Bachelor of Information

Technology and Software

Engineering

Computer Programming

Module BITH 131

(OLD CODE BIT 131)
Adapted by: Taurayi Rupere
MSc (UZ)
BSc (UZ)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: January, 2015/May 2016

Packaged by: C.S. Nhari Printed by ZOU Press

Typeset in Garamond, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
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prior permission of the Zimbabwe Open University.
 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge academics, technologists and
and the requirement to adjust and administrators of varied backgrounds,
change with changing technology, places training, skills, experiences and personal
on us a need to learn continually interests. The combination of all these
throughout life. As all people need an qualities inevitably facilitates the
education of one form or another, it has production of learning materials that
been found that conventional education teach successfully any student, anywhere
institutions cannot cope with the and far removed from the tutor in space
demand for education of this magnitude. and time. We emphasize that our
It has, however, been discovered that learning materials should enable you to
distance education and open learning, solve both work-related problems and
now also exploiting e-learning other life challenges.
technology, itself an offshoot of e-
commerce, has become the most To avoid stereotyping and professional
effective way of transmitting these narrowness, our teams of learning
appropriate skills and knowledge materials producers come from different
required for national and international universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
development. and from Commerce and Industry. This
openness enables ZOU to produce
Since attainment of independence in materials that have a long shelf life and
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
spearheaded the development of for the needs of all of you, our learners
distance education and open learning at in different walks of life. You, the
tertiary level, resulting in the learner, have a large number of optional
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open courses to choose from so that the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. knowledge and skills developed suit the
career path that you choose. Thus, we
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently strive to tailor-make the learning
materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely
personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance
developing the ZOU learning materials,
education and open learning. We are
we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading
you, the learner, with all the knowledge
position by both satisfying our clients
and skill that will make you a better
and maintaining high academic performer all round, be this at certificate,
standards. To achieve the leading diploma, undergraduate or postgraduate
position, we have adopted the course level. We aim for products that will settle
team approach to producing the varied comfortably in the global village and
learning materials that will holistically competing successfully with anyone. Our
shape you, the learner to be an all-round target is, therefore, to satisfy your quest
performer in the field of your own for knowledge and skills through
choice. Our course teams comprise distance education and open learning
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is you may never meet in life. It is our intention
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
from consumers of the product, chief among rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
whom are you, the students and your employers. of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of
We consult you and listen to your critical analysis our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
of the concepts and how they are presented. We developments and for the latest information on
also consult other academics from universities what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
the world over and other international bodies website at www.zou.ac.zw
whose reputation in distance education and open
learning is of a very high calibre. We carry out Having worked as best we can to prepare your
pilot studies of the course outlines, the content learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
and the programme component. We are only prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
too glad to subject our learning materials to hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
academic and professional criticism with the will experience unimpeded success in your
hope of improving them all the time. We are educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
determined to continue improving by changing continually strive to improve the learning
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic materials through evaluation, transformation of
needs of our learners, their employers, research, delivery methodologies, adjustments and
economic circumstances, technological sometimes complete overhauls of both the
development, changing times and geographic materials and organizational structures and
location, in order to maintain our leading culture that are central to providing you with
position. We aim at giving you an education the high quality education that you deserve. Note
that will work for you at any time anywhere and that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
in varying circumstances and that your central position within ZOU’s core activities.
performance should be second to none.
Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward
looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Table of Contents
Foreword .....................................................................................................................................ii
Unit1 .......................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to Programming .................................................................................................... 1

1.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Objectives................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Definition of Terms..................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Programme Development Process ................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 Problem solving phase ...................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Implementation Phase ....................................................................................... 3
1.4. Summary .................................................................................................................... 5
Unit 2 Algorithm .................................................................................................................... 6
2.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6
2.1. Objectives................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Algorithms Representation ....................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Flow chart representation.................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 Pseudo-code representation............................................................................... 8
2.3. Algorithm Development Method ................................................................................ 10
2.3.1 Identify input and output of problems............................................................. 11
2.3.2 Identifying sub-problems ................................................................................ 13
2.3.3 Solving sub-problems ..................................................................................... 13
2.4. Selection Structure .................................................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Single selection ............................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Dual-selection ................................................................................................. 19
2.4.3 Multi-selection ................................................................................................ 23
2.5. Repetition Structure................................................................................................... 27
2.5.1 Counter controlled loop .................................................................................. 28
2.5.2 Condition controlled loop ............................................................................... 32
2.5.3 Sentry controlled loop..................................................................................... 35
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 2.5.4 Structuring....................................................................................................... 37
2.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 41
Unit 3..................................................................................................................................... 46
Programming Language .......................................................................................................... 46
3.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 46
3.1. Objectives................................................................................................................. 46
3.2 Programming Language Types ......................................................................................... 46
3.2.1 Machine language ........................................................................................... 47
3.2.2 Assembly language ........................................................................................ 47
3.2.3 High level language ........................................................................................ 47
3.2. Language .................................................................................................................. 49
3.3. C programming Environment ..................................................................................... 49
3.4. Sample C Programme .............................................................................................. 52
3.5. Summary .................................................................................................................. 55
Unit 4 Variables ................................................................................................................. 56
4.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 56
4.1. Objectives................................................................................................................. 56
4.2. Variable Naming ....................................................................................................... 56
4.2.1 Rules to name a variable ................................................................................. 57
4.2.2 C reserved words and standard identifiers ...................................................... 58
4.3. Variable Types.......................................................................................................... 59
4.4. Variable Declarations ................................................................................................ 59
4.5. Variable Assignment ................................................................................................. 60
4.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 63
Unit 5 Data Types ................................................................................................................. 64
5.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 64
5.1. Objectives................................................................................................................. 64
5.2. Cell Sizes and Qualifiers ........................................................................................... 64
5.3. Integer Data Type (int) .............................................................................................. 65
5.4. Character Data (char) ................................................................................................ 65

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 5.5. Real Data Type ......................................................................................................... 66
5.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 68
Unit 6 Constants ............................................................................................................... 69
6.0. Introduction............................................................................................................. 69
6.1. Objectives ............................................................................................................... 69
6.2. Integer Constant ...................................................................................................... 69
6.3. Real Constants ........................................................................................................ 70
6.4. Character Constant.................................................................................................. 70
6.5. String Constant........................................................................................................ 71
6.6. Summary ................................................................................................................. 73
Unit 7 Input and Output .................................................................................................... 76
7.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 76
7.1. Objectives................................................................................................................. 76
7.2.1 Printing strings ................................................................................................ 77
7.2.2 Printing values ................................................................................................ 79
7.3. The Scanf() Function................................................................................................. 83
7.3.1 Variable input.................................................................................................. 84
7.4. Summary .................................................................................................................. 86

Unit 8 Operators and Expressions ................................................................................. 87

8.0. Introduction............................................................................................................. 87
8.1. Objectives ............................................................................................................... 87
8.2. Basic Arithmetic Operators..................................................................................... 87
1. Consider the programme segment below:................................................................... 90
8.3. Arithmetic Expressions........................................................................................... 91
8.3.1 Precedence level.............................................................................................. 91
8.3.2 Writing arithmetic expressions in C................................................................ 92
8.4. Assignment Statement (=)....................................................................................... 94
8.4.1 Expression assignment statement.................................................................... 94
8.4.2 Multiple expression assignment statement ..................................................... 95
8.4.3 Compound assignment statement.................................................................... 96

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 8.5. Relational Operator................................................................................................. 98
8.6. Logical Operator ..................................................................................................... 99
8.7. Increment and Decrement Operators .................................................................... 101
8.8. Cast Operator ........................................................................................................ 103
8.9. Conditional Operator ............................................................................................ 104
8.10. Summary ........................................................................................................... 106
Unit 9 Selection Central Structure ................................................................................... 107
9.0. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 107
9.1. Objectives............................................................................................................... 107
9.2. The if Statement...................................................................................................... 107
9.3. The Switch and Break Statement.............................................................................. 113
9.4. Summary ................................................................................................................ 116
Unit 10 CASE STUDY......................................................................................................... 117
10.0. Introduction....................................................................................................... 117
10.1. Objectives ......................................................................................................... 117
10.2. Problem Statement ............................................................................................ 117
10.3. Analysis............................................................................................................. 118
10.4. Data Requirements............................................................................................ 119
10.5. Summary ........................................................................................................... 126
Unit 11 Repetition ......................................................................................................... 127

11.0. Introduction....................................................................................................... 127

11.1. Objectives ......................................................................................................... 127
11.2. The For Statement............................................................................................. 127
11.3. The While Statement......................................................................................... 131
11.3.1 The Relationship between while and for statements.................................. 133
11.3.2 Integer expression and loop initialisation .............................................. 134
11.3.3 The endless loop ........................................................................................... 135
11.3.4 The while loop controlled by condition ........................................................ 135
11.3.5 The while loop controlled by sentry............................................................ 137
11.4. The Do-while Statement ................................................................................... 137

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 11.5. The Continue Statement.................................................................................... 139
11.5.1 The continue flow control statement............................................................. 140
11.6. The Break Statement......................................................................................... 141
11.6.1 The break control flow statement.................................................................. 141
11.7. Nested Loops .................................................................................................... 142
11.7.1 Tracing nested loops ..................................................................................... 142
11.8. Summary ........................................................................................................... 146
12.0. Introduction....................................................................................................... 148
12.1. Objectives ......................................................................................................... 148
12.2. What is Function? ............................................................................................. 148
12.3. Calling a Function............................................................................................. 149
12.3.1 Calling a function without parameter............................................................ 150
12.3.2 Calling a function with parameters ............................................................... 150
12.3.3 The C standard library................................................................................... 151
12.4. Writing a Function ............................................................................................ 153
12.4.1 Writing a function without parameter ........................................................... 154
12.4.2 Writing a functions with parameters ........................................................... 156
12.4.3 Returning values .......................................................................................... 157
12.4.4 Variable scope............................................................................................... 160
12.4.5 Function prototype ........................................................................................ 167
12.5. Recursion .......................................................................................................... 171
12.6. Functions and Top Down Design...................................................................... 175
12.7. Summary ........................................................................................................... 179
Unit13 File Manipulations................................................................................ 180
13.0. Introduction....................................................................................................... 180
13.1. Objectives ......................................................................................................... 180
13.2. File Support in C.............................................................................................. 180
13.2.1 File format types ........................................................................................... 180
13.2.2 File access types............................................................................................ 181
13.3. File Operations.................................................................................................. 181

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 13.3.1 The fopen() function ..................................................................................... 182
13.3.2 The fclose() function..................................................................................... 183
13.3.3 The fprintf() function .................................................................................... 184
13.3.4 The fscanf() function..................................................................................... 185
13.3.5 The getc() function........................................................................................ 187
13.3.6 The putc() function ....................................................................................... 188
13.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 192
Unit 14 Case Study.......................................................................................................... 193
14.0. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 193
14.1. Objectives............................................................................................................... 193
14.2. Menu Driver Programme ......................................................................................... 193
14.2.1 Problem ........................................................................................................ 193
14.2.2 Analysis........................................................................................................ 194
14.2.3 Design........................................................................................................... 194
14.2.4 Implementation ............................................................................................ 196
14.3. Summary ................................................................................................................ 198

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word

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you
briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course
material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to
complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important
study components or points that you might miss or overlook.

This course is offered under the Faculty of IT & Multimedia Communication. This
module is for Zimbabwe Open University computer programming module.

Course Audience

This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Information Technology,
and Software Engineering. As students you are required to attend this course and
master the subject. This course is crucial for students to understand problem
solving skills and implementing the right concepts, principles and techniques in
programming.

