreeableness
A personality dimension that describes some one who is good-natured, cooperative, and
trusting

3-Conscientiousness
A personality dimension that describes some one who is responsible, dependable,
persistent and organized.

4-Emotional stability
A personality dimension that characterized some one as calm, self sufficient, depressed
and insecure.

5-Openness to experience
A personality dimension that characterized some one in terms of imagination, sensitivity
and curiosity.

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 Q3.3 Personality characterstics in organization
Major personality attributes influencing
1. Locus of control
2. Machiavellianism
3. Self esteem
4. Self monitoring
5. Risk taking
6. Type a personality
7. Diffensive behavior

1-locus of control
Some people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Other people see
themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is clue to luck or
chance. The first type is ‘’Internals’’ and the second type id ‘’Externals’’

I) Internals
Individuals who believe that they con troll what happens to them.

ii) Externals
Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by out side forces such
as luck or chance.
Now ‘’ the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate is called
locus of control’’
Therefore, ‘’Internals’’ do well on sophisticated tasks which include most managerial
and professional jobs that require complex information processing and lecturing. In addition
internals are more skilled to jobs. On the other hand externals should do well on jobs that are
well structured and in which success depends on complying with others.

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2-Machiavellianism
A ‘’ degree to which an individual is pragmatic maintains emotional distance, and
believe that end can justify means’’
The personality characteristic of Machiavellianism is named after Niccolo Machiavelli who
wrote on to the sixteen century on how to gain and use power.
A considerable amount of research has been directed toward relating high and low
mach. Personalities to certain behavioral out comes.
High mach’s manipulate more win, more persuaded less. These high mach outcomes are
moderated by situational factors. It has been found that high mach’s flourish.
1. When they interact face to face with others
2. When the situation has a minimum number or rules and regulations.
3. When emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low mach’s.

In jobs that require bargaining skills such as labor that offer substantial rewards for winning,
high mach’s will be productive. But if ends can not justify the means, if there are absolute
standard of behavior or if these are situational factors our ability to predict a high mach’s
performance will be curtailed

3- Self esteem
‘’ Individuals degree of liking or disliking themselves’’
Self esteem is directly related to expectations for success. Individuals with high self esteem
will take more risks in jobs selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs their
people with low self esteem.
In managerial positions, low self esteem will tends to be concerned with pleasing others
and therefore less likely to take unpopular stands then are high self esteem,
Sot surprisingly, self esteem has also been found to be related to fob satisfaction. A
number of studies confirm that high esteem are more satisfied with their jobs then are low
self esteem.

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4-Self monitoring
‘’A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external
situational factors’’
Individuals high in self monitoring show considerable adoptability in adjusting their
behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external eves and can
behave differently in different situations.
Low self monitors can not disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true
dispositions and attitudes in every situation. In contrast, high self monitoring managers tend to
be more mobile in their careers, receives more promotions and likely to occupy central
positions in an organization.

5-Risk taking
High risk taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in
making their choices then did the low risk taking managers. Interestingly, the decision accuracy
was the same for both groups.
There are also differences in risk personality. As a result, it makes sense to recognize
differences and even to consider risk taking personality with specific job demands.
High risk taking personality may lead to more effective performance. Because that type
of job demands rapid decision making.

6-Type a personality
Type A behavior pattern is a complex of personality and behavioral characteristics,
including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity, aggression, hostility and a
quest for achievements. Type A personality individual is "aggressively involved in a chronic,
struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the
opposing efforts of other things or other persons".

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Type A’s
1. Are always moving , walking, and eating
2. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place.
3. Strive to think or do two or more thing at once
4. Can not cope with leisure time.
5. Measuring their success.

The alternative to the Type A behavior pattern is the Type B behavior pattern. People with Type
B personalities are relatively free of the Type A behaviors and characteristics.
Type B personalities are "rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of
things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of
time".

Type B’s
1. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience
2. Feel no need to display their achievements or accomplishments.
3. Play for fun and relaxation.
4. Can relax with out guilt.

Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B organizations. Type A individuals in

Type B organizations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations experience stress related to
a misfit between their personality type and the predominant type of the organization.

7-Diffensive behavior
Ehen people perceive politics as threat rather then as an opportunity they often
respond with defensive behavior.
‘’Reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame or change’’

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People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that it is the only way of behaving. At that
point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees and clients
Q3.4 Defensive behavior

When people receive politics as a threat rather then as an opportunity they often
respond with defensive behavior

Reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action blame or change

People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that it is the only way of behaving. At that
point they loose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees and clients.

1-Avoiding action

a- Over confirming: Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying this ‘’ this is the way
we’ve always done it’’
b- Buck Passing: transferring responsibility for the education of a task or decision to some
one else.
c- Playing dumb: Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability.
d- Stretching: Prolonging tasks so that one appears to be occupied for example turning a
two week job in to a four month job.

2- Avoiding Blame

a- Buffing: It describe the practice of rigorously documenting activity to project an image

of competence and thoroughness
b- Playing safe: Evading situation that may reflect unfavorably.
c- Justifying: Developing explanation that lessons one’s responsibility for a negative
outcome.
d- Scapegoating: Picking the blame for a negative outcome on external factors.

3 Avoiding change:

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 a- Prevention: Trying to prevent a treating change from occurring.
b- Self protection: Acting in ways to protect one’s self interest.

Emotions

“Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something”

Dimension

1. Variety: - Negative -Positive

2. Intensity

Felt Emotions:

An individual’s actual emotions.

Displayed Emotions:

“Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job.”

Can People Be Emotionless:

“Some people have severe difficultly in expressing their emotions and understanding
the emotions of others.”

Psychologists can this alexithymia, which is Greek word used for “Lack of emotions”

OB Applications (emotions)

 Decision making
 Motivation
 Leadership

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 Outline 04
Perception
Q4.1…Perception and its importance in OB

 Definition
 Importance

Q4.2.. Factors influencing perception

 Factors in the perceiver

 Factors in the situation
 Factors in the target

Q4.3..Personal perception making judgment about others

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 Q4.1…Perception and its importance in OB……..

Introduction
Perception involves the way we view the world around us. It adds, meaning to
information gathered via the five senses of touch, smell, hearing, vision and taste. Perception is
the primary vehicle through which we come to understand our surroundings and ourselves.
Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

Definition
‘’Perception is the process by which people select, organize and interpret information to form a
meaningful picture of the word’’

OR

‘’A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment’’

Importance
1. The perceptual word of the manager is quite different from the perceptual word of the
associates, and both may be very different reality.
2. One of the biggest problems that new organizational leaders must overcome are the
sometimes faulty or negative perceptions of them. Faulty perception can be removed by
developing the understanding of concepts involved in it.
3. Direct appreciations and techniques should logically follow complete understanding.
Perception is an important cognitive process. Through this complex process, persons
make interpretations of the stimulus or situation, they are forced with both selectivity
and organization goes into perceptual interpretations. Externally selectivity is affected

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 by intensity, size, contrast and motion and familiarity. Internally, perpetual selectivity is
influenced by the individual’s motivation, learning and personality.
4. After the stimulus or situation is filtered by selective process, the incoming information
is organized into a meaningful whole.
5. Figure ground is the most basic form of the perceptual organization. Another basic form
is the grouping of incoming stimuli by the closure continuity and similarity.

Q4.2..Factors influencing perception

1- The perceiver
Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks
at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by
personal characteristics of individual perceiver.

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Characteristics of perceiver
The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:

(A) Attitudes:
The perceiver's attitudes affect perception.
For example,
Suppose Mr. is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization
– a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male.
Mr. X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations.
This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

(B) Moods:
Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think
differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember
information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent
with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impression of others.
When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavorably.

(C) Motives:
Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on
their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a
subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal
insecurity can be transferred into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless
of the intention of the subordinates.

(D) Self-Concept:
Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept. An
individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In

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contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another
person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.

(E) Interest:
The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests.
Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can
differ from what others perceive.

For example
For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late
is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are
preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class.

(F) Cognitive Structure:

Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some
people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance,
more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive
complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than
attending to just a few traits.
(G) Expectations:
Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect
to see. The research findings of the study conducted by
Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver
reveal
 Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
 One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.
 People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favorable aspects of
other people.
 Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

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These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental
situation.

2- The target
It means object that is being observed. It can be a person, group, thing., etc

Characteristics of the target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived.

a) Physical appearance
Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will
notice the target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.
Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that
are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colors our entire
impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favorably and
attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.

b) Verbal communication
Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to
the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgments based on
this input.

c) Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The
perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an
attempt to form an impression of the target.

d) Target’s behavior,
The perceiver, who observes the target's behavior, infers the intentions of the target.

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For example, if our manager comes to our office doorway, we think "oh no! he is going to give
me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us on a recent
success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way the
perceiver views the target.

e) Background influences
Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background
influences perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things
together.

f) The people object

Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than
separately. As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or events
that are unrelated. For examples, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If
two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were
related when in fact, they might be totally unrelated.
People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

3- The situation
The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place
has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target.

Characteristics of the situation

The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations
provide strong cues as to appropriate behavior. In these situations, we assume that the
individual's behavior can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the
individual's disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you

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may encounter an automobile sales person who has a warm and personable manner, asks you
about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you
assume that this behavior reflects the salesperson's personality? You probably cannot, because
of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular
situation he probably treats all customers in this manner

Example
For example, a professor may not notice his 20-year-old female student in a bikini at the
swimming pool. Yet the professor will notice the same girl if she comes to his organizational
behavior class in a bikini. In the same way, meeting a manager in his or her office affects your
impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would form had you met
the manager in a restaurant.

Q4.3..Personal perception making judgment about others

Attribution theory
‘’ When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or
externally caused’’

The determination depends largely on three factors

1. Distinctiveness
2. Consensus
3. Consistency

Internal behavior
Internal caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control
of the individual.

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External behavior
External caused behavior is seen as resulting from out side causes that are the person is
seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.

Example
One of your employees is late for the work, you might attribute his lateness to his
oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if you attribute his late arriving to an
automobile accident, then you would make an external attribution.

Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different
situations.

Consensus
If every one who is forced with a similar situation responds in the some way, we can say
that the behavior shows census.

Consistency
Finally an observer looks for the consistency in persons actions. The more consistent the
behavior, the more the observer in inclined to attribute it to internal causes.
Fundamental attribution error
One of the more interesting findings from attribution theory is that there are errors or
biases that distort attributions. For instance, there is substantial evidence what we make
judgment about the behavior of other people we have a tendency to underestimate the
influence of internal or personal factors this is called attribution error.
Self serving bias
There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own success to internal factors
such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as luck. This
is called self serving bias.

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Frequently used shortcuts in the judging others
These techniques are frequently valuable. They allow us to make accurate perceptions
rapidly and provide valid data for making predications. An understanding of these shortcuts can
be helpful in recognizing.

1- Selective perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background,
experience and attitudes.
A group perception of organizational activities is selectively altered to align with the
rested interests they represent. In other words, when stimuli are ambiguous, perception tends
to be influenced more by an individual base of interpretation then by stimuli itself.

2- Halo-effects
‘’drawing a general impression about an individual on the biases of a single characteristics’’

Research suggest that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are
ambiguous in behavioral terms , when the traits have moral overtones and when the perceiver
is judging traits with he or she has limited experience.
For Example
If instructor has valuable skill, knowledge but his style lakes, studies would rate him too.

3- Contrast effect
Evaluation of a person characteristics that are affected by comparisons with others
people recently encountered who make higher or lower on the same characteristics. e.g.( pool
of candidates)

4- Projection
Attributing ones own characteristics to other people. For instance, if you want challenge
and ability in your job assume that others want me

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5-Strerotyping
Judging some one on the bases of ones perception of the group to which that person
belongs.
Generalization of course is not without advantages. It is a mean of simplifying a complex
word, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem arises when we inaccurately
stereo type their being wide spread may mean only that may people are making the some
inaccurate perception on the bases of false premise about a group.

Specific applications in organization

People in organizations are always judging each other. Managers must appraise their
subordinate's performance. In many cases, these judgments have important consequences for
the organizations. Let us look at the more obvious applications of perceptions in organization.

Employment Interview
A major input into who is hired and who is rejected in any organization is the
employment interview. Evidence indicated that interviewers often make inaccurate perceptual
judgments. Interviews generally draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched. If
negative information is exposed early in the interview, it tends to be more heavily weighted
than if that same information comes out later. As a result, information elicited early in the
interview carries greater weight than doe’s information elicited later. A "good applicant" is
probably characterized more by the absence of unfavorable characteristics than by the
presence of favorable characteristics. The employment interview is an important input into the
hiring decision and a manager must recognize that perceptual factors influence who is hired.
Therefore, eventually the quality of an organization's labor force depends on the perception of
the interviewers.

Performance Evaluation
An employee's performance appraisal very much depends on the perceptual process.
The performance appraisal represents an assessment of an employee's work. While this can be

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objective, many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are, by definition,
judgmental.
The evaluator forms a general impression of an employee's work. What the evaluator
perceives to be "good" or "bad" employee characteristics will, significantly influences the
appraisal outcome. An employee's future is closely tied to his or her appraisal - promotions, pay
raises and continuation of employment are among the most obvious outcomes

Performance application
This is an impressive amount of evidence that demonstrates that people will attempt to
validate their perceptions of reality, even when those expectations are faulty. This
characteristic is particularly relevant even we consider performance, expectation on the job.

Employment effort
An individual’s future in an organization is usually not dependent on performance alone.
The level of an employee’s effort is also important. An assessment of an individual susceptible
to perceptual distortion and bias.

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 Motivation
Outline 05
Q5.1 What is motivation and individual needs
Q5.2 The foundation of motivation and self interest
Q5.3 The ultimate motivation force
Q5.4 Theories of motivation
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Theory X and Y
 Herzberg two factor theory
 Alderfer’s E.R.G theory
 Equity theory
 Goal setting theory
 Re-enforcement theory

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 5.1…What is motivation?

Introduction

"Motivation" is a Latin word, meaning "to move". Human motives are internalized goals
Within individuals. Motivation is the process of channeling a person's inner drives so that he
wants to accomplish the goals of the organization. Motivation concern itself with the will to
work. It seeks to know the incentives for work and tries to find out the ways and means
whereby their realization can be helped and encouraged. Managers, by definition, are required
to work with and through people, so they must gain at least some understanding of the forces
that will motivate the people they are to manage

Defination

Motivation has been defined by Michael J Juicus as "the act of stimulating someone or oneself
to get a desired course of action".

In the words of Lewis Allen, "Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire,
Encourage and impel people to take required action".

According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation is a general term applying to the entire
Class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces".

Explanation
Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desire needs similar
forces. To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that they do those things
which they hope will satisfy these drives and desire and induce the subordinates to act in a
desired manner.

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 Q5.2 Individual needs

The need want satisfaction chain

Motivation can be explain by a chain reaction:

Felt needs give rise to want or goal sought which cause tensions (that is unfulfilled desired),
which give rise to action toward achieving goals which finally result in satisfaction. This chain
can be explained by figure.

Needs want- satisfaction chain

Needs Give Rise to Wants Which cause Tension

Give Rise to Action Which result Satisfaction

in

The chain explanation is complex. In the first place, except for physiological needs, such
as food, need are not independent of person's environment. Many physiological needs are
stimulated by environmental factors the small of food may cause hunger, a lower thermometer
reaching may cause chills.

Environment has a major influence on our perception of secondary needs. The

promotion of a colleague may arouse one's desire for higher position.

In second place, the need want satisfaction chain does not always operate as simply as
portrayed. Needs do cause behavior but needs also may result from behavior. Satisfying one
deed may lead to a desire to satisfy more needs.

Complexity,of,motivations
In individuals motives maybe quite complex and often conflicting. A person maybe
motivated by a desire for economy goods and services (a better house, a new car or a trip and
these desires may be complex and conflicting. Should one buy a new house or a new car?)

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Motivators are things that induce an individual to perform motivators sharpen the drive or
need to satisfy wants. Motivators are also the means by which conflicting needs may be
reconciled.

A manager can do much to sharpen motive by establishing an environment. So the

motivator is some thing that influences an individual’s behavior. In any organization are any
enterprise, managers must be concerned about motivators, and also inventive in their use.
People can often satisfy their wants in a variety of

5.3…Theories of motivation

Introduction
Motivation to work is very complex. There are many internal and environmental
variables that affect the motivation to work. Behavioral scientists started to search new facts
and techniques for motivation. These theories are termed as theories of motivation. The most
important theories are explained below.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Different styles of management have a different bearing on the motivation of workers in
the organization. The style adopted by a manager in managing his subordinates is basically
dependent upon his assumption about human behavior. Theory X is negative, traditional and
autocratic style while Theory Y is positive, participatory and democratic. Thus, these labels
describe contrasting set of assumptions about human nature.
Douglas McGregor has classified the basic assumption regarding human nature into two parts
and has designated them as 'theory X’ and 'theory Y'.

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Theory X:
This is the traditional theory of human behavior, which makes the following
Assumptions about human nature:

1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprises -

money, material, equipment, and people - in the interest of economic ends.
2. With reference to people it is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them,
controlling their actions, modifying their behavior in order to be in conformity with
the needs of the organization.
3. Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive – even
resistant to organizational needs. Hence they must be persuaded, rewarded,
punished and properly directed.
4. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
5. He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led.
6. He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.
7. He is by nature resistant to change.
8. He is gullible, not very bright.

Theory Y:
Definition
The assumption that employees like work are creative seeks responsibility, and can
exercise self direction. Theory Y is an optimistic, dynamic and flexible.

The assumption of theory Y, according to McGregor is as follows:-

1. Work is as natural as play or rest, provided the conditions are favorable; the average
human being does not inherently dislike work.
2. External control and the thrust of punishment are not the only means for bringing
about efforts towards organizational objectives. Man can exercise self-control and
self-direction in the service of objectives to which he is committed.

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 3. Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their
achievement. People select goals for themselves if they see the possibilities of some
kind of reward that may be material or even psychological.
4. The average human being, under proper conditions does not shirk responsibility, but
learn not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it.
5. He has capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and
Creativity in the solution of organizational problems in widely, not narrowly
distributed in the population.
6. Under conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities of people
are only partially utilized. As a matter of fact, men, have unlimited potential.

THEORY X THEORY Y

1. Theory X assumes human beings inherently 1.Theory Y assumes that work is as natural
Dislike work and are distasteful towards work. as play or rest
2. Theory X emphasizes that people do not 2. Theory Y assumes just the reverse.
have ambitions and they shrink responsibility Given proper conditions, people have
ambitions and accept responsibility
3. Theory X assumes that people in general 3. According to Theory Y the creativity is
have little capacity for creativity widely distributed in the population
4. According to Theory X, people lack self 4. While in Theory Y people are self-directed
Motivation and require be externally and creative and prefer Self-control
controlling and closely supervising in order to
get maximum Output.
5. Theory X emphasize upon centralization of 5. Theory Y emphasizes decentralization and
authority in decision-making process greater participation in decision-making
process

Comparison of Theory X and Theory Y

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Use of theory X and Y in O.B.
 Theory x assumes that low order needs dominated individuals.

 Theory Y assumes that high order needs dominated individuals. So we use theory x, y in
O.B.

Clarification of the theories

1. Theory X and Y are assumption only, they are not managerial strategies

2. Theory X and Y do not mean ‘’’hard’’ and ‘’’soft’’ approach to management.

3. Theory X and Y can not be used together, they are opposite extremes.

4. Theory Y is not against the use of authority.

The hierarchy of need theory

Introduction

The hierarchy of need theory was presented by Maslow. Abraham Maslow saw human
needs in the form of hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the hi hghest He concluded that
when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases t, o be motivators

Definition

There is a hierarchy of five needs, and as each needs substantially satisfy, the next need
becomes dominated.

Explaination

a) Types of needs

The needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order are these.

