EXCAVATION OF BASEMENTS

INTRODUCTION OF EXCAVATION OF BASEMENTS

In general, excavation means to loosen and take out materials leaving

space above or below ground. Sometimes in civil engineering term

earthwork is used which include backfilling with new or original materials

to voids, spreading and levelling over an area. British Standard CP6031

gives standards and recommendation to earthworks covering embarkment

and cuttings, levelling and compacting, and the use of earthmoving plants

etc.

METHODS OF EXCAVATION

1. Manually

2. Mechanical plants

EXCAVATION AND EARTHMOVING PLANTS

Advantages of using mechanical plant in excavation:

a) work done quicker,

b) avoid dangerous condition of work by human workers, say,

existence of ground water or collapse of soil,

c) achieve greater depth,

d) use fewer manpower and work done in lower cost (for larger scale

work only)

Disadvantages of using mechanical plant in excavation:

a) involve larger running and maintenance costs,

b) require a larger operating area,

c) access provision to working area,

d) less flexible in work planning,

e) idling time increase cost of work,

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS

a) Face shovel excavators – This can be of cable or hydraulic

operated, mounted on wheel or track. They are fitted with

bucket which faces away from the machine. They are used

for loosening, excavating vertical or near-vertical soil

above the machine base level. They are not suitable for

horizontal or below ground excavation.

b) Backactors (Backhoe) – They are used for below ground

level excavation. The bucketacts downwards and dreg drag

towards the machine and tilted upwards to hold the loads.

They are used mainly as trench or large-scale open

excavation, but sometimes they are also used as loading

machines.

c) Bulldozers – They are traditionally track mounted tractor

with significant weight so that they can work easier with

soil. Bulldozers are usually fitted with a straight or angled

blade which can be slightly raised by hydraulic action to

adjust level. They are used for grading mete materials to

levels over relatively smaller area, to cut small tree, remove

surface vegetation or hard surfaces etc. The max cut is

about 40Omm below base of the machine.

d) Tractor shovel (loading shovel) – This machine is similar

to a bulldozer but has a hydraulic operated bucket in place

of the blade. Materials above the base of vehicle can be

lifted and unload onto a dump truck or onto a spoil heap.

The bucket size varies from 0.5m 3 to 3 or 4m3 depending on

capacity of machine.

e) Clamshell excavator – This is somewhat a crane, usually

track mounted, and hanging a wire operated clamshell at

 the jig. It is used to handle or load soft /saturated soil on

site. It is more useful in very big site where a large amount

of soil materials is required to remove.

f) Powered shovel or drill – This is for cutting of larger

boulders or rock. Usually, the drill is neumat pneumatically

operated and mounted on a tracked base. Very often, it is

convertible to a backactor with the bucket replaced by the

drill to gain flexibility and minimize capital input.

g) Grader – It can be a self-contained power unit or a towed

vehicle by a tractor. A grader does not excavate but it levels

and grades out to fine loose or deposit materials. A

centrally mounted blade much narrower and f latter than a

bulldozer's serves the purpose. It skims the surface of soil

evening out the bumps and hollows. The blade can be

lowered or lightly tilted to ad311st for the level of the

graded surface.

h) Scraper – The machine works similarly to a grader but it

has a container to hold the surplus soil after scraper. The

container which is filled with soil can also serve the

purpose of backfill of hollow ground.

i) Dumper – This is a smaller vehicle with a tipping hopper

or skip designed to carry material within a site. The hopper

is usually front mounted to provide better control by the

driver. It is easy to manoeuvt manoeuvre on uneven and

rutted ground. Capacity of the hopper varies from 1 to 3m 3

depending on the size of dumper.10.

 j) Dumper truck – designed for large-capacity loads to be

carried over a long distance on or off site. Normal capacity

ranging from 5 to 15m3, some even up to 50m3 or above.

GOVERNMENT REGULATION IN CONTROLLING

EXCAVATION

Excavation work to 8 certain extent is dangerous so government has

regulation control over works where large-scale excavation is involved.

Some of these regulations are in:

1. Building (Administration) Regulations

2. Building (Construction) Regulation

3. Relevant Practice Note for Authorized persons and Registered

Engineers etc.