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this
course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the
course is conducted.

Course Objectives
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
 Apply computer programming concepts and problem solving methods using
algorithms.
 Write, compile and run computer programming using C language.

Module Overview

This course is divided into 14 units. The synopsis for each unit is presented below:

In Unit 1 we explain the concepts of programme and programming and how the
programming can be done in certain phases such as problem solving phase and
implementation phase.

In Unit 2 we explain the algorithms where you students should understand how to
represent the algorithms in correct ways. You will be exposed to the right technique
in creating algorithms including for advanced control structures such as selection and
repetition structures.

Unit 3 introduces to three level of programming and the introduction to C language.

As students, you should understand the development environment for C language and
try out the first C programme.
ii
In Unit 4 we explain the concept of variables and how they work in programming.

Unit 5 deals with different data types that can be used for C programming.

In Unit 6 we describe several constants values for programming such as integer, real

character and string.

In Unit 7 we explain the concept and practices for input and output in programming.

In Unit 8 we describe the usage of operators and expressions in

programming. You, the students, must understand this.

In Unit 9 we describe the control feature in programming where y o u can make

selection programmes based on certain conditions.

In Unit 10 we discuss a case study by implementing previous lessons.

In Unit 11 w e explain t he control feature in programming where y o u can

make repetition programmes based on certain conditions.

In Unit 12 we explain the meaning of function and how it works in programming,

especially for a big scale of programming.

In Unit 13 we describe the concept, principles and techniques in manipulating files in

C programming.

Text Arrangement Gu i d e

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise your
study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the text
arrangement for each unit is as follows:

Introduction: In the introduction issues to be discussed in the unit are spelt out.

Unit Objectives: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely gone through a Unit. As you go through each Unit, you should frequently
refer to these unit objectives and outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your progress of digesting the Unit.

Activity: Activities are also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the
module. Activity can appear in various forms such as questions, short case studies
or it may even ask you to conduct an observation or research. Activity may also
ask your opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an
iii
Activity, you should try to widen what you have gathered from the module and
introduce it to real situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking
where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just
having to recall and define.

Summary: You can find this component at the end of each Unit. This component
helps you to recap the whole Unit. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.

Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each Unit. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every Unit
or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the suggested
sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to enhance your
overall understanding of the course. Other reference can be checked on net.

Prior K nowledge

A basic knowledge of the subject matter is not required for you, students to
follow this module. However, programming knowledge will be an advantage.

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Blank page
Unit1

Introduction to Programming

1.0. Introduction

Since their introduction, computers have helped a lot in making everyday human
tasks easier. With the help of a computer, we can pay bills, do banking, even
shop without moving from our seat. You may have used the Automatic Teller
Machine (ATM). Imagine what would happen if computers are not used?

Situations involving computer usage are becoming more important day- by- day.
Equally important is computer programming. Programming is a list of
instructions that is followed by a computer. Without it, a computer will not be
able to function. Programming languages allow us to write these programmes and
therefore communicate with the computer.

In this unit we will discuss programming concepts and the processes that are
involved in developing a programme.

1.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the terms ‘ programming’ and ‘ computer programme’ with
accuracy
 list six process steps that are involved in developing a programme

1
 ACTIVITY 1.1

Before you start reading, bring out your own understanding of a programme.

1.2. Definition of Terms

If we observe, human behaviour and thoughts are always based on a logical

sequence. These behaviour and thoughts happen automatically without us realising
them. Let’s look at a behaviour that we normally do. To open a tap, the following
sequence is needed:

1. lift hand to hold tap head

2. rotate tap head anti clock-wise (from right to left)

Being aware of doing a task according to a sequence is very important in human

life. The sequence is achieved through a process called programming. In our daily
routine, we often have to do the same task repeatedly. This may make us feel
bored or lose interest. This results in the task not being completed and the end
quality dropping. Programmes prevent humans from having to do the tasks
repeatedly.

In programming language it is defined as planning, scheduling or doing a

task/event. Programming in the computer field is to configure a computer so that it
does a particular task.

Computer programming is a process to plan a set of sequential instructions

to be run by a computer.

Whereas

A computer programme is a sequential instruction which determines the steps

to be taken by a computer.

1
1.3. Programme Development Process

To simplify programme development, we can divide the programming process

into two phases:
• the problem solving phase and
• the implementation phase.

Each of these phases is divided into several parts. Refer to Figure 1.1 which
shows the relationship between these two phases.

Figure 1.1: Programming process

Now, let us look at the two phases in detail.

1.3.1 Problem solving phase

There are three steps that must be taken to solve any problem, which are:
• To perform a problem analysis,
• Get a general algorithm design and
• Walkthrough the algorithm.
2
We will discuss in detail how these three steps are carried out.

(a) Analysis
Analysis is the process of understanding and defining a problem. At this
stage, a programmer should try to state the problem clearly and understand
what needs to be done to solve the problem. We may need to know more
detailed information from the persons who have identified the problem.

During analysis, ensure you understand and define the problem correctly.

(b) General design (algorithm)

An algorithm is a set of logical sequential steps used to solve a
problem.

The process of creating an algorithm is called the problem solving design

process. Normally, writing an algorithm is the most challenging part in the
problem solving process.

Most computer algorithms have at least three sub-problems as stated below.

1. Data collection
2. Process calculations
3. Output results

Once the sub-problem is identified, we can solve each sub-problem one at a time.

(c) Walkthrough
Walkthrough is one of the steps in algorithm design that is almost always
forgotten.

To walkthrough an algorithm, we must perform each step of the algorithm

just as it would be done by the computer to see if the algorithm really does
solve the problem. This process is called tracing the algorithm. To perform
this step, we must create an input sample for the algorithm and check it
step-by-step. This is the time to find errors and to correct them.

1.3.2 Implementation Phase

The implementation phase also consists of three steps which are:

• Detailed problem solving in the form of program code,
• Carrying out tests on the program code and
• Maintaining the program code.

3
Let us read on to know more about the steps mentioned above.

(a) Detailed design (programme code)

Algorithm implementation process involves writing a programme code.
We need to interpret each algorithm step into one or more statements
in programming language.

(b) Testing
Testing a programme code is a process of running a programme and
checking for errors. This is to ensure the programme does what it is
intended to do.
Normally, testing is carried out by running the programme code
repeatedly using a set of different data to ensure it functions properly
for every situation. Large input size that cannot be tested by hand has to
be tested now. If an error is found, the programme needs to be
modified until it produces the right output or answer.

(c) Maintenance
Maintaining and updating a programme code involves tasks in modifying
the programme code to eliminate errors that could not be found before and
update it according to current changes in the organisation’s rules and policies.

Usually, maintenance work is carried out every five years and the
programmer that developed the programme would have left the organisation.
Therefore, it is important for a programmer to write programmes that are
easy to read, understand and maintain. Thus, we must adhere to
programming styles that are accepted by the programming society.

You have now been briefed on all the processes involved in the problem
solving phase and the implementation phase. If you are still not clear,
please read through the text again.

To ensure you have understood what you have learnt, answer the following
questions.

4
 Activity 1.2

1. What is meant by a programme?

2. At which phase is the algorithm created?
3. At which phase is the written algorithm translated into a computer
programme?
4. The programming process is divided into two. State the
processes that are involved in each.
5. Define the following terms- Algorithm, Computer programme,
Computer programming and Walkthrough.

1.4. Summary

• Computer programming is a process to plan a set of sequential instructions to

be run by a computer.
• A computer programme is a sequential instruction which determines the steps
to be taken by a computer.
• To simplify programme development, we can divide the programming
process into two phases: the problem solving phase and the implementation
phase.
• There are three steps that must be taken to solve any problem, which are: to
perform a problem analysis, get a general algorithm design and walkthrough
the algorithm.
• The implementation phase also consists of three steps which are: detailed
problem solving in the form of programme code, carrying out tests on
the programme code and maintaining the programme code.

5
Unit 2 Algorithm

2.0. Introduction
In Unit 1 you were introduced to two main phases in developing a programme.
One was the problem-solving phase. In this phase, you were given some
explanation on algorithms. Therefore in this Unit, you are required to focus
entirely on algorithms from the aspect of representation until implementation.
From a historical point of view, Alkhwarizmi (Algorithm) was a mathematician.

In programming, algorithm is a very important process.

Algorithm is a step-by-step problem-solving method in a limited time.

This means that the steps will have an end and will stop. At every step, the
following action taken should uniquely be determined by instructions and
data obtained at that time.

2.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 solve problems by using two algorithm representative techniques
 test the algorithm execution process with step-by-step detailing
 build a complex algorithm by using selective or repetitive control
structure

6
 2.2.Algorithms Representation

Algorithms can be conceptual or abstract. Therefore, we need a way to

represent it so that it can be presented to humans and computers. There are
two algorithm representations that will be discussed here namely the flow
chart representation and the pseudo-code representation.

2.2.1 Flow chart representation

Let us have a look at the first algorithm representation which is the flow chart.
Activities in the algorithm representation are represented by geometry nodes.
Each node represents different activities. These nodes will be joined using
arrows that show the flow or a sequential activity. Below are some symbols
that are used in a flow chart representation.

Figure 2.1: Symbols in flowchart representation

In order to represent algorithms by using flow charts, we can use the following
as a guide:
1. Identify the symbol used according to its function.
2. Get the right formula.
3. Make sure that appropriate data is used.
4. Test the flow chart by tracing each symbol and comparing it with the
expected output.

7
Based on the guide given above, let us see an example as in Figure 2.2 of a flow
chart on starting a car engine.

Figure 2.2: Flow chart on process of starting a car engine

ACTIVITY 2.1

1. Sketch a flow chart for the process of going for a tutorial session.

2.2.2 Pseudo-code representation

Pseudo-code is another technique of representing algorithms.

Pseudo-code or false codes are instructions that mimic the program code
(actual programme instructions).

8
Where the flow charts uses diagrams, pseudo-code is written using phrases or
words. To represent algorithms using pseudo-code, we need to follow the rules of
writing pseudo-code as follows:
1. Every step in an algorithm should not have more than two actions.
2. Steps in an algorithm are executed in sequence.
3. The word end or stop is used to show that the process has been ended.
4. The selection structure is also stated in shapes which will also be explained
later. (Refer to Part 2.4)
5. Loops are stated in one of the shapes which will be explained later. (Refer to
Part 2.5)
6. The action that is allowed includes declaring variable names to identify the
set of variables that have a corresponding data type. Types of data might be
integer, real, character or others.
7. To give an initial value to a variable (if applicable).
8. To use arithmetic symbols to state the addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division operations and brackets to show operation priority.
9. A = B represents exchanging the value of A with B.
10. The relational operators below are used to state the relationship between
two values:
(a) < Less than
(b) <= Less than or equals to
(c) > More than
(d) >= More than or equals to
(e) != Not equal
(f) == Equal

11. The use of sentences is allowed if it states the meaning accurately.

12. Read/Input/Get shows the data given to the algorithm as input.
13. Print/Report/Write/Output/Display shows the result obtained by
algorithm.

Example 2.1
Change mm unit to kg.

The pseudo-code is:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Read mm_weight
3.0 kg_weight = mm_weight /1000
4.0 Print kg_weight
5.0 End
9
 If you want to test your understanding of this unit, try to answer the
questions below.

Activity 2.2

Write a pseudo-code to calculate the total savings after getting a

dividend of 12%.

2.3. Algorithm Development Method

In order to build an algorithm, we need intelligence and skills. Skill can be

improved through practice. There are several general strategies in the process of
problem solving that can help us build algorithms. The divide and conquer
method is one of the useful approaches. By using this method, the original
problem can be broken into sub-problems. Each sub-problem can then be solved
(conquered).