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1- Psychological needs

These are the basic need necessary for human life. Such as food, water, warmth, shelter
and sleep Maslow said that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain
life their needs, will not motivate people

2- Security or safety needs

These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing of job,
property, food and shelter

3- Affiliation or acceptance needs

Since people are social beings, they need to belong to be accepted by other

4- Esteem needs

According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong they tend to
want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. Esteem need produces such
satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self confidence.

5- Needs for self actualization

Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is desire to become what
one is capable of becoming

Self- actualization needs

Esteem needs

Affiliation or acceptance needs

Security and safety needs

Physiological needs

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

B) Satisfaction of needs one by one

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory is follow in sequence if one need is satisfied then
next need is dominated

C) Classification of above five needs

Maslow’s further seprated five needs into higher or lower order needs.

1- lower order needs

Needs that are satisfy externally, physiological, and satfey needs

2- Higher order needs

Needs that are satisfied internally, social esteem and self actualization needs.

Criticism

The main criticism on maslow’s herierchy of needs theory is , a man normally do not
follow the sequence mention by maslow’s

Hygiene approach to motivation

Frederick Herzberg theory of motivation

Introduction

Needs theory of Maslow’s has been considering modified by Frederick Herzberg and his
associates. Herzberg two factors theory are also called ‘’’ motivation hygien theory’’.

Defination of theory

According to Herzberg’’ intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation,
exransic factors are associated with job dis-satifaction’’

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Explaination

A) Extrinsic factors or hygiene factors or dis-satisfier or mantainence factors or job content

factors

He grouped the concept into two factor theory of motivation. In one group of needs are
such things as company policy and administration, supervision, working conditions,
interpersonal relation, salary, status, job security and personal life. This group referred to as
dis-satisfies, and not motivators. In other words if they exit in a work environment in high
quantity and quality they yield no dis-satisfaction.

b) Intrinsic factors or motivators or satisfiers

In second group, Herzberg listed certain satisfier and therefore motivators all related to
job content. They include achievement, recognition, challenging work, advancement and
growth in the job. There existence will yield feeling of satisfaction or no satisfaction. As figure
indicates the satisfiers and dis-satisfiers identified by Herzberg are similar to the factor
suggested by Maslow’s.

Maslow’s theory vs two factor theory

Maslow’s needs Herzberg’s Two –

Hierarchy factor theory

Self actualization Challenging work

Achievement
Esteem or status
Growth in the job

Responsibility
Affiliation or
Acceptance Status

Security & safety Interpersonal relations

Quality of supervision
Physiological needs
Station
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Critisizm
1) Limited by methodology for good work people give credit himself and for failure,
blam other people or environment
2) Job satisfaction term require more explaination
3) It ignores situational variables
Compensation of Maslow and Herzberg’s theories of motivation

The first group of factors (the dis-satisfiers) will not motivate people in an organization,
dis-satisfaction will arise. The second group or the job content factors by Herzberg is real
motivators because they have the potential of yielding a sense of satisfaction. Clearly if this
theory of motivation is sound, managers must give considerable attention to upgrading job
content.

Some researches challenged Herzberg’s theory saying that his investigation method tended to
prejudice his result. For example the well known tendency of people to attribute good results
to their own efforts and blame others for poor results is thought to have prejudiced. Herzberg’s
theory has been criticized.

Job enrichment

Job enrichment is related to Herzberg’s theory of motivation, in which factors such as

challenge, achievement, recognition, and responsibility are seen as real motivators. Even
though this theory has not gone unchallenged it has led to widespread interest, both in United
States and overseas. Job enrichment aims at making jobs challenging and meaningful. In job
enrichment job may be enriched by verity. But they also may be enriched.

1- Giving workers more freedom in deciding about such things as work methods sequences
and acceptance or rejection of materials’
2- Encouraging participation of subordinates and interaction between workers.
3- Taking steps to see and solve problems of workers and the welfare of the enterprise.
4- Giving workers a feeling of personal responsibility for their work.
5- Giving people feedback on their job performance.

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 6- Involving workers in the analysis and change of physical aspects of the work
environment such as the layout of the office or plant, temperature lighting and
cleanliness.
Job enlargement

Job Enlargement attempt to make a job more varied by removing the dullness
associated with performing respective operations. It means enlarging the scope of the job by
adding similar task without enchanging responsibility , for example , production line worker
may install not only the bumper on a car but also the front hood job enlargement does not
increase the workers responsibility.

Theory of Clayton P. Alderfer

Introduction

The ERG Theory of Clayton P. Alderfer is a model that appeared in 1969 in a

Psychological Review article entitled "An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Need". In a
reaction to the famous Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow, Alderfer distinguishes three categories
of human needs that influence worker's behavior; existence, relatedness and growth.

The ERG categories of human needs are

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Existence Needs

Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing, safety,
physical love and affection). Maslow's first two levels.

Relatedness Needs

Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others like family,
friends, co-workers and employers. This also means to be recognized and feel secure as part of
a group or family. Maslow's third and fourth levels.

Growth Needs

Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person to make creative or productive
effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self). Maslow's
fourth and fifth levels.

This includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete meaningful tasks.

• The ERG theory allows for different levels of needs to be pursued simultaneously.
• The ERG theory allows the order of the needs be different for different people.
• The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, the person
may regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. This is known as the
frustration-regression principle.

Thus, while the ERG theory presents a model of progressive needs, the hierarchical aspect is not
rigid. This flexibility allows the ERG theory to account for a wider range of observed behaviors.
For example, it can explain the “starving artist” who may place growth needs above existence
ones.

Implications of ERG Theory for Management

If the ERG theory holds, then, managers must recognize that an employee has multiple
needs to satisfy simultaneously. Furthermore, if growth opportunities are not provided to
employees, they may regress to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to recognize this

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situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the subordinate is
able to pursue growth again

Differences between ERG theory and Maslow's model

Alderfer ERG motivation theory differs from Maslow's theory in three ways:

7. A lower level need does not have to be gratified (i.e., a person may satisfy a need at
hand, whether or not a previous need has been satisfied);
8. If a relatively more significant need is not gratified, the desire to gratify a lesser need
will be increased (i.e., the frustration in meeting high-order needs might lead a
person to regress to a more concrete need category);
9. Alderfer ERG theory allows the order of the needs to differ for different people (e.g.,
it accounts for the "starving artist" who may place growth needs above existence
ones).

Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation

Introduction to Equity Theory

There was a time when employers thought employees to be just another input required
for production of output, that is, goods and services. This thinking was changed with the
research conducted known as Hawthorne Studies, by Elton Mayo from 1924 to 1932. This study
showed that employees are not just motivated by the money, but their attitudes as well. Thus,
the Hawthorne Studies initiated the human relations approach to management and the needs
and motivation of employees was the primary concenter of managers.

Equity Theory Examples

As the main focus of the researchers moved towards employees and their motivation
factors, following the Hawthorne Study results, there were many theories put forward to
understand employee motivation. The following are the five major equity theory examples that
have helped in understanding motivation.

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Adam's Equity Theory Model

This theory shows that employees strive to achieve equity between themselves and
their coworkers. This equity can be achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs
is equal to other employee outcomes over inputs.

Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation

Let us now bring our attention to the main focus of this article, equity theory of
motivation. Psychologist John Stacey Adams put forward his equity theory model in 1962. He
puts emphasis on the importance of determining motivation as relative and not an absolute
factor. The equity theory of motivation deals with one's own perception and not any other
objective indicator. You can read more on psychology.

Like the other more prevalent theories of motivation mentioned above, the Adam's
Equity Theory of Motivation recognizes the variable factors that can affect employee's
assessment and perception of their relationship with their work and the employer. This theory
was created on the belief that employees are demotivated in relation to their job and employer
if their inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees respond their de-motivation in form of
reduced effort, increase dissatisfaction and May even become disruptive.

Equity Equations

Outcomes

(Self) / Inputs (self) = Outcomes (other) /Inputs (other)

Underpayment Inequity

Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) < Outcomes (other) /Inputs (other)

Overpayment Inequity

Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) > Outcomes (other) /Inputs (other)

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inputs equity outputs
dependent on comparing own
ratio of input/output with
ratios of 'referent' others
Inputs are typically: effort, People need to feel that there Outputs are typically all
loyalty, hard work, is a fair balance between financial rewards - pay, salary,
commitment, skill, ability, inputs and outputs. Crucially expenses, perks, benefits,
adaptability, flexibility, fairness is measured by pension arrangements, bonus
tolerance, determination, comparing one's own balance and commission - plus
heart and soul, enthusiasm, or ratio between inputs and intangibles - recognition,
trust in our boss and outputs, with the ratio reputation, praise and thanks,
superiors, support of enjoyed or endured by interest, responsibility,
colleagues and subordinates, relevant ('referent') others. stimulus, travel, training,
personal sacrifice, etc. development, sense of
achievement and
advancement, promotion, etc.

Application of Equity Theory of Motivation

When a manager is striving to achieve employee satisfaction, motivation levels, etc.

then he should consider Adam's Equity Theory. Therefore, he should consider the balance and
imbalance that is seen in the inputs and outputs of the employee. These inputs include:

• Effort
• Loyalty
• Hard work
• Commitment
• Skill

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 • Ability
• Tolerance
• Determination
• Enthusiasm
• Flexibility
• Trust in superiors
• Colleague support
• Personal sacrifice, etc.

The outputs for an employee include:

Financial rewards like increase pay scale, benefits, perks, etc.

Intangibles like recognition, reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement, praise, feeling of

achievement, job security, etc.