These requirements apply to excavation:

1. Deeper than 4.5m and exceed 5m in length (4.5m up from base)

2. Liable to affect any road, building, slope steeper than 30 o or water

main bigger than 75mm in diameter

3. Supporting prep proposal to be submitted and obtain consent before

starting of excavation.

Content of excavation proposal should include the following

information:

1. Detail of method for ground protection treatment and

dewatering.

2. Survey of existing site condition

2.1 Accurate level survey

2.2 Geotechnical survey

2.3 Ground and surface water information

2.4 Record/report of the surrounding facilities and structures

3. Detail design or construction proposal regarding:

 3.1 Site/soil investigation report and geotechnical

assumptions

3.2 Detail of excavation/protection works

3.3 Sequence and method of works

3.4 Monitoring proposal

3.5 Other information or specification that deem necessary

3.6

FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR EXCAVATION

Excavation in most situations nowadays is done by mechanical means.

However, the exact method to be adopted still depends upon a number of

factors:

1. Nature of subsoil – affect type of machine used and the necessity of

soil protection.

2. Size of excavation – affect type of machine used and method to

excavate.

3. Scale of work – large volume of excavation may involve complicated

phasing arrangement and work planning .

4. Ground water condition – affect degree of protection (watertight sheet

piling or dewatering may require.)

5. Surrounding condition – impose certain restrictions and precautions

(e.g., diversion of a government drain, or underpinning work to the nearby

building foundation)

TYPES / METHODS OF EXCAVATION

OPEN-CUT CONSTRUCTION

 For all excavations, operators must know:

o the line;

o the final depth of the excavation;

o the approximate width of the excavation at the top; and

 o the location of any services or other hazards.

 If there is sufficient right of way, open cut trenches can be used in

almost any soil condition.

 Generally, a sloped open cut excavation is the most cost and

schedule effective method of tree trenching.

 When the trench is very deep and/or expensive backfill, materials are

required, then a vertical cut at the toe of the slope supported by

shoring may be effective.

 Ground water and weak lower layers may force partial shoring or

flattening of the excavation slopes.

Open cut advantages

 Allows continuous excavation, laying and backfilling operations.

 Minor breakdowns usually do not cause delays to all activities.

 The open trench needs only the design of the cut bank slope. Osha

guidelines can be used, although cost saving usually will result if the

bank slope is checked and designed by a registered engineer for a

steeper slope. Sloping the excavation is the simplest method to

design and use.

 Because there are no additional support operations and equipment, it

is the economical choice.

 The open trench provides easy acccee access to the work because

equipment and construction materials are minimized.

 The open cut method is suitable for most ground conditions, except

for oozing mud and running sands.

Open cut disadvantages

 The slope of the bank requires more excavation and backfill volume

than the other options.

 The only bank support is the strength of the soil. If drying, flooding,

or change of soil properties weakens the soil, then slouge sloughing

and collapse can happen with little or no warning.

  The sloped banks require a wider work area.

 The bank slopes may force the use of larger equipment because the

distance to reach into the trench is increased and a greater volume of

soil must be excavated and backfilled.

PERIMETER TRENCH EXCAVATIONS

 In this method a trench wide enough for the basement walls to be

constructed is excavated and supported with timbering as required.

 It may be necessary for runners or steel sheet piling to be driven

ahead of the excavation work.

 This method can be used where week weak subsoils are encountered

so that the basement walls act as permanent timbering whilst the

mound or dumpling is excavated and the base slab cast.

  Perimeter trench excavations can also be employed in firm subsoils

when the mechanical plant required for excavating the dumpling is

not available at the right time.

DEEP

CONSTRUCTION METHOD FOR SHALLOW BASEMENT

  Open excavation with sloping

sides (if constraints of space

on the site permits)

 Angle of slope -nature of soil

+ moisture content.