Below is a guide that we can follow when building algorithms:

1. Identify the input and output of a problem.
2. Identify and list the sub-problems. Each problem must be solved in order to
get the results needed.
3. For every sub-problem, identify and list the steps that must be taken to
solve it.

Next, we will see how each step is executed.

10
 2.3.1 Identify input and output of problems

ACTIVITY 2.3

You have been introduced to two techniques of algorithm representation.

Can you tell which one is more effective? Why?

To solve a problem, we must first understand the problem. To do that, we need to

identify the input and output of the problem. Why do we need to know the input
and output? This is because the process to get a solution to most of the problems
is usually made up of three levels, namely to get input, to do processing on the
input and to display the output or the results obtained. This process is shown in
Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Problem-solving process

Input is all the information that is relevant, needed to execute a process. Usually
the information of the input is inserted in the problem statement given.

Output is the result that is needed. The format on how the output is to be
displayed has also to be identified during the construction of the algorithm. An
example of the output format for display is usually in the form of a table. Below
is the input and output that has been identified for some examples of problems.

Example 2.2

Determine whether a given year is a leap year or not.

Input: A year
Output: Message “Leap Year” or “Not Leap Year”

11
 Example 2.3

Calculate the average

Input: Marks of every student
Output: Average marks

Example 2.4

Given the buying and selling price of an item, determine whether profit
was made, or break even or loss incurred
Input: i. Buying price (in ringgit)
ii. Selling price (in ringgit)
Output: Message “Profit” or “Break Even” or “Loss”

When the input and output are known, we need to build a list of formula that
will relate to each other. Based on Example 2.4, the general formula obtained is:

Difference = Selling price - Buying price

If Difference > 0, Output = “Profit”
If Difference = 0, Output = “Break Even”
If Difference < 0, Output = “Loss”

Notice that we have been introduced to a variable which is ‘Difference’. It is to

identify the relationship between the input and output. In some cases, a few
assumptions have to be made to get relationships like this. The problem
modelling process used by identifying variables and the relationships between
them is called abstraction.

To ensure that you have understood what has been learnt, try to answer the
following question. Good Luck!

Activity 2.4

Write a formula for the Example 2.3 above.

12
 2.3.2 Identifying sub-problems

Often the problems that we get are not problems that can be solved easily. To
solve complex problems we have to break them into smaller sub-problems. Each
sub-problem has to be solved to get the results needed. Notice how this process is
done by looking at the next example.

Example 2.5
Given the name of a student, count the number of the letter ‘a’ in the
name.

Solution
The name of a student can be made up of more than one word. To count
the number of ‘a’s in it, we need to get each letter and compare them. We
need to have a variable to act as a counter to track the number of ‘a’s that
exist. The letter ‘a’ can exist in uppercase or lowercase letter. For example,
in the name “Tatenda Amani” there are 4 'a' s.

Initial algorithm (main steps)

1. Start.
2. Input student’s name: studName.
3. Count the number of ‘a's in studName.
4. Report result.
5. End.

Step 2 and 4 can be done easily. But step 3 needs refinement. Step 3 looks like a
sub-problem that seems easy but if it is to be solved using a computer; we need
to have detailed steps on how it is to be executed by a computer. Notice how the
refinement is done by using the guide given next.

2.3.3 Solving sub-problems

For every sub-problem, we need to identify and list the steps taken to solve it.
This method is called refining step-by-step.

(a) Refining step-by-step method

We identified five main steps in sub-Unit 2.3.2. Step 3 needs detailed
explanation. Refer to Figure 2.4 for explanation on this method.

13
 Figure 2.4: Step-by-step Refinement
Concept

Next is the complete explanation on algorithm that is re-written for Example 2.5.

1. Start.
2. Input student’s name: studName.
3. Count the number of ‘a's in studName.
3.1 Set n = 1 and totalA = 0
3.2 Until more characters to be read, execute the
following step. If not, continue to step 4.
3.2.1 Read n-character
3.2.2 If n-character is the same as 'A' or 'a', add 1 to totalA.
3.2.3 Increase n by 1.
4 Report “Number of ‘a’s is totalA”.
5. End.

In this easy example, the number of levels refined is only up to 2 levels. One of
14
the main steps which is step 3 is refined to be step 3.1 and 3.2. Then 3.2 is refined
further into steps 3.2.1, 3.2.2 and 3.2.3. For more complex problems, the level of
refinement may be more until each step becomes detailed and can be executed.
Below are a few guides to summarise the solution:

1. At every level of refinement, the sub-problem must be understood

properly. Input/output analysis must be done for every sub-problem as is
done for the entire problem.
2. Sub-problems that have similar processes must be looked at together.
This prevents overlapping in solving problem parts that are the same
and arrangements can be made for modules or sub-problems to provide
an overall solution.
3. All sub-problems can be represented in the same way. Therefore, when
all the solutions to sub-problems are combined to create the original
problem, the result from the combination is easier to understand.

2.4. Selection Structure

Selection structure is a structure design that gives a few choices during execution.
The choices made are dependent on the conditions that are given. There are 3
types of general selection structures, which are:

1. Single selection
2. Dual-selection
3. Multi-selection

2.4.1 Single selection

Single selection involves testing one condition only. The choice that is given
depends on whether the condition is met or not met. Below is the syntax for the
single selection algorithm.

15
 step a
If <Condition true>
Start_If
step 1
step 2
:
step k
End_If
Step k+1

If the condition is met, step 1 till step k will be executed. Then, step k + 1 is
executed. Alternatively, if the condition is not met, step k + 1 will be executed
without executing step 1 to step k.

Step 1 to step k is also known as the start_if and end_if block. Here we will see
that step k+1 will always be executed whether the condition is met or not met.
Step a which is put before the start_if and end_if block will always be executed
because the testing of the condition is after step a.

Note: Notice the indentation for steps in the block start_if - end_if that are
indented a little bit. This is to show that the steps are dependent on the results
that are obtained from the testing of the condition that is done.

Syntax that is given above can be pictured as a flow chart below:

Figure 2.5: Single Selection Structure Flow Chart

16
 Let’s have a look at the Example 2.6.

Example 2.6
Determine if the customers deserve to get a discount of US10.00
from the total payment charged. Customers will be categorised
as deserving if the total_payment is US60.00.

The algorithm is:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Input total_payment value
3.0 If (total_payment > 60)
4.0 Start_If
4.1 Minus 10 from the total_payment
5.0 End_If
6.0 Report actual total_payment
7.0 End

Note: Words that are written in italics like total_payment are variable names that
are recommended. Variables are words that can receive any type of value. You
are also free to use any other name as a variable. But it is good if the variable
name can reflect the task. As given above, total_payment is referring to the total
payment that is charged to the customer.

Let’s now trace the algorithm. Let’s say the total_payment is 80.00. Testing done
in step 3.0 is true because 80 > 60. Therefore, the control of the program will enter
the start_if-end_if block. This means, the total_payment will minus 10. Then,
the control of the programme will exit from the block and execute step 6.0.
Therefore, the value of total_payment reported is 70.00.

ACTIVITY 2.5

What if the total_payment is US48.00? Use the algorithm in Example 2.6 as a

reference.

17
The flow chart is:

Figure 2.6: Flow chart for Example 2.5, single selection structure

Now let us look at the second example.

Example 2.7
Determine the requirement of a student to sit for the examination
based on the number of lab sessions attended. The percentage of
attendance at the lab must be 80%. If it is less than that value, the
student is categorised as not qualified.

The algorithm is given as:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Set value no_of_labs = 10
3.0 Input value total_attended
4.0 Percentage_attended ← (total_attended / no_of_labs) * 100
5.0 If (Percentage_attended >= 80)
6.0 Start_If
6.1 Requirement ← “Qualified”
7.0 End_If
8.0 Report Requirement
9.0 End

18
Try to consider the algorithm above. Assume total_attended input is 8. Therefore
in step 4.0, percentage_attended will be 80 because of (8/10)*100. Testing step 5.0
is also executed, and the result is true that is percentage_attended >= 80. The
program control will enter the start_if-end_if block. After coming out of the
block, the required value is reported as “Qualified”. Trace for total_attended at
the value of 7.

ACTIVITY 2.6

1. Draw a flow chart of the pseudo-code in Example 2.7.

2. Re-write similar statements as those in 4.1 the example in 2.6.

2.4.2 Dual-selection

The dual-selection structure involves testing for two conditions. Choices that are
given are the same as single-selection that is whether the condition is met or not
met. The difference is, if the condition is not met, there are some steps to be
executed. To understand it further, let us look at the general algorithm below:

If <true condition>
Start
step 1
step 2
:
step k
End_If
If_Not
Start
step k+1
step k+2
:
step n
End_If_Not
step n+1

If < true condition > steps in the start_if - end_if block will be executed. Then,
step n+1 will be executed ignoring the steps in the start_if_not - end_if_not block.

But if the condition is not true or not met, the start_if_not - end_if_not would be
executed without executing the steps in the start_if - end_if. Step n+1 will still
be executed whether the condition is met or not. This case is the same as in the
single selection.

A general form of a flow chart for the dual-selection is shown in Figure 2.7 below.
19
Figure 2.7: Dual-selection structure flow chart

Let us have a look at the example for a dual-selection structure below:

Example 2.8
Determine the payment that will be charged to a customer for
parking their car in a car park. The payment rate charges are, if
total time parked is 2 hours or less, the charge is $2.00. But if
the total time parked is more than 2 hours, then 6.00 is
charged.

Algorithm is given as:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Input in_time
3.0 Input out_time
4.0 Total_time ← out_time - in_time
5.0 If (Total_time< 2)
6.0 Start
6.1 Set total_payment = 2
7.0 End_If
8.0 If_Not
9.0 Start
9.1 Set total_payment = 6
10.0 End_If_Not
11.0 Report results of total_payment
12.0 End

Assume:
in_time = 9.00
out_time = 13.00
total_time = 13.00-9.00 = 4

20
Testing at step 5.0 will be false because 4 is larger than 2. This will cause the
control of the program to execute the start_if_not - end_if_not block. At the last
step, total_payment will be reported as 6. See Figure 2.8 for the example above.

Figure 2.8: Flow chart for Example 2.8: dual-selection structure

ACTIVITY 2.7

Now, can you try to solve the problem by using in_time 8.00 and out_time
17.00? Use Example 2.8 as a reference.

Another example of the dual-selection instruction is shown here.

21
 Example 2.9
Determine the payment that is charged to the customer
who parked their cars in the parking lot. The payment
rates charges are; 2.00 the first hour, and 1.00 for
each subsequent hour.

Algorithm is given as:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Input in_time
3.0 Input out_time
4.0 Total_time = out_time - in_time
5.0 If (total_time<= 1)
6.0 Start_If
6.1 Set total_payment = 2
7.0 End_If
8.0 If_Not
9.0 Start
9.1 Set total_time = total_time -1
9.2 Set payment = total_time * 1
9.3 Set total_payment = payment + 2
10.0 End_If_Not
11.0 Report results of total_payment
12.0 End

In the algorithm above, if total_time > 1, and let us say the total_time is 2, then,
start_if-end_if block (step 6.0-7.0) will not be executed. But the
start_if_not- end_if_not block (step 9.0-10.0) will be executed.

In step 9.1, total_time will be 1 because 2 minus 1 is 1. 1 is subtracted from

Total_time because the payment for the first hour is different from the subsequent
hours.

In step 9.2, payment will also be 1 because total_time multiplied by 1 is 1,

because for the second hour and so on, the payment is 1 per hour.