How to Inoculate Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation in an Organization

a) Inputs and outputs of employees

Employees compare themselves with other employees who do not put in the inputs that
are equal to the outputs they receive. They tend to compare themselves with other employees
to find out if they are being treated fairly. Employees may seek a balance between their inputs
and outputs and it is not always possible to provide them with correct balance. To give a fair
outcome to all employees, the managers should try and understand the employees better. They
should know what the employee are aiming for and try to give them the best possible reward
they expect.

b) Employees performance & Team building

Basically managers should understand what is to be done and the actions taken that will
help motivating the employees. Managers should try and tie the rewards to employee
performance. It means when the rewards should match the amount of performance put
forward by the employee. The managers should hold regular meetings with the employees and

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discuss goal setting and personal development. They should be able to set goals for their team
and help them create a personal development plan. A reward and recognition plan will help in
increasing good performance that is noticed and shared by employees.

c) Rewards

It is not possible for the manager to treat each and every employee equally. You need to
recognize the rewards that motivate individual employee. You can consider equity theory
examples like flexible working hours for working mothers or across the board wage increase or
giving responsibility with some amount of authority. In the end, research has shown that
'Equity theory of motivation' works when over-rewarded employees produce more high quality
service and under-rewarded employees tend to decrease their input.

Goal setting theory

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Introduction

Goal setting is a powerful way of motivating people. The value of goal setting is so well
recognized that entire management systems, like Management by Objectives, have goal setting
basics incorporated within them.

In fact, goal setting theory is generally accepted as among the most valid and useful motivation
theories in industrial and organizational psychology, human resource management, and
organizational behavior.

Locke's research showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and
specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals
led to better task performance than vague or easy goals.

Telling someone to "Try hard" or "Do your best" is less effective than "Try to get more
than 80% correct" or "Concentrate on beating your best time." Likewise, having a goal that's
too easy is not a motivating force. Hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because it's
much more of an accomplishment to achieve something that you have to work for.

Five Principles of Goal Setting

To motivate, goals must take into consideration the degree to which each of the
following exists:

• Clarity.
• Challenge.
• Commitment.
• Feedback.
• Task complexity.

Let's look at each of these in detail.

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Clarity

Clear goals are measurable, unambiguous, and behavioral. When a goal is clear and
specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what
behaviors will be rewarded. You know what's expected, and you can use the specific result as a
source of motivation. When a goal is vague – or when it's expressed as a general instruction,
like "Take initiative" – it has limited motivational value.

To improve your or your team's performance, set clear goals that use specific and
measurable standards. "Reduce job turnover by 15%" or "Respond to employee suggestions
within 48 hours" are examples of clear goals.

When you use the SMART acronym to help you set goals, you ensure the clarity of the
goal by making it Specific, Measurable and Time-bound.

Challenge

One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of challenge. People are
often motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based on the significance of the
anticipated accomplishment. When you know that what you do will be well received, there's a
natural motivation to do a good job.

Rewards typically increase for more difficult goals. If you believe you'll be well
compensated or otherwise rewarded for achieving a challenging goal, that will boost your
enthusiasm and your drive to get it done.

Setting SMART goals that are Relevant links closely to the rewards given for achieving
challenging goals. Relevant goals will further the aims of your organization, and these are the
kinds of goals that most employers will be happy to reward.

When setting goals, make each goal a challenge. If an assignment is easy and not viewed
as very important – and if you or your employee doesn't expect the accomplishment to be
significant – then the effort may not be impressive.

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Note:

It's important to strike an appropriate balance between a challenging goal and a realistic
goal. Setting a goal that you'll fail to achieve is possibly more de-motivating than setting a goal
that's too easy. The need for success and achievement is strong, therefore people are best
motivated by challenging, but realistic, goals. Ensuring that goals are Achievable or Attainable is
one of the elements of SMART

Commitment

Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective. Employees are
more likely to "buy into" a goal if they feel they were part of creating that goal. The notion of
participative management rests on this idea of involving employees in setting goals and making
decisions.

One version of SMART - for use when you are working with someone else to set their goals - has
A and R stand for Agreed and Realistic instead of Attainable and Relevant. Agreed goals lead to
commitment.

This doesn't mean that every goal has to be negotiated with and approved by
employees. It does mean that goals should be consistent and in line with previous expectations
and organizational concerns. As long as the employee believes the goal is consistent with the
goals of the company, and believes the person assigning the goal is credible, then the
commitment should be there.

Interestingly, goal commitment and difficulty often work together. The harder the goal,
the more commitment is required. If you have an easy goal, you don't need a lot of motivation
to get it done. When you're working on a difficult assignment, you will likely encounter
challenges that require a deeper source of inspiration and incentive.

As you use goal setting in your workplace, make an appropriate effort to include people
in their own goal setting. Encourage employees to develop their own goals, and keep them

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informed about what's happening elsewhere in the organization. This way, they can be sure
that their goals are consistent with the overall vision and purpose that the company seeks.

Feedback

In addition to selecting the right type of goal, an effective goal program must also
include feedback. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty,
and gain recognition. It's important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so
individuals can determine for themselves how they're doing.

These regular progress reports, which measure specific success along the way, are
particularly important where it's going to take a long time to reach a goal. In these cases, break
down the goals into smaller chunks, and link feedback to these intermediate milestones.

SMART goals are Measurable, and this ensures that clear feedback is possible.

With all your goal setting efforts, make sure that you build in time for providing formal
feedback. Certainly, informal check-ins are important, and they provide a means of giving
regular encouragement and recognition. However, taking the time to sit down and discuss goal
performance is a necessary factor in long-term performance improvement. See our article on
Delegation for more on this.

Task Complexity

The last factor in goal setting theory introduces two more requirements for success. For
goals or assignments that are highly complex, take special care to ensure that the work doesn't
become too overwhelming.

People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably have a high level of
motivation already. However, they can often push themselves too hard if measures aren't built
into the goal expectations to account for the complexity of the task. It's therefore important to
do the following:

• Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance.

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 • Provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required
for success.

The whole point of goal setting is to facilitate success. Therefore, you want to make sure that
the conditions surrounding the goals don't frustrate or inhibit people from accomplishing their
objectives. This reinforces the "Attainable" part of SMART.

Key points

Goal setting is something most of us recognize as necessary for our success.

By understanding goal setting theory, you can effectively apply the principles to goals that you
or your team members set. Locke and Latham's research emphasizes the usefulness of SMART
goal setting, and their theory continues to influence the way we set and measure performance
today.

Use clear, challenging goals, and commit yourself to achieving them. Provide feedback
on goal performance. Take into consideration the complexity of the task. If you follow these
simple rules, your goal setting process will be much more successful. And your overall
performance will improve.

What are reinforcement theories, and how are they linked to motivation?

Reinforcement

 The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.

 Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence
of an individual’s behavior.

Principles of re inforcement

There are three basic principles of this theory. These are the Rules of Consequences. The three
Rules describe the logical outcomes which typically occur after consequences.

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 1. Consequences which give Rewards increase a behavior.
2. Consequences which give Punishments decrease a behavior.
3. Consequences which give neither Rewards nor Punishments extinguish a behavior.

Classical conditioning

 A form of leaning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to

influence behavior.
 Involves an initial stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) and a conditioned stimulus in the
learning of behavior.

The classical conditioning process

 Behavior is caused by an unconditioned stimulus.

 A conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
 The conditioned stimulus is able to evoke the behavior.

Operant conditioning

 The process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

 Focuses on the interplay of antecedents, behavior, and consequences.

Antecedents

The condition leading up to or cueing behavior.

Behavior

The action taken by the person.

Consequences

The outcome received by the person.

Law of effect

 Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences.

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  Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that
results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement emphasizes consequences that can be manipulated.

Extrinsic rewards:

 Positively valued work outcomes that are give to the individual by some other person.
 Contrived rewards have direct costs and budgetary implications.
 Natural rewards have costs only in terms of the manager’s time and efforts.

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)

The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or

punishment of unwanted work behavior.

Uses four basic strategies:

 Positive reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement.
 Punishment.
 Extinction.

Positive reinforcement

 The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the

desired behavior in similar settings.
 Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers.
 A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

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Principles governing reinforcement

Law of contingent reinforcement

The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.

Law of immediate reinforcement

The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited.

Shaping behavior

 The creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive

approximations leading to the desired behavior.
 Behavior is shaped gradually rather than changed all at once.

Scheduling reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.

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Intermittent,reinforcement
Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired
behaviors exhibited.

Schedules of intermittent reinforcement

Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of behavior than do fixed
schedules.

Types of intermittent schedules

 Fixed interval.
 Fixed ratio.
 Variable interval.
 Variable ratio.

Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement

Continuous Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Fixed-Interval Behavior is reinforced according to some

predetermined constant schedule based on
time.

Variable-Interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time,

but the time span varies from one time to the
next

Fixed-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the

number of behaviors exhibited, with the
number of behaviors needed to gain
reinforcement held constant.

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Variable-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the
number of behaviors exhibited, but the
number of behaviors needed to gain
reinforcement varies from one time to the
next.

Negative reinforcement

 Also known as avoidance.

 The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the
desired behavior in similar settings.

Punishment

The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive

consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

Implications of using punishment

 Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction.

 Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to poor performance and dissatisfaction.
 Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

Extinction

 The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior.

 The behavior is not “unlearned”; it simply is not exhibited.
 The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

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Summary of OB Mod strategies

Positive and negative reinforcement

Used for strengthening desirable behavior.

Punishment and extinction

 Used to weaken undesirable behavior.

 Extinction may inadvertently weaken desirable behavior.

Ethical issues with reinforcement usage

 Is improved performance really due to reinforcement?

 Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and dehumanizing?
 Will managers abuse their power by exerting external control over behavior?
 How can we ensure that the manipulation of consequences is done in a positive and
constructive fashion

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 OUTLINE 06

Learning

Q6.1 Learning

 Components of learning
 Theories of learning

Q6.2 Relevance of learning

 Well pay vs sick pay

 Employee discipline
 Devloping training programes
 Self management

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 Q6.1 Learning

Defination of learning

‘’Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience ironically’’
we can say that changes in behavior indicates that learning has taken place and that learning is
a change in behavior.

Components of learning

Our defination has sevral components

1. Learning involve change, change may be good or bad from organizational point of view.
2. The change must be reletively permenent. Temprary changes may only be reflexive and
fails to represent any learning
3. Sour defination is concerned with behavior. Learning take place when there is cahnge in
actions.
4. Some form of ecperiance is necessary for learning. Experience may be acquired directly
through observation or practice or it may be acquired indirectly as through reading.