CONSTRUCTION METHOD FOR DEEP BASEMENT

Open excavation is not suitable:

 Extent of excavation required around the building would be

impractical

 Risk of affecting ground support for adjacent building

 High cost for large scale of excavation

 Existence of high ground water level

Use:

 Excavation with temporary support

 Excavation supported by permanent retaining walls embedded in

ground
Deep excavation

Deep excavation, unlike a shallow one, often requires to protect the sides

of cut using suitable support. Besides, the problem of ground water dont

cannot be avoided. There are methods to overcome this, such as:

1. Dumpling method
This is used where there are buildings or street in the proximity. The

method is to construct a series of retaining wall in trench, section by

section, around the site perimeter, leaving a centre Called "dumpling."

When the perimeter walls are in place, excavation may start at the centre

of the dumpling, until exposing a section of the wall. Then the wall may be

side supported by struts, shoring or soil anchor etc., again section by

section in short length, until the excavation is all completed.

This method does not require much heavy mechanical equipment and thus

cost of work is relatively lower. It can excavate up to a maximum depth of

about 3m. Sometimes in very poor soil or in waterlogged ground,

interlocking steel sheet pile may be driven to confine the area to be

excavated. After that excavation can be done in section and properly

supported similar to that mentioned above. It can excavate up to a

maximum

By the using of sheet pile, excavation may reach maximum to about 15m.

However, the cost of work will be increased.

2. Diaphragm walling

This method needs to construct a R.C. retaining wall along the area of

work. Because the wall is designed to reach very great depth, mechanical

excavating method is employed.

Typical sequence of work includes:

a) Construct a guide wall

b) Excavation for the diaphragm wall

c) Excavation support using bentonite slurry

 d) Inert reinforcement and concreting

Construct a guide wall – guide wall is two parallel concrete beams

running as a guide to the clamshell which is used for the excavation of the

diaphragm wall.

Excavation for the diaphragm wall – In normal soil conditions

excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended by cables to a

crane. The grab can easily chisel boulder in soil due to its weight.

Excavation support – excavation for the diaphragm wall produces a

vertical strip in soil which can collapse easily. Bentonite slurry is used to

protect the sides of soi1. Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay which,

when added to water, forms an impervious cake-like slurry with very large

viscosity. The slurry will produce a great lateral pressure sufficient enough

to retain the vertical soil. Usually, compaction for concrete

Reinforcement – reinforcement is inserted in form of a steel cage, but

may require to lap and extend to the required length.

Concreting – concreting is done using tremie. As Concrete being poured

down, bentonite will be displaced due to its density is lower than concrete.

Bentonite is then collected and reuse. Usually, compaction for concrete is

not required for the weight of the bentonite will drive most of the air voids

in concrete.

Joining design for the diaphragm wall – Diaphragm walling cannot be

constructed continually for a very long section due to tremendous soil

pressure. The wall is usually constructed in alternative section. Two stop

end tubes will be placed at the ends of the excavated trench before

concreting. The tubes are withdrawn at the same time of concreting so that

a semi-circular end section is formed. Wall sections of this type are built

alternatively leaving an intermediate section in between. The interior

sections are built similarly but without the end tube. At the end a continual

diaphragm wall is constructed with the sections tightly joined by the semi-

circular groove.
3. Using cofferdams

A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary box structure constructed in

earth or water to exclude soil or water from a construction area, such as for

foundation or basement works. construction area,

Use of cofferdam suitable for excavation of larger scale can be of:

a) Sheet pile cofferdam – Also known as single skin coffee cofferdam.

Interlocking type steel sheet pile is used and can use for excavation

up to 15m. Sheet pile in this case acts as a cantilever member to

support the soil therefore adequate depth of pile or suitable toe

treatment may be required. In addition, cofferdams are need to be

braced and strutted or anchored using tie rods or ground anchors.

a) b Double skin cofferdam – This works similarly like the sheet pile

to form a diaphragm. However, the diaphragm is double-skinned

using two parallel rows of sheet pile with a filling material placed in

the void between. This creates somewhat a gravity retaining

structure and increase the ability to counteract the soil behind.

However, more working space is required.

Steel, amongst other materials such as timber, is most effective to be used

SHEET STEEL PILING

Steel, amongst other materials such as timber, is most effective to be used

as sheet pile due to its high tensile as well as their interlocking ability. It

can be used as timbering to excavation in soft and/or waterlogged soils

especially in congested site where there is no enough space for

complicated shoring.