In step 9.3, total_payment now becomes 3; because 1(from step 9.2) plus 2 is 3.
Here the value 2 is for the payment rate for the first hour. You need to remember
that the payment for the first hour is different from the subsequent hours. Total
payment reported in step 11.0 is 3.

22
 ACTIVITY 2.8

1. Now try with the previous data which is the in_time 9:30 and out_time
4.30. Use the algorithm given in Example 2.9 as a reference.

2. Pseudo-code in Example 2.9 above can be re-written using the

single- selection structure. Write the new pseudo-code. (Please use
another paper to write your answers for this question.)

2.4.3 Multi-selection

This is the last selection structure. In multi-selection we are allowed to choose

only one statement block from a number of blocks that exist. The number of
statement blocks depends on the number of conditions. If there are n conditions,
then there are n+1 statement blocks, because we have a last statement block that
is not tied to any of the conditions. In the general form below, the statement
blocks are from step q till r.

If <true condition1>
Start
step 1
step 2
⁄
step k
End_If1
If_Not
If<true condition2>
Start
step k+1
step k+2
⁄
step m
End_If2
⁄
⁄
If_Not
If<true condition h>

23
 Start

step n+1 step n+2

⁄
step p
End_If h
If_Not
step q
step q+1
⁄
step r
End_If_Not

Figure 2.9 shows the flow chart for the general structure of multi-selection.

Figure 2.9: Multi-selection structure flow chart

24
Let us consider the examples given.

Example 2.10
Input an integer number and determine whether that number
is negative, positive or zero. Print the results.

The algorithm for the example given above is:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Read integer N
3.0 If (N < 0)
4.0 Start.
4.1 Print „N is negative”
5.0 End_If1
6.0 If_Not
7.0 If (N > 0)
8.0 Start.
8.1 Print „N is positive”
9.0 End_If2
10.0 If_Not
11.0 Start.
11.1 Print „N is zero”
12.0 End_If_Not
13.0 End

Let us trace the example above. Let’s say the value of N is 7. Testing at step 3.0 will
be false because 7 is larger than 0. Step 4.0 till step 5.0 is ignored. Testing at step
7.0, when executed, the result is true. Therefore, it will print „N is positive”.

ACTIVITY 2.9

Try to trace for the value of 10 based on the algorithm above. What is the
printed result?

25
 Example 2.11
Input bus passenger age to determine the price of the tickets. If
the age of the passenger is 55 and above or between 6 to 12
years, then the ticket price is 50% of the normal ticket price. If
the passenger’s age is between 12 to 18 years, then the ticket
price is only 75% of the normal ticket price. It is free for
passengers less than 6 years.

From the question given, we can conclude that there are 5 groups of passengers:

Table 2.1: Summary of Example 2.11

Passenger Groups Ticket Price

Aged less than 6 years old (Age < 6) Free
Aged between 6 and 12 years old 50% of the normal ticket price
( 6 <= age <12 )
Aged between 12 and 18 years old 75% of the normal ticket price
( 12 <= age <18 )
Aged between 18 and 55 years old Normal ticket price
( 18 <= age <55 )
Aged more than 55 years old 50% of normal ticket price
( age >= 55 )

Figure 2.10 is a flow chart that shows a multi-selection structure. Trace Figure
2.10 and compare it with the conditions stated in Example 2.11. The flow chart is
as follows:

26
 Figure 2.10: Flow chart Example 2.11, multi-selection structure

2.5. Repetition Structure

Repetition structure is a structure where one block of statements is executed

repeatedly. This repetition concept has already been used in the algorithm
examples earlier by using English words such as until, repeat and others. In a
more formal algorithm, the concept of repetition is stated in a structure called a
loop. There are 3 main types of loops which are:

27
 Figure 2.11: Types of Loops

2.5.1 Counter controlled loop

The counter controlled loop is a loop that is managed by a loop controller

variable or otherwise known as a counter. The counter holds a value that
represents a count. This counter can be divided into three components:
1. Initial value for counter.
2. Condition to repeat the loop.
3. Updating the counter value.

For a loop controlling counter, the three components are put in special places,
such as:

for (counter=initial_value; test counter; update

counter)

start_for
step 1

}
step 2
: Loop Body
step n
End_for

At the beginning of the execution, the counter will be assigned initial_value.

Then the condition for repetition is tested. For an incrementing loop, the value of
the counter will always increase until the condition is false. Therefore normally,
the condition for repetition is the counter value which is always lesser or the
same as the last value that wants to be achieved.
28
If the counter value is still less than the last value, the step in the start_for-
end_for block, which is step 1 till n will be executed. This block is also known as
the loop body.

After the last step in the loop is executed, the value of the counter is updated
according to the increment that is stated. Notice however that the increment is
not necessarily by adding the counter by 1. The increment can be 2 or 3 times and
so on. After the counter has been updated, the test is done again and the
execution of the loop body repeats until the condition that is set on the counter is
no longer fulfilled.

The loop ends and the control will get out of the loop. The step after the end_for
will be executed. Figure 2.12 shows the general flow chart for the counter
controlled loop.

Figure 2.12: Flow chart for counter controlled loop

There are 2 types of counter controlled loops:

1. Loop with increasing counter
2. Loop with decreasing counter

Let us see each of the counter.

(a) Loop with increasing counter control

The loop with increasing counter control is the commonly found loop.
Usually the initial_value is a smaller value than the last value. The update is
made on the value by increasing the value of initial_value until the value is
the same as the end value and the test becomes false. Look at Example 2.12.

29
 Example 2.12

Algorithm is given as:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Set total = 0.
3.0 for (i = 1; i < 10; increase i by 2)
4.0 start_for
4.1 total ← total + ←
5.0 end_for
6.0 Report total value.
7.0 End

In example 2.12, the start_for - end_for block will be executed 5 times. Therefore,
we need to trace the algorithm above and see the table given below.

Table 2.2: Tracing Incrementing Loop

i i < 10 Total
0
1 True 1 ← (0+1)
3 ← (1+2) True 4 ← (1+3)
5 ← (3+2) True 9 ← (4+5)
7 ← (5+2) True 16 ← (9+7)
9 ← (7+2) True 25 ← (16+9)
11 ← (9+2) False 25

The loop will stop when the counter I is more than 10, which is when i’s value is
11. At that time the value of total is 25.

(b) Loop with decreasing counter control

Loop with decreasing counter control, is generally the same as the loop with
increasing counter control. The difference is:

1. The counter starts at a larger value and will decrease to a

smaller value according to the decrement rate stated.
2. The condition for repetition is > or >= the last value.
3. The initial_value must be a large number.

30
 You need to remember that the initial_value must be a large value. After
the last step is executed, the value of the counter will be decreased
according to the rate specified. Just as in the increasing counter control
loop, the rate is not necessarily 1. Look at the example 2.13:

Example 2.13

The algorithm is:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Set total = 0
3.0 For (i = 9; i >= 1; i decrement 2) start_for
3.1 total ← total + i
4.0 End_for
5.0 Report total
6.0 End

Notice that in step 3.0, the initial_value is a large number that will be decreased
by 2 to decrease its initial_value. Next is the tracing of the loop:

Table 2.3: Tracing

Decreasing

i> = 1 Total
0
9 True 9 ← (0+9)
7 ← (9-2) True 16 ← (9+7)
5 ← (7-2) True 21 ← (16+5)
3 ← (5-2) True 24 ← (21+3)
1 ← (3-2) True 25 ← (24+1)
-1 ← (1-2) False 25

The loop will stop when the condition is not fulfilled, that is when the value of i
is -1. At that instant, the total is 25. The end result of total in the example with the
increasing counter and the total in the example with the decreasing counter is the
same.

31
 ACTIVITY 2.10
What is the effect if i minus 2 is replaced by i plus 2 in the Example
2.13 algorithm in step 3.0? Why does that happen?

2.5.2 Condition controlled loop

Loops like these are controlled by true conditions. There are 2 types of general
loops controlled by conditions, which are:
1. Loops with conditions tested first.
2. Loops with conditions tested later.

(a) Loop with condition tested first

Where condition is tested first, and if it is true, the step in
start_until_end_until (step 1 until step n) will be executed. After the last
step in the block is executed, usually updates are done and the condition is
tested again.

Until condition True repetition statements in the loop body

False out of loop and execute step after end_until

The general form of a condition loop tested first is as follows:

Figure 2.13: General Form and Flow Chart of loop structure with condition tested
first

32
 Example 2.14

Consider the example:

1.0 Start.
2.0 Set total and counter to 0
3.0 Until counter < 5
4.0 Start.
4.1 counter ← counter + 1
4.2 total ← total + counter
5.0 End
6.0 Report total value
7.0 End

In the Example 2.14 above, the block start_until-end_until will be executed 5

times until the condition counter < 5 is false and the value of counter is 5. The last
value of total is 15. Consider the tracing of the loop below:

Table 2.4: Tracing of Loop with Condition Control

Counter < 5 Loop Counter Total
0 0
True (0<5) 1 1 ← (0+1) 1 ← (0+1)
True (1<5) 2 2 ← (1+1) 3 ← (1+2)
True (2<5) 3 3 ← (2+1) 6 ← (3+3)
True (3<5) 4 4 ← (3+1) 10 ← (6+4)
True (4<5) 5 5 ← (4+1) 15 ←
False (5<5) 5 (10+5)
15

(b) Condition tested later

For this loop, the steps in the loop will be executed first and the condition
will be tested later, that is when the statement until is reached. This means
the steps in start - end loop will be executed at least once. The Figure below
shows the flowchart for the condition controlled loop with the condition
tested later.

33
 Figure 2.14: General form and flow chart of loop structure with
condition tested later

Example 2.15
Consider the example for loops of this type:
1.0 Start.
2.0 Set total and counter to 0.
3.0 Start.
3.1 counter ← counter + 1.
3.2 total ←total
+ i.
4.0 End.
5.0 Until (counter less than 5).
6.0 Report total value
7.0 End.

End result of total is the same as the loop before this which is 15. Notice in
the tracing below, the number of tests for the condition in the condition
controlled loop for this form is one less than the condition in the condition
controlled loop in the form before this.

34
 Table 2.5: Tracing of Loop with Condition Control Tested Later
Counter < 5 Loop Counter Total
0 0
1 1 ← 1 ← (0+1)
True (1<5) 2 2(0+1) ← 3 ← (1+2)
True (2<5) 3 3(1+1) ← 6 ← (3+3)
True (3<5) 4 4(2+1) ← 10 ← (6+4)
True (4<5) 5 (3+1)
5 ← 15 ←
False (5<5) (4+1)
5 (10+5)
15

2.5.3 Sentry controlled loop

Loops of this type are actually subset loops controlled by condition. Sentry value
is a signal to stop the loop. Loops like these are also called un-certain loops
because the number of loop executions are not known before the execution starts.
Sentry value chosen must not be an input data that is valid. Consider the sentry
controlled loop in Example 2.15.

Example 2.15
Read 1 set of students’ marks where if the marks
are negative then the input ends. Calculate the
average marks.

Algorithm 2.15 (A):

1.0 Start
2.0 Set i to 1 and Total to 0
3.0 Read first mark, mi
4.0 Until mi > = 0
5.0 Start
5.1 Total ← total + mi
5.2i←i+1
5.3 Read i-th mark, mi
6.0 End
7.0 Average ← Total/(i - 1)
8.0 Print Average
9.0 End

35
In example 2.15, a negative mark input will end the loop because the test
condition (step 4.0) becomes false. In the example above, the number 999 can be a
sentry value because the maximum mark is 100. To make the number 999 as a
sentry value, the step 4.0 in the algorithm has to be changed to Until m!=999 that
is when the mark m! is 999, the statement becomes false and automatically comes
out of the loop.