Theories of learning

Three theories have been offered to explain the process through which we acquire
pattern of behavior

These are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.

1-Classical conditioning

Classical conditional theory grew out of experiments to teach dogs to salivate in

response to ringing of bell, conducted at the turn of century by a Russian physiologist L van
Pavlov

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 Pavlov followed a simple procedure to measure accurately the amount of saliva
secreted by a dog. When he presented a meat of piece to dog the dog exhibited a noticeable
increase in aslivation when Pavlov with held the presentation of meat and mearly rang a bell,
the dog did not salivate. After repeatedly learning the bell before getting the food, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the
sound of bell. Infact the dog had learned to responsed that is to salivate to the bell.

The meat was unditioned stimulus, it indirectly caused the dog to react in a specific way.
The bell was an artifical stimulus what we call conditioned stimulus.

Conclusion

Calssaical conditioning is passive something happens and we react in a specific way.

2- Operant conditioning theory

Operant behavior means valintary or learned behavior incontrast to reflexible or

unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement
or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of behavior.

What Pavlov did for classical conditioning the Harvard psychologist B.F. skinner did for
operant conditioning. Building on earlier work in field, skinners research extinsively expended
our knowledge of operant conditioning.

Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific form of behavior
would increase the frequency of that behavior. Rewards are most effective if they immediately
follow the desired respons.

We see examples of operant conditioning every where……

For example, your instructure say that if you want high grade incourse, you must supply correct
answer on test.

Another example is that if your boss tells you that if you will work overtime during the
next three week busy season, you will be compensated for it at next performance. Apprasial

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time comes, you are not given any positive response for your overtime work. The next time
your boss asks you to work overtime, what will you do? You will probably decline. Your
behavior can be explained by opreant conditionig.

3- Social learning

Individual can also learn by observing what happens to other people as well as by direct
experiances. This view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience has
been called social learning. For example, much of what we have learned comes from watching
models, parents, teachers, televisions and bosses etc.

The influence of modles is central to the social learning view point. For proceses have
been found to determine the influence that a model will have an individual.

i) Attentional processes

People learn from a model when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.

ii) Retention process

A model influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model action
after the model is no longer readily available.

iii) Motor reproduction process

After a person has seen a new behavior by observing a model, the watching must be
converted to doing.

iii) Reenforcement processes

Individual will be moticvated to exhibt the modeled behavior, if positive or rewards are
provided. Behaviors that are positively reinforced will be given more attention, learned better
and performed more often.

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 Q6.2 Relevance of learning to organizational behavior

As we know in organizational behavior, we study the behavior of individual and groups and it is
also an open fact that all ‘’’behaviors are learned’’’

Inorder explain an predict any behavior we have to understand, ‘’ how this behavior has been
learned’’

Relevance of learning to O.B can be further determined by knowing its applications in O.B some
of important application of learning in O.B are as follows.

1- Well pay vs sick pay

Sick pay

If organizations allow 10 paid sick leaves in a year to its employees, its employees will
avail 10 paid sick leaves, whether, they are ill or not. Such employee promotion activity ( 10
paid sick leaves a year) will encourage absenteeism in organization.

Well pay

In contrast to above ‘’ sick pay’’ there should be a ‘’ well pay ‘’ performance. In which
bonus should be paid to an employee who has not availed any leave in a month. Such step will
reduce absenteeism and increase productivity and will improve employee satisfaction

2- Employee discipline

Every manager has to deal with employee, who drinks at the work place, steel
organization assets, and for somes late. Every organization has a descipline policy to deal with
such disciplinary issues by punishing indisciplined employees

Learning teaches us that we should reward thoe employees who are highly disciplined.

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3- Devloping training programes

Learning helps in devloping training programes for an organizations employee. Learning

teaches us which training mode is effective and which is less effective.

4- Self management

Self management is kearning techniques that allow individual to manage their own
behavior, so that less external management control is necessary.

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 Outline 07

Groups and groups

Q7.1 Definition

Q7.2 Classification of groups

 Formal
 Informal

Q7.3 Why people join groups

 Self esteem
 Affilation
 Power
 Goal acheivement

Q7.4 Stages of group devlopment

Q7.5 Key group concepts

 Cohesiveness
 Group’s norms
 Inter-group conflects

Q7.6 Foundation of group behavior

 Group decision making

 Communication

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 Q7.1 Definition

Groups

‘’’two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve
particular goals’’

A comprehensive definition

If a group exists in an organization, its members

1. Are motivated to join

2. Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people
3. Contribute in various amounts to the group processes ( that is some people contribute
more time or energy to the group then do other)
4. Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction.

Q7.2 Classification of groups

Groups

Formal group Informal group

Command group Task group Interest group Friendship group

Explanation

Group

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 Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent who have come together to
achieve particular objective.

Groups can be classified in two types

1. Formal groups
2. Informal groups

1-Formal group

‘’ a designed work group defined by the organization structure’’

Structure

President
a

v.President

Formal group divided in two groups

1- Command group
2- Task group

1-Command group

‘’ a group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager’’

A manager and his or her immediate subordinates is called command group.

2-Task group

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 Those working together to complete a job task

2-Informal group

‘’’A group that is neither formally structured nor organizational determined appears in
response to the need for social contact’’

Structure

President

v.President

Informal group can be divided in two types

1. Interest group
2. Friendship group

1-Interest group

Those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned

2-Friendship group

Those working together because they share one or more common characteristics

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 Q7.3 why people join group

People join groups due to some reasons

1-Security

By joining a group individuals can reduce the in security of ‘’’standing alone’’ people feel
stranger, have fever self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a
group.

2-Status

Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others recognition and status for its
members.

3-Self esteem

Groups can provide people with feelings of self worth. That is in addition to conveying
status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the
group members themselves.

4-Affilation

Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with
group membership. For many people these on job interactions are their primary source for
fulfilling their needs for affiliation.

5-Power

What can not be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action.
There is power in members

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6-Goal achievement

There are times when it takes more then one person to accomplish a particular task
there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to accomplish a job. In such
instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group.

Q7.4 Stages of group development

Groups go through five distinct stages

1. Forming stage
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning

1-Forming stage

The first stage in development characterized by which uncertainty about the groups
purpose, structure and leadership.

2-Stroming stage

The second stage in group development characterized by intergroup conflict. There is

conflict over who will control the group.

3-Norming

The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and

cohesiveness

4-performing stage

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 The 4th stage in group development, when the group is fully functional.

5-Adjourning stage

The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern
with wrapping up abilities rather then task performance.

Q7.5 Group and group dynamics

Key group concepts

 Cohesiveness group
 Group norms
 Inter-group conflicts

Key group concepts are,

Cohesiveness

Means the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are
motivated to stay in the group.

For instance, some groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of
time together, or the group small size facilitates high interaction, or the group has experienced
external threats that have brought members close together. Cohesiveness is important it has
been found to be related to the group productivity.

Studies consistently show that the relationship of cohesiveness and productivity

depends on the performance related norms established by the group. If performance related
norms are high for example, high output quality work co operation with individual out side the
group. A cohesive group will be more productive then will a less cohesive group. But if
cohesiveness is high performance norms are low, productivity will be low if cohesiveness is low

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and performance norms are high, productivity increases, but less then in the high cohesiveness
/ high norms solution.

How to make group cohesiveness

When we encourage group cohesiveness the follow one or more suggestions.

1. Make the group smaller

2. Encourage agreement with group goals
3. Increase the time members spend together
4. Increase the status of the group and the perceive difficulty of attaining membership in
the group
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members
7. Physically isolate the groups

Norm’s group

Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by group members

Types of norms

There are two types of norms

Formal norms

Formal norms are written up in organization manual setting out rules and procedures
for employees to follow. For example do not misuse any property of organization.

Informal norms

Informal norms are not written or told to employees.

For example you do not need to tell employees not to smoke in air-conditioned office.

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Common classes of norms

Some common classes of norms that appears in most work groups

a) Performance norms

Performance norms tells members how hard they should work, how to get the job done
and their level of output

b) Appearance norms
A second category encompasses appearance norms. This include things like
appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organization, when to look busy,
and when its acceptable to gordoff
c) Social arrangement norms
These norms come from informal work group and primarily regulate social
intersections within the group. With whom group members eat lunch,
friendships and of the job social games and the like are influenced by these
norms.
d) Allocation of resource norms

These norms can originate in the organization and cover things like they,
assignment of difficult jobs, and allocation of new tools and equipment

e) Inter group conflicts

Means difference of opinions of members of a group

These differences can be over

 Distribution of resources
 Allocation of authority
 Recognition of services

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 Q7.6 Foundation of group behavior

1- Group decision making ---towards improved group decision making

2- Communication

Foundation of group behavior

In foundation of group behavior include two main things

1- Group decision making

2- Communication

Group decision making

‘’two heads are better then one’’

Know today many decisions in organization are made by groups, teams, or committees.
Because two heads are better then one.

Strength of group decision making

1- Group generate more complete information and knowledge

2- Increased diversity of views.
3- Higher quality decision making
4- Increased acceptance of a solutions

Weakness of group decision making

1- Time consuming
2- Conformity pressures in groups
3- Dominated by one or few members
4- Ambiguous responsibility

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Group discussion making techniques

When we improve group discussion making then we use some techniques

1-Interacting groups

Typically groups, in which members interact with each other face to face

2-Brainstroming

An idea generation process that specifically encourage any and all alternatives, while
with holding any criticism of those alternatives.

3-Nominal group technique

A group discussion making methods in which individuals members meet face to face to
pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.

4-Electronic meeting

A meeting in which member interact on computers, allowing for anoemity of comments

and aggregation of votes

Communication

‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’see out line communication on page 126‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

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 Outline 08

Power

Q8.1 Power defination

Q8.2 Types of power

Q8.3 Sources of power

Q8.4 Power tactis

Q8.4 Political implications of power

 Definition
 The reality of politics
 Factors contributing to political behavior
 Political strategies
 Avoiding politics

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 Power

Q8.1 Definition

‘’Power is the ability of individuals or groups to induce or influence the benefits or actions of
other persons or groups’’

Q8.2 Types and sources of power

1-Formal power

‘’Formal power is based on individuals position in an organization’’

Formal power can come from the ability to coerce or reward from formal authority or from
control of information

2-Coercive Power

The coercive power base is dependent on fear.