Steel sheet pile can be of numerous shapes, thickness and sizes. Most of

them can be water-tighted and for some heavy sections they can be driven

down to 15m depth. To erect and install a series of sheet piles and keep
them vertical in all directions a guide frame may be required. holes near

The piles are lifted by a crane, using the lifting holes near the top of each

pile, and positioning them between the guide wailings of the guide.

Powered hammer (fitted with a grip to the pile) which are hanged by the

crane is usually use to drive the pile. Sometimes hydraulic hammer can be

used to reduce noise.

There is a tendency of the piles to lean to a direction during driving.

Special control is therefore required to monitor the pile is vertical all the

way through.

GROUND ANCHOR

Ground anchor is basically a pre-stressing tendon embedded and anchored

into soil or rock to provide resistance to structural movements by a “tying

back" principle.

Common applications are:

1. General slope stabilization

2. Tying back/stabilizing a retaining structure

3. Tying back/stabilizing for diaphragm walls, but for a

temporary nature during excavation

4. Tying back the entire building from up possible uplifting

Ground anchor can be classified into:

1. Rock anchor – for anchorage in rock

2. Injection anchor – suitable for most cohesive and non-cohesive soils

Method to form a ground anchor

A hole is predrilled on soil or rock in position carefully calculated. For

rock anchor, an anchor bar with expanded sleeves at the end is inserted

into the hole. A dense high strength grout is injected over a required length

to develop sufficient resistance to hold the bar when it is stressed.

Stressing is by hydraulic mean and when the stress is developed, the head

of the bar is hold by an end plate and nut.

For injection anchor, a hole should be bored usually with an expanded end

to increase anchorage ability. The pre-stressing bar is placed into the bore

hole and pressure grouted over the anchorage length.

Gravel placement ground anchor can also be used in clay soils for lighter

loading. Gravel placement ground anchor can also be used in clay soils for

lighter loading. In this method irregular gravel is injected into the

borehole over the anchorage length to form an end plug. The gravel p1ug

is then force into soil using percussion method through casing, forming an

enlarged end. A stressing bar is inserted into the casing and pressure

grouted over the anchorage length as the casing is removed.

It should be noted that certain protection measure against corrosion or

rusting is required for the stressing bar. Usually, the bar may be coated

with bitumen, wrapped by greased tape or filled with non-pressurized

grout after stressing is completed.

GROUND WATER CONTROL AND DEWATERING

Ground water is water which is held in soil, either in a non-saturated,

saturated or over-saturated form. Water table is a line showing the change

of water content in soil. Below which soil is saturated with water.

Water in soil often acts as a lubricant, which increase the tendency of soil

to slip or slide.

Besides, it causes certain difficulties and danger in case of excavations to

be done. In some soil, such as non-cohesive soil with coarser grain

composition, water can flow through the grain particles. While for

cohesive, water cannot due to the large capillary held by the very fine soil

particles. Water in soil

Keeping out of ground water

Ground water can be kept out either permanently such as for long term

waterproofing for a basement, or temporarily such as to ease work during

excavation.

The following provisions can contribute certain degree of water-tightness

to the basement during the construction:

1. Sheet piling

2. Diaphragm walls

3. Suitable grouting to the sub-soil

In addition, ground water can be further control by the use of the following

arrangement:

1. Sump pumping

2. Well point systems

3. Shallow or deep-bored wells

4. Horizontal ground water control

5. electro-osmosis method

Grouting

Grouting is often use to stop the penetration of water in sub-soil with high

permeability, such as in fissured and jointed rock strata. Row/s of holes are

bored on the soil and, usually cement grout, are injected under high

pressure. The cement grout will penetrate into the voids of the sub-soil and

form somewhat an impermeable curtain vertically separating the ground

water.

Cement grout is usually a mixture of cement and water, or cement and

sand under ratio maximum 1:4. Sometimes chemical grout can be used to

form a gel which can increase strength and reduce permeability of soil.
(e.g., Sodium silicate + calcium chloride = calcium silicate, which is a

silica gel)