ACTIVITY 2.11

For the algorithm Example 2.15 above, what if the negative value is a valid
data? Justify your answer.

Sentry value can also be of type character. We can change the example above and
use the character ‘t’ as a sentry value. Consider the changes made in algorithm B
below.

Algorithm 2.15 (B):

1.0 Start
2.0 Set i to 1 and Total to 0
3.0 Set continue as ‘y’
4.0 Until continue == ‘y’
5.0 Start
5.1 Read i-th mark, mi
5.2 Total ← Total + mi
5.3 i ← i+ 1
5.4 input ‘y’ to continue the operation or ‘n’ to
stop the operation
6.0 End
7.0 Average ← Total/(i - 1)
8.0 Print Average
9.0 End

Till now you have learnt three types of control structures. Rest and relax before
going on to the next Unit.

36
 2.5.4 Structuring

This method is used to solve problems by designing structure charts. Benefits of

using the structure chart can be listed as:
(i) Able to identify the number of modules or sub-problems that are
created by breaking up the problem
(ii) Able to give input that is needed by a module or sub-problem that
can be shown in the chart
(iii) Able to determine the output that is obtained from one module
that can be used in other modules

As an example, consider the problem statement given below.

(a) Problem
Solve the problem of calculating gross pay and net pay for workers that is
made up of basic pay and overtime pay. The normal working hours are 40
hours. The rate for working overtime is 2 times the normal rate. If the
worker’s pay exceeds 500 per week, a tax of 50 is deducted.
(b) Analysis
To calculate the pay, the information needed are the hours worked and the
hourly rate. The net pay of a worker can be obtained by deducting tax from
the pay if the pay exceeds 500.

(c) Data requirements

Permanent Information (Constant):
Taxable_Pay = 500.00
Tax = 50.00
Maximum_Hours = 40.0
Overtime_Rate = 2.0
Input:
Hours_Worked (float type)
Hourly_Rate (float type)
Output:
Gross_Pay (float type)
Net_Pay (float type)

37
 Relevant Formula:
Normal_Pay = Work_Hours x Hourly_Rate
Overtime_Pay = Overtime_Hours x Overtime_Rate x Hourly_Rate
Gross_Pay = Normal_Pay + Overtime_Pay
Net_Pay = Gross_Pay - Tax

(d) Design
Initial Algorithm:
1.0 Start
2.0 Read Hours_Worked and Hourly_Rate.
3.0 Calculate Gross_Pay.
4.0 Calculate Net_Pay.
5.0 Print Gross_Pay and Net_Pay.
6.0 End

The following Figure shows a structure chart of the problem.

Figure 2.15: Structure Chart to find net pay

problem

Step 3.0 and step 4.0 can be refined. Normally, our operation uses
refinement to get the calculated gross pay and net pay.

(e) Step 3
Refinement:
3.1 IF ( Hours_worked <= Maximum_hours)
3.1.1 Gross_Pay = Hours_worked x Hourly_Rate
3.2 End_IF
3.3 IF_Not
3.3.1 Gross_Pay = (Maximum_hours x Hourly_Rate) +
3.3.2 ((Hours_worked - Maximum_hours) x Ov e rt im e_Rate x
Hourly_Rate)
3.4 End_IF_Not
38
(f) Step 4
Refinement:
4.1 IF (Gross_Pay > Taxable_Pay)
4.1.1 Net_Pay = Gross_Pay - Tax
4.2 IF_Not
4.2.1 Net_Pay = Gross_Pay
4.3 End_IF_Not

Activity 2.12

1. Based on the problem given below, construct a flow chart.

(a) By inputting an integer number, generate a times-table (1 to
12) for that number. As an example, if the number input is 4,
then display the 4 times table.
(b) Input the values of length and width for a residential area in
m2. Also enter the values of length and width for the building
of a house in metres. Assume the difference of a grassy area
between them. Calculate the time needed to cut grass at the rate
of m2per second.

(Please use a separate sheet of paper to answer this question.)

2. Based on the problem given below, construct a pseudo-code.

(a) Given the radius, determine the area and circumference of a circle.
(b) You have been asked to input your name and then print it 5 times.

39
 (c) Construct a flow chart to determine your weight category. The
category determination is based on Body Mass Index (BMI).
BMI is the ratio of height in meters to body weight in
kilograms. The formula is given as:

Weight category is as follows:

CATEGORY BMI
Underweight less than 18.5
Normal 18.5 - 24.9
Overweight class 1 25.0 - 29.9
Obesity class 2a 30.0 - 34.9
Obesity class 2b 35.0 - 39.9
Obesity class 3 40.0 and above

(d) Create a pseudo-code for this problem. Accept 2 integer values as input,
let’s say 3 and 7. Print all the integer numbers between them, including those
two numbers. If the first number is smaller than the second number, then
print the numbers in ascending order. If otherwise, print the numbers in
descending order.

As an example: Input: 3 7
Output: 3 4 5 6 7

Input: 7 3
Output: 7 6 5 4 3

(Please use a separate sheet of paper to answer this

question.)

40
2.6. Summary

• Algorithm is a step-by-step problem-solving method in a limited time.

• Activities in the algorithm representation are represented by geometry
nodes. Each node represents different activities. These nodes will be joined
using arrows that show the flow or a sequential activity.
• Pseudo-code or false codes are instructions that mimic the programme code
(actual programme instructions).
• Input is all the information that is relevant, needed to execute a process.
• Output is the result that is needed.
• Selection structure is a structure design that gives a few choices during
execution.
• Single selection involves testing one condition only. The choice that is given
depends on whether the condition is met or not met.
• The dual-selection structure involves testing for two conditions. Choices that
are given are the same as single-selection that is whether the condition is met
or not met.
• In multi-selection we are allowed to choose only one statement block from a
number of blocks that exist. The number of statement blocks depends on the
number of conditions.
• Repetition structure is a structure where one block of statements is executed
repeatedly.

41
Unit 3 Programming Language

3.0. Introduction

In Units 1 and 2, you were exposed to an overview of the basics of programme

development. Let us continue exploring programming language in more detail.

To command a computer to do a task, the instruction that is given must be written

in the computer’s native language which is machine language. You might not have
heard the term machine language but continue reading and it will be explained and
discussed later.

Writing programmes in machine language is not an easy task for the programmer.
To overcome this problem, many different programming languages have been
created to enable instructions to be given in forms other than machine language.
These instructions need to be translated into machine language before they can be
run by a computer. This unit will give an explanation on the different types of
programming languages. Next, C language and its environment will be introduced.
At the end of this unit, one example of a simple C programme will be discussed.

3.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 differentiate the three different types of programming languages by
levels
 explain a little on the history of C language development
 describe the six phases that are involved in developing a programme in C

3.2 Programming Language Types

Programmers write programmes using programming languages. There are many

categories of programming languages. Programming languages that are most
popular and normally used are high-level languages. In this unit, we will see
different types of languages that are machine language, assembly language, and
high-level language.

46
 3.2.1 Machine language

Every computer has its own machine language that is its native language.
Programs written in machine language are normally stated in binary numbering
system (0 and 1) or in the hexadecimal numbering system. Every machine
language instruction will state the operation that is to be executed and the
memory cell that is involved for that operation.

3.2.2 Assembly language

The second level language is assembly language. Programming in machine

language was felt to be too difficult and slow. To make programming easier,
mnemonic language that resembles the English language is created and used to
represent operations in machine language. This is the basis of assembly language.
To run a programme in assembly language, a programme called the assembler is
used to interpret the programme to machine language.

ACTIVITY 3.1

Study an example of assembly language. Can you understand the language?

Can you list a few words in mnemonic language?

3.2.3 High level language

Do you know the other factors why writing programmes with machine
language and assembly language did not continue? Programmes written in
machine language or assembly language are machine-dependent. Assuming we
write a programme in assembly language for a particular computer and want to
run this program on another type of computer; it has to be written again in
assembly language for that computer. A language that is machine-independent is
needed to make it easier for programs to be transferred from one computer to
another. Many high level languages have been created for this reason. Using a
high-level language, a programmer would be able to write programs that are
simple and clear. For example, the following statement is written in C language
(which is one of the high-level languages) to code the example equivalent to the
one given earlier to calculate the sales amount.

amount = itemPrice + salesTax;

47
Compared to assembly language, the high-level language resembles the natural
language more and with that it is easier to read and understand.

Just like assembly language, a programme in high-level language needs to be

compiled into machine language before it can be executed. The process of
compilation is accomplished by the compiler programme. Some high-
level languages and their uses are listed in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1High-level
Languages

High-Level
Explanation
Languages
C A universal language that is usually used to write system
software or system applications.
C++ Extention from C that provides support for object-oriented
programming.
Ada Language that is developed for the Defence Department in
the United States for its real-time systems.
Lisp For artificial intelligence applications.
Pascal For teaching programming.
Fortran For scientific and engineering applications.
COBOL For processing business data.

ACTIVITY 3.2

1. Before we continue reading the next u nit, create a networked

mind map of the three levels of programming languages that you
have just read. Present that in your tutorial.
2. Give two advantages of writing programmes in C language
compared to machine language.

48
 3.2. Language

Let us look into the past to see the history of C Language in short.

The C language history has links with the existence of B and BCPL programming
languages. BCPL is a language that is used to write operating systems and
compilers developed by Martin Richards in the year 1967. In the 1970s, Ken
Thompson developed the B language that is used in developing the UNIX
operating system at Bell Laboratories. Based on B language, Dennis Ritchie
developed the C language at Bell Laboratories in 1972. This language was then
used to develop UNIX.

The C program development can be done on many computers as C language

does not depend on the machine or hardware. Through this portability feature,
programs that are written in C language would be able to be transferred to any
computer with minimal changes. Other than using important concepts in BCPL
and B, many different features like pointers are added into C to make it a strong
language. The other advantage of C is the wide usage and its high ability.

Due to the existence of many variations of C language, the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI) has created a standard C which is called ANSI C. This
standard enables us to write C programmes that are portable.

For more information on the history of C programming, visit the web site
http://syazwan.tripod.com/introc.htm or any other relevant sites.

3.3. C programming Environment

Generally, the C programming system is composed of its environment, its

language and standard library:

1. Environment : is related to the process it goes through to develop a

C programme that can be executed.

2. Language : refers to the aspect of syntax or the representation of

algorithms in C language.

49
3. C Standard Library : makes available the supporting functions that can be
reused in programme development. Among functions
that are available in the standard library are
mathematical functions like sin( ) and sqrt( ),
functions to do input and output, graphical
functions and others.

Figure 3.1 on the next page shows a C development environment. It shows six
phases that are involved in the process of developing a C programme that can be
executed that is:
• editing,
• pre-processing,
• compiling,
• linking,
• loading and
• executing.

Further explanation on each phase will give a focus on the development of

programs in the MS-DOS environment. For Windows operating system, the
environment can be created through the MS-DOS prompt icon.

50
 Figure 3.1: C Development Environment

Activity 3.3
Identify software that you can use to edit and compile programmes.