At the organizational level supervise has coercive power over subordinate if he can dismiss,
suspend or demote his subordinate coercive power is closely related to reward power and
normally arising from legitimate power.

3-Reward power

Power arise from the ability of some people to grant reward

The opposite of coercive power is reward. The rewards can either financial such as
controlling pay rates, bonuses or non financial such as promotions, interesting work
assignment, friendly colleague.

4- Legitimate power

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 The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of
an organization.

It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources.

Legitimate power is broader then the power to coercive and reward.

5-Information power

The fourth source of formal power comes from access to and control over information.
People in an organization who have data or knowledge that others need can make these others
dependent on them. Managers because of their access to privileged sales, cost, salary, profit,
can use this information to control and shape subordinates power.

2-personal power

Personal power comes from individual unique characteristics.

Three bases of personal power are expert power, referent power and charismatic power.

i- Expert Power:
Power comes from the expertness of a person or group is caused expert power.
This is the power of knowledge. Expertise has become one of the most. A powerful
source of influence as the world has become more technologically oriented.
Physician, lowers nay have considerable Uninfluenced on others because they are
respected for their special knowledge.

ii- Referent Power

Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resource or personal
traits. Referent Power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like
that person. A movie star or a military herd might possess considerable referent
power.

iii- Charismatic Power

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 An extension of referent power stemming for an individual’s personality and
interpersonal style. Charismatic leaders get others to follow them because they can
circulate attractive vision take personal risks and are mainly engage in behavior that
most others consider, unconventional.

Q8.3 Power Tactics

Power tactics are the “ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific
actions.”
The seven tactical dimensions or strategies are:
i- Reason:
Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas.
ii- Friendliness
Use of flattery, creation of good reiw, and being friendly prior to making a
reviest.
iii- Bargaining
Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits.
iv- Assertiveness
Use of direct and forceful approach such demanding compliance with
reavuest and pay out that rules reavuire compliance.
v- Higher Authority
Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to backup
request.
vi- Sanction
Use of organizationally derived reward and punishments such as
promising in salary increase, threaten to give an unsatisfactory performance
evaluation or with holding a promotion.

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 Q8.4 Politics: Power in Action Definition

Political behavior

Those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization, but
that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages within the organization.

Political behavior is outside one, specific job requirement.

Additionally, our definition encompasses effort to influence the goals, criteria or processes used
for decision making when we state that politic is concerned with the distribution of advantages
and disadvantages within the organization.

i- Legitimate Political Behaviors: Normal everyday politics complaining to

superiors by passing the chain of command.
ii- Illegitimate Political Behavior: Extreme political behavior that rotates the
implied rules of the game.

The extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of poses of
organizational membership or extreme sanctions against those who use them and than fall
short in having enough power to ensure that they work.

The Reality of Politics:

Organizations are made up of individual and groups with different values, goals and
interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources

Whether true or not, gain by one individual or group is often perceived as being at the
expense of others within the organization.

Most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to
interpretation. What, for instance is good performance.

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 Finally, because most decision have to be mad in a climate of ambiguity where facts are
rarely fully objective, and thus are open to interpretation- people within organization will use
whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests.

We can say that politics free organization is possible is all member of that organization
hold the same goals and interests if organizational resources are not scare and if performance
outcomes are completely clean objective.

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

Not all groups or organizations are equally political, same are individual characteristics,
derived from the unique qualities if the people the organization employs; others are a result of
the organizations culture or internal environment

Factors influencing Political Behavior:

Individual factor

 High self monitors

 High mach
 Ogranizational investment
 Perceived job alternatives Favorable outcomes
 Expectation of success Political behavior
 Reward
Organizational factors Low---high  Averted
 Punishment
 Reallocation of resources
 Promotion apportunities
 Low trust
 Role ambiguity
 Unclear performance
 Evaluation system
 Zero-sum reward practices
 Democratic decision
making
 High performance pressure
 Self-serving senior

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Individual Factors

More organizational investment, less likely to use illegitimate means.

More perceived job alternatives, more is to risk illegitimate political behavior.

More expectations of success in using illegitimate means, more likely attempt to do so.

Organizational factors

When organization downside to improve efficiency, reductions in resources have to be

made. Any change especially those that imply significant reallocation of resources within the
organization are likely to stimulate conflicts and increase politically

Less trust, higher the levels of political behavior and more likely will be of the
illegitimate kind.

Role ambiguity means prescribe of behavior of the employee are not clear greater the
role ambiguity, greater will the political activity with fettle chance of it being visible.

The more that organizations use subjective criteria in the appraisal, emphasize a single
outcome measure or allow significant time to pass between the time of an action and its
appraisal the greater the likelihood that an employ can get away with the politically.

The zero-sum approach treats the “reward of pie” as fixed so that any gain one person
or group achieves has to come at the expense of another person or group.

The more pressure that employees feel to perform well the more likely they are to
engage in politically.

Finally, when employees see the people on top engaging in political behavior, especially
when they do so successfully and are rewarded for it, a climate is created that supports
politically.

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Political Strategies

1- Align with powerful group.

2- Divide and rule. (Top Level)
3- Manipulate. (Scale)
4- Making a quick show.
5- Attacking and blaming others.
6- Progress one step at one time.
7- Wait for the crises.
8- Stimulating the subordinates.
9- Developing expertise.

Avoiding Politics:

1. Keep the line of communication.

2. Develop rules model.
3. Captain leads from the front.
4. Individual protection
5. Political free culture.

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 Outline 09

Leadership

Q9.1 what is leadership

 Introduction
 Defination

Q9.2 Theories of leadership

 Trait approach

 Behavioral theory

 Contegency theory

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 9.1…What is leadership?

Introduction
The problem of leadership has been one of man's major concerns since the days of
antiquity. Leadership was a matter of concern even in biblical times. The children of
Israel needed someone to guide them out of their bondage in Egypt, and Moses stepped
forward to lead them in their journey to the promised holy land of Israel. In the 20th century,
Great Britain needed the leadership of Winston Churchill to successfully combat her enemies in
the 2nd World War. In the same way Franklin D Roosevelt provided leadership to the American
people, Adolph Hitler in Germany, Stalin in USSR and M.K. Gandhi in India.
Coming to the business enterprises, people working there need leaders, who could be
instrumental in guiding the efforts of groups of workers to achieve the goals of both individuals
and the organization. Leadership is a process of influence on a group.
Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
Peter F Drucker considers "leadership" as a human characteristic which lifts a man's vision to
higher sights, raises a man's performance to higher standards and builds man's personality
beyond its normal limitations.

Defination

According to Chester I Barnard, "It (leadership) refers to the quality of the behavior of the
individual whereby they guide people on their activities in organized efforts".

According to Terry, "a leader shows the way by his own example. He is not a pusher, he pulls
rather than pushes".

According to Peter Drucker - Leadership "is not making friends and influencing people i.e.,
salesmanship. Leadership is the lifting of man's vision to higher sights, the raising of man's
performance to higher standards, the building of man's personality beyond its normal
limitations".

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 9.2 Theories of leadership

Introduction

Three main theoretical frameworks have dominated leadership research at different

points in time. These included

1. The trait approach (1930s and 1940s),

2. The behavioral approach (1940s and 1950s)
3. The contingency or situational approach (1960s and 1970s).

1-Trait Theories 1930s

Individual characteristics of leaders are different than those of non leaders.

2-Behavioral Theories 1940s and 1950s

The behaviors of effective leaders are different than the behaviors of ineffective leaders.
Two major classes of leader behavior are task-oriented behavior and relationship-oriented
behavior.

3-Contingency Theories 1960s and 1970s

Factors unique to each situation determine whether specific leader characteristics and
behaviors will be effective.

1-Trait approach

The scientific study of leadership began with a focus on the traits of effective leaders.
The basic premise behind trait theory was that effective leaders are born, not made, thus the
name sometimes applied to early versions of this idea, the "great man" theory. Many
leadership studies based on this theoretical framework were conducted in the 1930s, 1940s,
and 1950s.

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Leader trait research

It examined the physical, mental, and social characteristics of individuals. In general,

these studies simply looked for significant associations between individual traits and measures
of leadership effectiveness. Physical traits such as height, mental traits such as intelligence, and
social traits such as personality attributes were all subjects of empirical research.

The initial conclusion

The initial conclusion from studies of leader traits was that there were no universal
traits that consistently separated effective leaders from other individuals. In an important
review of the leadership literature published in 1948, Ralph Stogdill concluded that the existing
research had not demonstrated the utility of the trait approach.

Situational variables

Finally, early trait research did not consider the impact of situational variables that
might moderate the relationship between leader traits and measures of leader effectiveness.
As a result of the lack of consistent findings linking individual traits to leadership effectiveness,
empirical studies of leader traits were largely abandoned in the 1950s.

Several problems

Several problems with early trait research might explain the perceived lack of significant
findings. First, measurement theory at the time was not highly sophisticated. Little was known
about the psychometric properties of the measures used to operationalize traits. As a result,
different studies were likely to use different measures to assess the same construct, which
made it very difficult to replicate findings. In addition, many of the trait studies relied on
samples of teenagers or lower-level managers.

Early trait research was largely a theoretical, offering no explanations for the proposed
relationship between individual characteristics and leadership.

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2-Contingency (situational) approach

The situational leadership theory was initially introduced in 1969 and revised in 1977 by
Hersey and Blanchard. The theory suggests that the key contingency factor affecting leaders'
choice of leadership style is the task-related maturity of the subordinates. Subordinate maturity
is defined in terms of the ability of subordinates to accept responsibility for their own task-
related behavior. The theory classifies leader behaviors into the two broad classes of task-
oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. The major proposition of situational leadership
theory is that the effectiveness of task and relationship-oriented leadership depends upon the
maturity of a leader's subordinates. Contingency or situational theories of leadership propose
that the organizational or work group context affects the extent to which given leader traits and
behaviors will be effective. Contingency theories gained prominence in the late 1960s and
1970s.

Favorability is determined by

 The respect and trust that followers have for the leader;
 The extent to which subordinates' responsibilities can be structured and performance
measured
 The control the leader has over subordinates' rewards. The situation is most favorable
when followers respect and trust the leader, the task is highly structured, and the leader
has control over rewards and punishments.
Person-oriented leaders

Fiedler's research indicated that task-oriented leaders were more effective when the
situation was either highly favorable or highly unfavorable, but that person-oriented leaders
were more effective in the moderately favorable or unfavorable situations. The theory did not
necessarily propose that leaders could adapt their leadership styles to different situations, but
that leaders with different leadership styles would be more effective when placed in situations
that matched their preferred style.

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Reduce barriers to subordinates'

According to the theory, leader behavior should reduce barriers to subordinates' goal
attainment, strengthen subordinates' expectancies that improved performance will lead to
valued rewards, and provide coaching to make the path to payoffs easier for subordinates.

There are five types of leader decision-making styles, which are labeled

 AI,
 AII,
 CI,
 CII,
 G.
These styles range from strongly autocratic (AI), to strongly democratic (G). According to the
theory, the appropriate style is determined by answers to up to eight diagnostic questions,
which relate to such contingency factors as the importance of decision quality, the structure of
the problem, whether subordinates have enough information to make a quality decision, and
the importance of subordinate commitment to the decision.

Criticism

Fiedler's contingency theory has been criticized on both conceptual and methodological
grounds. However, empirical research has supported many of the specific propositions of the
theory, and it remains an important contribution to the understanding of leadership
effectiveness.

3-Leader behavioral approach

Partially as a result of the disenchantment with the trait approach to leadership that
occurred by the beginning of the 1950s, the focus of leadership research shifted away from
leader traits to leader behaviors. The premise of this stream of research was that the behaviors
exhibited by leaders are more important than their physical, mental, or emotional traits. The

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two most famous behavioral leadership studies took place at Ohio State University and the
University of Michigan in the late 1940s and 1950s. These studies sparked hundreds of other
leadership studies and are still widely cited.

Consideration and initiating structure

Two factors, termed consideration and initiating structure, consistently appeared.

Initiating structure, sometimes called task-oriented behavior, involves planning, organizing, and
coordinating the work of subordinates. Consideration involves showing concern for
subordinates, being supportive, recognizing subordinates' accomplishments, and providing for
subordinates' welfare.

Employee orientation and a production orientation

The focus of the Michigan studies was to determine the principles and methods of
leadership that led to productivity and job satisfaction. The studies resulted in two general
leadership behaviors or orientations: an employee orientation and a production orientation.
Leaders with an employee orientation showed genuine concern for interpersonal relations.
Those with a production orientation focused on the task or technical aspects of the job.

Managerial (or Leadership) Grid

One concept based largely on the behavioral approach to leadership effectiveness was
the Managerial (or Leadership) Grid, developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. The grid
combines "concern for production" with "concern for people" and presents five alternative
behavioral styles of leadership. An individual who emphasized neither production was
practicing "impoverished management" according to the grid. If a person emphasized concern
for people and placed little emphasis on production, he was terms a "country-club" manager.

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"Task" manager

Conversely, a person who emphasized a concern for production but paid little attention
to the concerns of subordinates was a "task" manager. A person who tried to balance concern
for production and concern for people was termed a "middle-of-the-road" manager.

Team management

Finally, an individual who was able to simultaneously exhibit a high concern for
production and a high concern for people was practicing "team management." According to the
prescriptions of the grid, team management was the best leadership approach. The Managerial
Grid became a major consulting tool and was the basis for a considerable amount of leadership
training in the corporate world.

The assumption of the leader behavior approach

The assumption of the leader behavior approach was that there were certain behaviors
that would be universally effective for leaders. Unfortunately, empirical research has not
demonstrated consistent relationships between task-oriented or person-oriented leader
behaviors and leader effectiveness. Like trait research, leader behavior research did not
consider situational influences that might moderate the relationship between leader behaviors
and leader effectiveness.

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 Outline 10

Communication

Q10.1 Communication process

 Encoding,
 The message,
 The channel,
 Decoding,
 The receiver,
 Feedback

Q10.2 Barriers to effective communication

Q10.3 Non verbal communication

Q10.4 Communication network

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Q10.1…Introduction

Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of

achieving common meanings. Unless common meanings are shared, managers find it extremely
difficult to influence others. Whenever group of people interact, communication takes place.
Communication is the exchange of information using a shared set of symbols. It is the process
that links group members and enables them to coordinate their activities.
Therefore, when managers foster effective communication, they strengthen the connections
between employees and build cooperation. Communication also functions to build and
reinforce interdependence between various parts of the organization. As a linking mechanism
among the different organizational subsystems, communication is a central feature of the
structure of groups and organizations. It helps to coordinate tasks and activities within and
between organizations.

Definition of Communication

The term "communication" is derived from the Latin word

"Communis" which means "common". This stands for the sharing of ideas in common. It
Is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.

According to Theo Haimann, "Communication, fundamental and vital to all managerial

Actions, is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others".

In the words of Newman and summer, "Communication is an exchange of fact, ideas, opinions
or emotions by two or more persons".

According to Hudson, “Communication in its simplest form is conveying of information from

one person to another".

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 According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Communication, is an intercourse by words, letters
symbols or messages, and is a way that the organization members shares meaning and
understanding with another".

According to Ordeay Tead, "Communication is a composite:

1. Of information given and received,
2. Of learning experience in which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change, carrying
with them alternations of behavior,
3. Of a listening effort by all involved,
4. Of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by communicator himself,
5. Of a sensitive interaction of points of view – leading to a higher level of shared
understanding and common intention".

10.2…Communication process
Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work. It
cannot be replaced by the advances in information technology and data management that have
taken place over the past several decades. Communication can be thought of as a process or
flow. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed
is needed. It passes between the sender and the receiver. The result is transference of meaning
from one person to another.
The figure below depicts the communication process.
This model is made up of seven parts:
1. The communication source,
2. Encoding,
3. The message,
4. The channel,
5. Decoding,
6. The receiver,
7. Feedback.

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 The communication process model

Source
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an
individual, group or inanimate object. The effectiveness of a communication depends to a
considerable degree on the characteristics of the source. Aristotle believed that acceptance of
the source's message could be increased by:-
 Pathos – Playing on the emotions of the receiver.
 Logos – Generating logical arguments or
 Ethos – Asking for message acceptance because the source is trustworthy.

The person who initiates the communication process is known as sender, source or
communicator. In an organization, the sender will be a person who has a need or desire to send
a message to others. The sender has some information which he wants to communicate to
some other person to achieve some purpose. By initiating the message, the sender attempts to
achieve understanding and change in the behavior of the receiver.

Encoding
Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the
message must be put in a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding
information, the sender uses his or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual's
Communication view of the organization or situation as a function of personal education,
interpersonal relationships, attitudes, knowledge and experience.
Three conditions are necessary for successful encoding the message.

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 1. Skill:
Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite
skills, the message of the communicator will not reach the requisite skills; the message
of the communicator will not reach the receiver in the desired form. One's total
communicative success includes speaking, reading, listening and reasoning skills.
2. Attitudes:
Our attitudes influence our behavior. We hold predisposed ideas on a number of
topics and our communications are affected by these attitudes.
3. Knowledge:
We cannot communicate what we don't know. The amount of knowledge the
source holds about his or her subject will affect the message he or she seeks to transfer.

The Message
The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message
contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver.
The message has two primary components:-
1. The Content:
The thought or conceptual component of the message is containing in the words, ideas,
symbols and concepts chosen to relay the message.
2. The Affect:
The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the intensity, force,
demeanor (conduct or behavior), and sometimes the gestures of the communicator.

According to D.K Berlo - "when we speak, the speech is the message. When we write,
the writing is the message. When we paint, the picture is the message. When we gesture, the
movements of our arms, the expressions on our faces are the message"
The Channel
The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory,
written or some combination of these three) is called the channel. The channel is the medium

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through which the message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the message.
Communication in which the sender's voice is used as the channel is called oral communication.
When the channel involves written language, the sender is using written communication. The
sender's choice of a channel conveys additional information beyond that contained in the
message itself. For example, documenting an employee's poor performance in writing conveys
that the manager has taken the problem seriously.

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 10.2…Barrier to communication

Barriers to communication
Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful
communication. Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but not all,
barriers to communication in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective
communication which every manager should be aware of is given below:

Filtering
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably
by the receiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization's
structure. The more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the more opportunities for
filtering. Sometimes the information is filtered by the sender himself.
If the sender is hiding some meaning and disclosing in such a fashion as appealing to the
receiver, then he is "filtering" the message deliberately. A manager in the process of altering
communication in his favor is attempting to filter the information.

Selective Perception
Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the
communication process, generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively perceives
the message based on the organizational requirements, the needs and characteristics,
background of the employees etc. Perceptual distortion is one of the distressing barriers to the
effective communication. People interpret what they see and call it a reality. In our regular
activities, we tend to see those things that please us and to reject or ignore unpleasant things.
Selective perception allows us to keep out dissonance (the existence of conflicting elements in
our perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we encounter something that does not fit out current
image of reality, we structure the situation to minimize our dissonance. Thus, we manage to
overlook many stimuli from the environment that do not fit into out current perception of the

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world. This process has significant implications for managerial activities. For example, the
employment interviewer who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of her
career is likely to see that in female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants feel that
way or not.