51
 3.4. Sample C Programme

Programme 3.1

/* This programme will print a greeting

Welcome to ZOU */ A

#include <stdio.h>
B

void main(void) {
printf(“Welcome to ZOU!\n”); C
}

This section will explain one easy C programme example (see Programme 3.1).
This programme will display the following output when executed:
Welcome to ZOU
The statement that is marked as A in Programme 3.1 is a comment to explain the
program’s meaning. Comments are any text that is surrounded by the symbols /*
and */. Comments are inserted to give information or explanation on the
program code. A programme can contain as many comments as needed and can
be put anywhere in the programme code. The comments are not compulsory in a
programme, but we are encouraged to put in comments so that programmes are
easily read and understood.
Statements that are marked as B in Programme 3.1 are said to be pre-
processor statements. Pre-processor statements are easily known because they start
with the symbol #. Here, pre-processor statements used are the #include statement.
When executed, the pre-processor will insert a copy of header file called
stdio.hinto the programme code at the given statement line. This statement is
needed in Programme 3.1 because the header file has the function declaration
printf(). We will see later how the programme will use the function to output
something.
Notice however that the file name stdio.h in the pre-processor statement is
surrounded by the symbol < and >. This is actually to let the pre-processor know
that the file is found in the usual place. This usual place is dependent on the
computer’s environment. For example, in the UNIX environment, the normal place is
stated in the file .profile. Whereas in the DOS mode, it is normally stated in the file
autoexec.bat.

52
The code that is marked as C in Programme 3.1 is a function definition. The
function that is defined in the program is called main() function. The main()
function is a special function that is the starting point in the execution of any C
program.

Notice that the function definition is made up of two parts. The first part is the
function head that provides specific information on the function that is defined;
for example, function name. The second part is the function body which is
statements enclosed in { and }. When a function is called, the statements within
the body will get executed. In the case of main() function in the program 3.1, the
body only contains one statement which is:

printf(“Welcome to ZOU!\n”);

This statement is the calling of the function printf() which is one of the
functions that is available in the C standard library functions. We can call this
function printf() if we need to output a string on the computer screen. In the
statement above, the string “Welcome to ZOU!\n” is passed to the
printf()function to be output.

The function will display every character in the string except the enclosing
double quotes (which is the character „) and the control character \n at the end of
the string. The double quotes are the markers for the start and end of the string.

The control character \n is called the new line character. When this character is
found in the printf(), function, it will move the cursor to the beginning of the next
line. The new line character is one of the many control characters in the printf()
function. Every control character will have a specific meaning in the functions
given.

ACTIVITY 3.4

In Unit 3.4, there were symbols which were used in programme 3.1. Can
you explain them briefly?

Symbols Explanation
/*.........*/
#include
{.........}
“\n”

53
 Activity 3.5

1. Write/edit programme 3.1 using notepad and save the file with
the name atur.c.
2. Compile the programme
3. Execute the programme
4. Compare the output.
5. Edit the programme by changing the
statement printf (“Zimbabwe Open
University”);
6. Edit the programme 3.1 so that the output below is displayed:

WELL
WELCO
ME
WELCOME TO
WELCOME TO ZOU
7. What does the following do in programming?

Assembly Language C Standard Library

Compiler Editor Environment
Linker Loader Machine Language

54
 3.5. Summary

• The machine language is the computer’s natural language. Programming in

machine language is in the binary format.
• Assembly language is a mnemonic language and is closer to the English
language to do operations and operands.
• High-level language is closer to natural language.
• A programme written in assembly language or high-level language has to
be translated into machine language before it can be executed.
• C Language is a high-level language.
• In the C environment, a program has to go through the following phases in
its development process that is editing, pre-processing, compiling, linking,
loading and executing.

55
Unit 4 Variables

4.0. Introduction
Before you read this unit further, how about interpreting the phase below:

“The best remedy is being diligent”

-Imam Ghazali

Now, let us pay full attention to this unit. When a composer composes a new
song, he/she will give a title to the song. Your parents spent some time choosing a
name for you. Similarly, when we write a programme we need to choose an
appropriate name for the file, variables, constants, functions and the rest. This
name is the identifier. The identifier is the official word used for any name in a
high-level programming language. In this unit, we will go into detail about
variables and how to name them.

4.1. Objectives

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 distinguish between variables, reserved words and standard identifiers
 differentiate between variables that are valid and invalid
 write syntax to declare and initialise variables

4.2. Variable Naming

Variables are an example of an identifier. It is used in certain programme blocks. It

is initialised before it can be used. To declare a variable, we need to associate a name
and the data type to represent a particular value.
Next, let us see how each of the characteristics above is applied in a programme.
Variables are named as an identifier that is declared by the user. This name has
to be:

56
• appropriate,
• easy to understand and
• give a clear meaning towards the value that it represents.
This name is used to name a memory area that will be used to keep the value of
the variable.

4.2.1 Rules to name a variable

There is a guideline in choosing a name for a variable in the C language which is:
1. Variable name can only contain letters, digits and underscores ‘_’.
2. Variable names cannot start with a digit (number).
3. Reserved words in C cannot be used as variable names.
Next, there are some examples of variable names that are valid.

tot3 big_Total _total BigTotal big_total

We can give variable names up to 31 characters. The 32nd character onwards will
not be taken into consideration (except global variable names that would not be
discussed in this text).
System identifiers usually start with the character ‘_’. There, we are not encouraged
to use the character ‘_’ as the beginning for identifiers (like _total) to avoid
confusion. Both lower case and capital letters can be used to name variables.
However, the C is case sensitive, where lower case letters are considered
different from capital letters. Observe that each of the variable names below is
different in C.

total ≠ Total ≠ toTAL ≠ TOtal ≠ toTal

57
 The best way to name a variable is with a name that represents the value that is
kept in the identifier. Therefore, sometimes a variable name can be made up of
two words or more. We cannot separate the words with spaces. This is because it
is against the first rule in naming identifiers. Identifiers that have a space in
between are not valid.

For identifiers that have two or more words, we can join them with a ‘_’
character (like big_total). Nevertheless, the usual practice is to write it as:
• Start with the first word being a lower case letter
• Start the second word with an upper case letter.

Therefore, the identifier above is better written as bigTotal.

4.2.2 C reserved words and standard identifiers

Reserved words are words that have special meanings in C and cannot be used
for other reasons. All reserved words come in lower case letters.

Just like reserved words, standard identifiers also have special meanings in C. In
the sample programs that you have seen before, standard identifier printf is an
operational name that is declared in the stdio.h library. Standard identifiers can
be re-declared and used by the programmer for other reasons which is not so for
reserved words. However, after re-declaring for another reason, the standard
identifier cannot be used for its original use.

ACTIVITY 4.1

So far, you have been introduced to variables, reserved words and standard
identifiers. Can you think of the differences among them?

The following identifiers are not valid. State why each of them is not valid.
Identifier Reason
(a) 2001SeaGames
(b) SEA GAMES
(c) %passes
(d) width+height
(e) double

58
 4.3. Variable Types

Variables can represent different types of data. Data types that are used will
determine the variable type. Consider Table 4.1 below. These data types are
usually used in C programmes.

Table 4.1: Basic Variable Types

Declaration Type
Char Character
Int Integer
Float Real numbers
Double Real numbers with high precision

When a variable has a certain data type, it means that the variable can only
represent data of that type. For example, a variable of type integer, C assumes
that only whole numbers can be used to represent those values.

There are also extended data types that use a qualifier. Unsigned, signed,
short, long, unsigned short, signed short, unsigned long and
signed longare qualifiers that exist in C.

4.4. Variable Declarations

Variables can be used to keep input data and the calculation results or logic
manipulations. Values that are kept by variables can change throughout
programme execution.

The declaration of a variable is as follows.

Syntax:

data_type variable_name;

Next are some examples of variable declarations:

Table 4.2: Variables Declaration
Data Types Variable Names
Int marks1, marks2, marks3, marks4;
double averageMarks;
char grade;

59
When declaring variables, the compiler will be notified of four items:
1. Variable name
2. Variable type
3. Size of cell of variable in the memory
4. Variable storage class

Different variables are used to keep different types of data. Therefore, in the
variable declaration, it has to be mentioned what data type the variable will
contain. In the example above, identifier marks1, marks2, marks3 and
marks4 are declared as type int, identifier averageMarks is of type double and
identifier grade is of type char. Notice in the example above, a few variables of the
same type can be declared in a group by separating the names of variables with a
comma.

Cell sizes will be discussed in the next Unit. However, storage classes will not be
taught in this course.

Activity 4.2
State whether the variables given are valid or invalid.

Variable VALID or INVALID

(a) Address2
(b) 33road
(c) _empty

4.5.Variable Assignment
We can assign values to a variable by using the following statement:

variable = value;

Consider the next example:

/* 1 */ int number1, number2, multipliedNumber;

/* 2 */ number1 = 10;
/* 3 */ number2 = 25;
/* 4 */ multipliedNumber = number1 * number2;

60
61
 Activity 4.3

1. Given a programme code segment below, what is the value of

the variable marks after all the statements have been executed?
int marks; marks = 10; marks = 20; marks = 30;

2. Sketch the memory cell of the programme code segment below.

int num, newValue

num = 9;
newValue = num;
newValue = -num;

3. State whether the variables below are valid. If not valid, state
the reason.

(a) tot_Credit_Hours (c) current_bill

(b) _car_tyres_types (d) 8_8_88

4. State which of the identifiers below are (a) C reserved words

(b) standard identifier, (c) other valid identifier and (d) invalid
identifier.

(a) void (d) printf

(b) MAXIMUM_BIL (e) xyz123
(c) double (f) char

62
 4.6. Summary

• Variables are used to keep data temporarily in memory.

• Variables have characteristics such as name, type and they are used to
represent a value.
• Variables are named as an identifier that is declared by the user.
• Variables can represent different types of data.
• Variables can be used to keep input data and the calculation results or logic
manipulations.

63
Unit 5 Data Types

ES

5.0. Introduction
We have seen two types of input and output data. One is of character type, for
example, your name and another that is of the numeric type for example, your age.
Data of character type. is represented by char data type. Numeric data is
represented by data types int, float or double.

5.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 state the cell size and range for a particular data
 differentiate 3 types of data
 choose the type of data that is suitable for the variable depending on the type
of value to be represented

5.2. Cell Sizes and Qualifiers

Bytes is the unit for cell sizes. Variables are assigned cell sizes or memory spaces
that are different according to their data type. Variables of int type are given a
cell size of 2 bytes that can keep numbers up to a maximum of 32767that is a
range of -32 768 to 32 767.

Variables of float type are also assigned memory cell size of 4 bytes and can
keep larger numbers up to 1038.

Let us see an example of initialising variables and memory cell sizes assigned for
each declaration in Table 5.1 below.

64
 Table 5.1: Relationship Declaration, Variables and Total bytes
Declaration Memory Total Bytes
int age; age 2 bytes
float height; height 4 bytes
long int multiples; multiples 4 bytes

The size of the memory cell can double by using the qualifier longin a variable.
See the example above.

5.3. Integer Data Type (int)

Int data type is to represent negative or positive numbers. For example - 77, 0,
999, +999. T h e memory cell size for int types differs according to different
computer systems. In the computers family of 80386 processors and below, the
memory cell size for int is 2 bytes. For processors like SPARC, the cell sizes for
int is 4 bytes.

5.4. Character Data (char)

Char data type is used to represent characters like letters, digits, or special
symbols like ‘?’.
To assign a character to a variable, we need to put single quotes as in: ‘ ‘ for
example: ‘A’, ‘z’, ‘3’, ‘?’.
A character can be read, printed and changed to an integer value. We can also do
character value comparisons by using operators like equal (==) or not equal (!=),
and relational operators like <, <=, > and >=. To understand how character
values can be compared, we need to know how each character is represented in a
computer. Each character has its own numeric code that is unique, using the
ASCII Codes (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
If you want to know more about ASCII codes, visit websites that are relevant.
Binary representation of this code is kept in the memory cell and the values can be
known. The binary numbers can be compared by using relational operators just
like comparing normal numbers. Character code usually used is ASCII code.
Character value range that can be represented by char type is between -128 to 128.

65
 5.5. Real Data Type

ANSI C (American National Standards Institute) describes three types of data types
that can be used for manipulating real data types:
1. float
2. double
3. long double

All types above can keep real values like 0.001, 2.0 and 3.14159. Choice is made
depending on which range of real values are to be represented. Table 5.2 below
shows the range and number of bytes that are needed for each of the real type
numbers.

Table 5.2: Real Data Type

Real Data Type Number of Bytes Precision Range

Float 4 6 10-37 .. 1038
Double 8 15 10-307 .. 10308
long double 16 19 10-4931 .. 104932

However, on some computer systems, implementation of doubleand long double

is the same for the number of bytes allocated.

66
ACTIVITY 5.1

1. There are three types of basic data types that can be stated till now,
which are: int, char and float. char can
contain letters, digits and symbols. Why do we still need int and
float when char can contain all types of characters? Give your opinion.

2. How many real types are there? List them.

3. Given the declaration below, how many bytes are assigned to
each data type?

Variable Declaration Bytes used

float weight;
double volt1;
char letter;
Int hour, minute;
long int second, length;
long double volt2;

4. State the data type that is suitable for each of the values below so
that memory space wastage does not happen:

(a)(d) 0.000067 123.123456789

(b)(e) # -40000
(c)(f) 30000 1000000

67
 1

5.6. Summary

• Cell sizes that are allocated for one variable is dependent on the data type
declared for it.
• Before determining the data type that is suitable, you have to observe all the
possible values that can be taken by a variable.
• Int data type is to represent negative or positive numbers.
• Char data type is used to represent characters like letters, digits, or special
symbols like ‘?’.
• ANSI C (American National Standards Institute) describes three types of data
types that can be used for manipulating real data types: float, double and long
double

68
Blank page
 Unit 6 Constants

OUTCOME

6.0.Introduction
Constants are fixed values that cannot change throughout the execution of the
program. Constants can be categorised into many types following its data type,
which is integer constant, real constant, character constant or string constant.
This unit will help you identify each constant more clearly.

6.1.Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify four types of constants that exist in C language
 differentiate four types of constants by its writing

6.2.Integer Constant

Integer constant refers to a value (integer number) that is fixed. There are a few
types of integer constants. It is divided by the number system that is used like
decimal, octal or hexadecimal systems.

Example:
Decimal : 0 2 99
Octal : 0 7 74
Hexadecimal : 0X 0X1 0X7A

69
 Activity 6.1

Change the exponent numbers to decimal numbers.

Exponent Numbers Decimal Numbers

(a) 10300e-2
(b) 1.23456e+6
(c) 123.45e+3

6.3.Real Constants

Real constants take their value just like real values in the number system. Float
dot notation or exponent notation, or both can represent real constants. A suffix
is added to the floating-point constant to specifically state the type. The floating-
point constant that does not have a suffix is categorised as type double. See the
examples in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Real Constants

Suffix Data Type Example
for F Float long 3.7F
lor L double 3.7L

Exponent notation for real constants can be written as 1.234567e5. This is the
same as the scientific notation 1.234567 x 105. The value is the same in this
equation:

1.234567 x 105 =1.234567 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10

=1.234567 x 100000
=123456.7 (floating point has moved to
the right 5 times)

A floating-point constant number can be made up of 4 parts. Let us see the

example in Figure 6.1:

70
 Floating point constant like 333.77777e-22.

333 . 77777 e - 22

Integer Floating Point Divisor Exponent

Figure 6.1: Four parts of floating-point constant

If floating point exists, the integer part, or divisor or both, must exist. If there is
no floating point, both the integer part and exponent must exist. Both ‘e’ or
‘E’ can be accepted as a sign of an exponent. Here are some examples of valid
floating-point constants. For example:

3.14159
-3.14159 (negative value)
314.159e-2F (floattype)
0e0 (same value as 0.0)
1. (same value as 1.0, but more difficult to read)

Activity 6.2

1. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

Decimal Numbers Scientific Notation

(a) 1300
(b) 123.45
(c) 0.00426

69
 2. Give reasons why the real constants below are invalid.

Constant Reasons Why Invalid

(a) 3.14,129
(b) 314159
(c) 2E1.5
(d) 3E 12
(e) .e0

6.4.Character Constant

The character constant is quite unique because it must be surrounded by single

quotes. For example:

‘A’ ‘z’ ‘?’ ‘5’

Character constants have certain integer values that is determined by character

code or coding system that is used by a computer. Most computers use ASCII
code representation to represent its characters. For example: character ‘A’ is
valued at 65 in ASCII representation.

Do you know that some characters can be expressed as an escape sequence

character? Well, this sequence starts with the symbol ‘\’ and is followed by at
least one character. The character ‘\’ is an escape character. Therefore, we can
assume the escape sequence character ‘\n’ as meaning, escaped the normal
meaning for n”.

Table 6.2: Escape Sequence Characters for ASCII

Escape Sequence Meaning

'\a' Bell
'\b' backspace

70
 '\f' form feed
'\n' newline
'\r' carriage return
'\t' Tab
'\v' vertical tab
'\\' \
'\'' '
'\”' “
'\055' Octal character value 055
'\xA9' Hexadecimal character value 0xA9
'\0' Null character

6.5.String Constant
In C language, string constants are made up of some characters surrounded by
double quotes. Below are some examples of string constants. For example:

“ZOU” “Information Technology” “X”

““ “1, Jln TTS 4/6, TTS” “123”

Any strings (including spaces) in between double quotes are a character array.
Arrays that have only numerical digits are not a number but are numeric digit
arrays where no arithmetic operation can be done on it.

Double quotes only surround the array. They are not part of the array. Each string
constant will have a null character (written as ‘\0’) automatically by the C compiler as
an end of the character array. An example of the array “ZOU”is actually “ZOU
\0”. The length of a character array is the number of characters in the array plus a
null character. Therefore, the length of the character array “ZOU” is 4.

Because the character array has an end character, therefore a character array for a
character is not the same as a character constant. For example, the character array
“A”is not the same as the character constant ‘A’because “A”is the combination of a
character constant ‘A’and ‘\0’.

71
ACTIVITY 6.3

1. For each value below, state if it is a valid constant. If valid, state

the type of constant. If invalid, state the reason.
(a) 1234567 (d) ‘a/n’
(b) \t (e) 0Xabc
(c) “Z\0”

2. Which one of the answers below is a valid integer, double, float, char
or string constant? For every valid constant, state the data type.
(d)(a) 15 .123F
(e)(b) ‘XYZ’ ‘x’
“X”(c) ‘*’ (f)

72
 6.6.Summary

• Constants include many types of constants such as integer and fixed point
constants, character constants such as ‘A’and character array constants such as
“ABC”.
• Character constant and character array (string) constant are different.
• Integer constant refers to a value (integer number) that is fixed.
• Real constants take their value just like real values in the number system.
Float dot notation or exponent notation, or both can represent real constants.
• The character constant is quite unique because it must be surrounded by
single quotes.
• String constants are made up of some characters surrounded by double
quotes.

73
Blank page
Unit 7 Input and Output

7.0. Introduction
We have looked at some output functions in previous units. These functions
send data to the output device (usually the computer screen) using the formats that
are given. Technically, printf() and scanf() functions are not part of C language,
but is part of the C system. Both these functions exist in the C library and are
kept together with C system. Even though the object code for the functions are
made available by C system, it is your responsibility as a programmer to declare
this function when you want to use it in your programme.

ANSI C has introduced a new way to declare embedded functions. It is called

function prototypes. Function prototypes for functions that are embedded in the C
standard library can be found in the header files. Function prototypes for the
functions printf() and scanf() are found in the header file stdio.h. In the code
examples in this Unit, we will see how the header file stdio.his inserted.

7.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 use the function printf() to produce output data to the screen using a
particular format
 use the function scanf() to produce input data from the keyboard
using a particular format
7.2. display output according to programme segmentsPrintf() Function

As it is translated, the function printf()is sometimes known as a function to print.

We need to remember that printing here means printing to the computer screen
and not to the printer.
printf() function format is:

printf(output_format [, value_list]);

output_format: an array that will determine the form of the output depending on
the value list.
value_list: can be made up of variables, constants, statements or
combinations.

76
 7.2.1 Printing strings

Data that is easiest to print or output is a string. We just need to write the string
that needs to be printed as the output_format in the printf()function. The string
will print as we have written it. As an example:

printf(“Welcome to ZOU class.”);

will produce the output as below on the screen.

Welcome to ZOU class.

Notice that all the characters in the double quotes „ “ are printed including the
spaces.

printf() function does not execute a new line command automatically. This means
that the cursor placed on the screen will be at the end of the last character of the
sentence printed.

The next printf() statement will be printed starting from the cursor
placement earlier. Therefore, an escape sequence ‘\n’ is put at the end of the
statement if the cursor is to be on a new line.

Other than the escape sequence ‘\n’ there are other characters that can be used in the
string output_formats as given in Table 7.1.

77
 Table 7.1: Escape Sequence Characters in Output Format
Escape Sequence Meaning
'\a' Bell
'\b' Backspace
'\f' form feed
'\n' new line
'\r' carriage return
'\t' Tab
'\v' vertical tab
'\\' \
'\'' '
'\”' “
'\055' Octal character value 055
'\xA9' Hexadecimal character value 0xA9
'\0' Null character

Activity 7.1

1. Write a simple programme that has the statements below:

printf(“Line 1”);
printf(“Line 2”);

What is the output?

2. Add „\n” to the first statement:

printf(“Line 1\n”);
printf(“Line 2”);

3. Write the output to the segment code below:

printf(“Line 1\n Line 2\n\n”);
printf(“Line 3\n”);

78
 7.2.2 Printing values

If a printf()function call has a list of values to be printed, then the

output_format must use the specifications for those values. Consider the
specification list given in Table 7.2 below:

Table 7.2: Output Specification List

Specification Meaning
%s Output a string
%c Output a character
%d Output an integer
%f Output float/double
%e Output float/doubleusing scientific notation

Next, we will see how to use the output specification one-by-one.

(a) %sspecification
Assume NAME is a string variable that can be assigned the value Peter
Moyo. Consider how the specification %s interprets the variable to output in
Program 7.1.

Program 7.1
/* Prints name */
#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
char name[] = “Peter Moyo”;

printf(“%s”, name);

Do you know what will the output be? Yes, the output will be:

Peter Moyo

The variable name will be compared to the specification %s and then

output.

79
(b) %c specification
Now, let us look at the %c specification. Do you know the use of this
specification? This specification will be compared to the character value that
will be printed. Study Figure 7.1 to understand this concept.

Figure 7.1: How %c specification work

Every character constant will be compared with the specification sequence

and output. The value list can also be a list of variables. The same
comparison can be made.

character1 = ‘U’;
character2 = ‘N’;
character3 = ‘I’;
character4 = ‘T’;
character5 = ‘E’;
character6 = ‘M’;
printf(“%c %c %c %c %c %c “,character1,
character2, character3, character4, character5,
character6);

(c) %d and %f specification

When we want to print a numeric value, we have to use the output
specification that is suitable to the type of value. Specification %d is used to
print integer values whereas %f specification is used to print real numbers.
Program 7.2 below shows how to print integer and real numbers.