Emotions
How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of information influences effectively how
he interprets the information. For example, if the receiver feels that the communicator is in a
jovial mood, he interprets that the information being sent by the communicator to be good and
interesting. Extreme emotions and jubilation or depression are quite likely to hinder the
effectiveness of communication. A person's ability to encode a message can become impaired
when the person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to
consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose words carefully. The angrier you are, the
harder this task becomes. Extreme emotions – such as jubilation or depression - are most likely
to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our
rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

Language
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different things
to different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also the
culture of society in which the individual is living. In organizations, people from different
regions, different backgrounds, and speak different languages. People will have different
academic backgrounds, different intellectual facilities, and hence the jargon they use varies.
Often, communication gap arises because the language the sender is using may be
incomprehensible, vague and indigestible. Language is a central element in communication. It
may pose a barrier if its use obscures meaning and distorts intent.
Words mean different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background are
three of the more obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the
definitions he or she gives to words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language.

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Speak in brief sentences and use terms or words you have heard from you audience. As much
as possible, speak in the language of the listener. Do not use jargon or technical language
except with those who clearly understand it.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived
ideas about other people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviors, we are
applying selective perception to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a barrier to
communications because those who stereotype others use selective perception in their
communication and tend to hear only those things that confirm their stereotyped images.
Consequently, stereotypes become more deeply ingrained as we find more "evidence" to
confirm our original opinion.
Stereotyping has a convenience function in our interpersonal relations. Since people are all
different, ideally we should react and interact with each person differently. To do this,
however, requires considerable psychological effort. It is much easier to categorize (stereotype)
people so that we can interact with them as members of a particular category.
Since the number of categories is small, we end up treating many people the same even though
they are quite different. Our communications, then, may be directed at an individual as a
member of a category at the sacrifice of the more effective communication on a personal level.

Status Difference
The organizational hierarchy poses another barrier to communication within
organization, especially when the communication is between employee and manager. This is so
because the employee is dependent on the manager as the primary link to the organization and
hence more likely to distort upward communication than either horizontal or downward
communication. Effective supervisory skills make the supervisor more approachable and help
reduce the risk of problems related to status differences. In addition, when employees feel
secure, they are more likely to be straightforward in upward communication.

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Use of Conflicting Signals
A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A
vertical message might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to his
employees, "If you have a problem, just come to me. My door is always open", but he looks
annoyed whenever an employee knocks on his door". Then we say the manager is sending
conflicting messages. When signals conflict, the receivers of the message have to decide which,
if any, to believe.
Reluctance to Communicate
For a variety of reasons, managers are sometimes reluctant to transmit messages. The
reasons could be:-
 They may doubt their ability to do so.
 They may dislike or be weary of writing or talking to others.
 They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative
reaction.
When someone gives in to these feelings, they become a barrier to effective communications.

Projection
Projection has two meanings.
(a) Projecting one's own motives into others behavior. For example, managers who are
motivated by money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If the
subordinate's prime motive is something other than money, serious problems may arise.
(b) The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a defense mechanism,
the projection phenomenon operates to protect the ego from unpleasant communications.
Frequently, individuals who have a particular fault will see the same fault in others, making
their own fault seem not so serious.

The "Halo Effect"

The term "halo effect" refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element from a
group of elements and generalizing that perception to all other elements. For example, in an

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organization, a good attendance record may cause positive judgments about productivity,
attitude, or quality of work. In performance evaluation system, the halo effect refers to the
practice of singling out one trait of an employee (either good or bad) and using this as a basis
for judgment of the total employee (e.g., seeing the well dressed manager as the "good"
manager).

10.3 non verbal communications

Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is communication by means of elements and behaviors that
are not coded into words. A glance, a star, a smile, a frown, a provocative body movement -
they all convey meaning. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication,
such as gestures and the use of space, that does not involve words or do not involve language.
Porter has defined four aspects of non-verbal communications:

 Physical
Pertaining to the personal method, i.e., facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of
touch, smell and body motion.

 Esthetics
Creative expressions such as those found in music, dancing or any of the creative
arts.

 Symbolic
Conveying messages through symbolic representations of reality; includes
religious, status or ego-building symbols.

 Sign
Mechanical means of conveying messages such as bills, buzzers, locks on doors,
etc.

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 The important categories of non-verbal communication include:-

Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the influence of proximity and space on communication. The study
of an individual's perception and use of space, including territorial space, is called Proxemics.
Territorial space refers to bands of space extending outward from the body.
These bands constitute comfort zones. In each comfort zone, different cultures prefer different
types of interaction with others. Typically there are four zones of territorial space.

(a) Intimate Zone: (touching to two feet):

This space is normally reserved for closest family and friends. In this zone, we interact
with spouses, significant others, family members and others with whom we have an intimate
relationship.

(b) Personal Zone: (two to four feet)

Family and friends may enter this zone without causing discomfort. Friends typically
interact with this distance.

(c) Social Zone (four to twelve feet):

The person comfortably interacts with others in this zone. Most business transactions
take place within the social zone. We prefer that business associates and acquaintances interact
with us in this zone.

(d) Public Zone (twelve feet to as far as the person can hear and see):
This is the most distant zone at which communication can occur. Most of us prefer that
strangers stay at least 12 feet from us, and we become uncomfortable when they move closer.
Lectures and other formal presentations take place within this zone.
In general, a person who moves into a closer zone of personal space is signaling a desire for
greater closeness. When the receiver of this non-verbal message interprets it as a request for

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more closeness than is desirable, the receiver probably will feel uncomfortable and try to move
away. Territorial space varies greatly across cultures. People often become uncomfortable
when operating in territorial space different from those in which they are familiar.

Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements, including posture. Like Proxemics, kinesics is
culturally bound; there is no single universal gesture. Kinesics behavior refers to body
movements, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye movements and posture. We often draw
conclusions regarding people's feelings about an issue, not only from their words but also from
their non-verbal behavior, such as their facial expressions.

(a) Facial Expressions:

The face is a rich source of nonverbal communication. The face often gives unintended
clues to emotions the sender is trying to hide. Although smiles have universal meaning, frowns,
raised eyebrows, and wrinkled foreheads must all be interpreted in conjunction with the actors,
the situation and the culture.

(b) Eye Behavior:

Eye behavior is used to add cues for the receiver. Eye contact can enhance reflective
listening, and it varies by culture. In India, a direct gaze indicates honesty and forthrightness.
Appropriate use of eye contact signals interest in the other person.

(c) Gestures:
Some people use gestures extensively; others communicate little through this channel. In India,
the handshake is a widely used gesture. People often use the handshake as a source of
information about another person's characteristics. A strong, firm handshake is seen as a sign
of confidence and enthusiasm.

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Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to vocal aspects of communication that relate to how something is
said rather than to what is said. Voice quality, tone of voice, laughing, and yawning fit in this
category. People make attributions about the sender by deciphering (make sense of; interpret
or decode) paralanguage cues. Rapid, loud speech may be taken as a sign of nervousness or
anger. Vocal tone includes pitch, loudness, rhythm, rate, and clarity of speech. The standards
for what is comfortable vary from one culture to another.

Object Language
Object language refers to the communicative use of material things, including clothing,
cosmetics, furniture and architecture. A work area adorned with expensive objects
communicates high status.

Territory
Employees' work areas are, in a sense, their territory. The way people arrange
themselves and others within their territory also conveys messages. In a meeting or training
session, arranging chairs in rows signals that participants will be lectured to and encourages
passive behavior. Arranging chairs in a circle signals that active participation is encouraged.
When interviewing or meeting with someone in his or her office, a manager sends different
messages depending on whether the manager remains behind the desk or joins the other
person in comfortable chairs on the same side of the desk.

Physical Appearance
Aspects of personal appearance such as clothing, hairstyle, jewellery and makeup
communicate people's values and social group. In the workplace, the norms for appropriate
physical appearance depend on the industry, job, and organizational culture. People who fail to
live up to these norms typically create a bad impression. Their physical appearance is
interpreted as meaning they either do not understand their role or do not care about fulfilling
it.

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It is important for the receiver to be alert to these nonverbal aspects of communication.
You should look for nonverbal cues as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender's words.
You should particularly be aware of contradictions between the messages.
Nonverbal communication is important for managers because of its impact on the meaning of
the message. However, a manager must consider the total message and all media of
communication. A message can only be given meaning in context, and cues are easy to
misinterpret. The figure below presents common nonverbal behavior exhibited by managers
and how employees may interpret them. Nonverbal cues can give others the wrong signal.

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 10.4…Communication network

A communication network is the pattern of directions in which information flows in the

organization. Channels of communication (networks by which information flows) are either
formal networks or informal networks. Formal networks follow the authority chain and are
limited to task-related communications. The informal network (grapevine) is free to move in
any direction, skip authority levels, and is as likely to satisfy group members' social needs as it is
to facilitate task accomplishments.

The basic types of communication networks are shown in the figure below:

Chain Network
In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy. Each
person communicates with only the person directly above or below in terms of reporting
relationships. The chain network rigidly follows the formal chain of command.

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Y Network
In the Y network, the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y; information
flows upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening to encompass the number of
employees reporting to a supervisor.

Wheel Network
In a wheel network, information flows to and from a single person. Employees in the
group communicate primarily with that person rather than with each other. Such a
communication network is a fast means of getting information to employees, since the person
at the hub of the wheel can do so directly and efficiently. The wheel network relies on the
leader to act as the central conduit (channel) for the entire group's communication.
The chain network, the Y network and the wheel network are fairly centralized in that most
messages must flow through a pivotal (essential, crucial) person in the network. In the wheel
network, the most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual at the centre of
the wheel. In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than one
member of the network, but the individual in the centre of the chain still tends to emerge as
the controller of the messages. In the Y network, the member at the fork of the "Y" usually
becomes the central person in the network.

Circle Network
In a circle network, employees communicate only with adjoining members of the
organization. The circle network is analogous to a group working in a physical arrangement such
that workers can communicate with their immediate neighbor but not with others in the group.

The All-Channel Network or the Star Network

In an all-channel network, communications flow upward, downward and laterally among
all members of the group. This pattern of communication supports an egalitarian, (equal,
unrestricted) participative culture and fosters (promote, cultivate) cross-functional efforts.

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The all-channel network is best if you are concerned with having high member satisfaction.
The circle network and the all-channel network are more decentralized in that there is freer
communication among the various members. In the circle network, each member can
communicate with the individual on either side. The all-channel network is the most
decentralized of the networks; each member can communicate with any other member.

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