80
 Programme 7.2

/* Printing integer and real values */

#include <stdio.h>
void main(){
int value1;
float value2;
value1 = 10;
value2 = 5.55;

printf(“First value = %d\n”, value1);

printf(“Second value = %f\n”, value1 –value2);

At the second printf() function call, the statement value1 – value2 will be
evaluated first and the result is 4.45. This value will fit the %f specification in
the string given. Because the float data type has a precision of 6, therefore the
output obtained is in precision of 6 decimal spaces. The output displayed is as
follows:

First value = 10
Second value = 4.450000

Output specification can be combined into one printf() statement. See relevant web
sites on how this can be done.

81
ACTIVITY 7.2

Activity 7.2
1. Write and compile the computer programme below:

/* Programme with specification combination output */

#include <stdio.h>

void main () {
char name[] = “Peter Moyo”;
int age = 20;
float height = 1.53;

printf(“%s %s %s\n”, “Name”, “Age”, “Height”);

printf(“%s %s %s\n\n”, “~~~~~~~~~~~~”,
“~~~~~~~~~~”, “~~~~~~~~~~”);
printf(“%s %d %f\n”, name, age, height);
}

2. Replace the printf()statement with the following, and execute the

programme:
printf(“%15s %10s %10s\n”, “Name”, “Age”,
“Height”); printf(“%15s %10s
%10s\n\n”, “~~~~~~~~~~~~”,
“~~~~~~~~~~”, “~~~~~~~~~~”);
Printf (“%15s %10d %10.2f\n”, name, age, height);

3. Given the declaration statement below:

int count = 5;
float tot = 10.5;
printf(“\n%s%5d\n%s%12f\n\n”, “Calculation:”, count, “
Total:”, tot);
What is printed?
4. What is the output produced by the following statements?

(a) printf(“*\t***\t*****\n”);
(b) printf(“*\b***\n*****\n”);
(c) printf(“*\r***\n*****\n”);

82
 5. Given the following declaration:
int i;
char c;
Write the output that will be produced by each of the printf()
statements below:
i = 36;
c = 64;
printf(“%d %c\n”, i, c);
printf(“%c %d\n”, i, c);

7.3. The Scanf() Function

ACTIVITY 7.3

1. printf()function is frequently used with the scanf() function. Where are the
two function used?

In this section, we will see how to receive input with the scanf() function. This
function allows us to interact with the written programme. Input is from the
keyboard.

What happens here is that the value that is input will be matched to the variable
based on the formats given. Next, the value represented by the variable will be
used in the programme and usually produces output. Let us take a look at the
general form for scanf()function:

scanf(input_format [,variable_list]);

scanf() function needs the input_format which is a string that will determine the
form of input string. This string is similar to the output_format in the printf()
function.

83
 7.3.1 Variable input

For basic variable (integer, real and character) input, we need to list the address
location for the variables. The address location stated here uses the & operator for
list variables. The following statement:
scanf(“%c%d”, &character, &num);
will read two inputs. Assume character and numare variables of type char and int
respectively. The first input is a character value that will be kept in the
memory location called character. The second input is an integer value that is
kept in the memory location for variable num.

Programme 7.3
/* Programme to modify date format */
#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int day, month, year;
scanf(“%d %d %d”, &day, &month, &year);
printf(“Day:%d, Month: %d, Year: %d”, day, month, year);
}

Observe programme 7.3 above. When the programme is executed, it will wait for
us to enter a value for day, month and year.

Assume the input entered is:

11 9 2001

Then the printf() statement will print the output as follows:

Day: 11, Month: 9, Year: 2001

One main problem in the programme above is that the programmer assumes
that the user of the programme knows what the values to be entered are.
Normally, when writing programmes, we will display a suitable message to
inform the user of the type of values to enter.

84
Activity 7.4

1. Write, compile and execute the programme which will input 3

name initials and age.

/* Programme to input 3 name initials and age */

#include <stdio.h>
void main () {
char name1, name2, name3;
int age;
printf(“Enter three characters that represent your name’s
initials”);
scanf(“%c%c%c”, &name1, &name2, &name3);
printf(“Enter your age “);
scanf(“%d”, &age);
printf(“Hello %c.%c.%c”,name1,name2,name3);
printf(“Next year your age will be %d”,age+1);
}
2. If the data input is as follows:
ANSI C?

what is the output of the statements below?

char a, b, c, d, e, f;
scanf(“%c%c%c%c%c%c”, &a, &b, &c, &d, &e, &f);
printf(“%c%c%c%c%c%c”, a, b, c, d, e, f);
printf(“%c%c%c%c%c%c”, a, b, c, d, f, e);

85
 7.4. Summary

• The function printf() is sometimes known as a function to print on the

computer screen.
• Data that is easiest to print or output is a string.
• If a printf() function call has a list of values to be printed, then the
output_format must use the specifications for those values.
• %c specification will be compared to the character value that will be printed.
• Specification %d is used to print integer values whereas %f specification is
used to print real numbers.
• Scanf() function allows us to interact with the written programme. Input is
from the keyboard.

86
Blank page
Unit 8 Operators and Expressions

8.0.Introduction
When you studied mathematics in secondary school, you saw symbols like +, -, x,
<, > etc. These symbols are used to manipulate data. These symbols are known as
operators. Before we write programs that are more complex, it would be good to
remember some symbols to manipulate the data. In C language, there are many
types of operators. There are arithmetic operators, relational operators, logic
operators, increment and decrement operators cast operator and conditional
operator. This chapter will explain in detail about these operators.

8.1.Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 write appropriate statements using 5 types of operators
 write arithmetic expressions using C syntax
 evaluate expressions to be used in single, double or compound
assignment statements

8.2.Basic Arithmetic Operators

To enable our programmes to do arithmetic calculations, we need arithmetic

operators. Basic arithmetic operator concepts in C language are the same as the
arithmetic operators that were learnt in mathematics in school. Table 8.1 below
shows the operator symbols and examples of basic arithmetic operations in C.

87
 Table 8.1: Operator Symbols and Examples of Basic C Arithmetic Operations
Symbol Meaning Expression Result
+ Add 25 + 8 33
- Minus 120 – 64 56
* Multiply 3*7 21
/ Divide 66 / 6 11
% Modulus 66 % 6 0

Most of the symbols above behave in the same way as normal arithmetic operators.
Addition, Minus, Multiply and a few cases of Division operator would give the same
result as normal arithmetic operators.

Therefore, the addition, minus and multiply operators will not be discussed in detail.
Please recall the basic concepts of addition, subtraction and multiplication from your
mathematics subject.

Please note that the symbol used in the multiplication operation is * and not x. The

division operator in C is quite different from the normal division operation.

There are two types of division operators, which are the integer division and the
real division. Both types of division use the same operation symbol which is /.
However, the operands differentiate the type of division.

(a) Integer division

Integer division happens when both the operands are of integer type.
Operands can be a constant or a variable. Study the section below:

8/2 /* constant divide constant */

98 / value /* constant divide variable,
value must be of int type */
total / 3 /* variable divide constant,
total must be of int type */
total / count /* variable divide variable,
total and count must be of int type */

Division result of both the operands is determined. If the division is not a round
number (that is it has a decimal value), therefore the remainder of the division
is ignored. The result is truncated to an integer value. Consider the example
given in Table 8.2 below:

88
 Table 8.2: Integer Division Operation Example
Operation Calculated Result Result
64 / 8 8 8
12 / 5 2 remainder 2 2
25 / 3 8 remainder 1 8

(b) Real division

Real division is done when one or both of the operands have a real value.
Division operation done is the same as normal arithmetic division. The result
of the division is a real value.

Table 8.3: Real Division Operation Example

Operation Result
5 / 2.5 2.0
5.5 / 2.0 2.75
5.0 / 10 0.5

Observe Table 8.3 above. In the first example, immediately we get the division value
to be 2. Because the division is a real division (one of the operands is a real number),
therefore the result of the division has to be written as a real number 2.0.

Activity 8.1

For each question below, choose the right answer.

1. Consider the programme segment below:

int result;
result = 15 / 4;

Which one of the answers given below would keep the value of result?
A) 3 C) 3.7
B) 3.0 D) 3.75

2. Consider the programme code segment below:

printf(“%.0f”, 15 / 4);

Which one of the answers below would be displayed?

89
 A) 3 C) 3.7
B) 3.0 D) None of the above

3. Consider the programme segment below:

printf(“%.1f”, 15 / 4.0);

Which one of the answers below would be displayed?

A) 3.0 C) 3.75
B) 4.0 D) None of the above

Modulus operation would have the result of the remainder of the integer division. The
symbol used for this operation is %. Both the operands in this operation must be
integer operands.

Table 8.4 shows the modulus operation example.

Table 8.4: Modulus Operation Example

Operation Calculated Result Result
5%3 1 remainder 2 2
7%2 3 remainder 1 1
12 % 2 6 remainder 0 0

Activity 8.2

1. Consider the programme segment below:

printf(“%d”,15%4);

Which one of the following below would be displayed?

A) 3 C) 3.7
B) 3.0 D) None of the above

90
 8.3.Arithmetic Expressions
C arithmetic expressions are a combination of one or more arithmetic operations.
These arithmetic expressions can represent algebra expressions. Below are a few
examples of arithmetic expressions in C language.

5+6
14 * 5 * 2
21 - 6 + 7 * 4 / 2
7.5 * (2.0 - 4.52)

Before we can write algebra expressions in C arithmetic expression form, we

need to know how the arithmetic expression is calculated. The most important thing in
evaluating arithmetic expressions is the precedence level.

8.3.1 Precedence level

Precedence level of C arithmetic expressions would determine the arithmetic operation

sequence in solving the problem. For the 5 basic arithmetic operations that we have
seen, the precedence level is as in Table 8.5 below:

Table 8.5: Operator Precedence Levels

Precedence Operation
High *, /, %
Low +, -

Arithmetic expressions are evaluated according to the precedence levels above. The
operators at the high precedence level will be evaluated first. Look at the example
below:

3 + 10/3

3 + 3

91
Operator / has a higher precedence level, therefore it is evaluated first. The result from
10/3division would be the operand for the addition operation and the result is 6.

ACTIVITY 8.3

What if the precedence levels are the same?

10 % 6 * 3

If you do not want the arithmetic expression evaluated using the precedence levels,
we need to write the expression using brackets. Expressions in the brackets would
be evaluated first.

To ensure the operator with a lower precedence is executed first, the solution is to use
brackets (). For example:

(12 - 6)*4
= 6 *4
= 24

ACTIVITY8.4

What about the case below? Can you show the steps?
(9 - (3 + 2)) * 3

8.3.2 Writing arithmetic expressions in C

When we write normal arithmetic expressions (algebra expressions) in the form of

C arithmetic expression, we need to be careful on the precedence levels. If there is a
mistake, the result of the evaluation might not be what we want. Consider the
algebra expression example in Table 8.6 written in C arithmetic expression.

92
 Table 8.6: Changing Algebra Expression to C Expression

Algebraic Expression C Arithmetic Expression

14 – 5 + 6 14 – 5 + 6
16 – 8 16-8/2
2
15+5+7 (15+5+7)/2
2

In order to avoid confusion in writing C arithmetic expressions, we use brackets. In

the third example in Table 8.6, if C arithmetic expression is written without
brackets (that is as 15 + 5 + 7 / 2), the result will be
different from the original expression. This expression will be evaluated as:

7
15+5 +
2

ACTIVITY 8.5

Given the algebra expression below:

1
1 + X2

which of these is the equivalent C arithmetic expression?

A) 1/1+x*x C) 1/(1+x*x
B) 1/1+(x*x) D) 1/(1+x)*
)

93
 8.4.Assignment Statement (=)

8.4.1 Expression assignment statement

Previously, we have been introduced to assignment statements with values.

Assignment statements can also be used with expressions.

variable = expression;

The expression part of the assignment statement is an arithmetic expression or logic

expression (will be discussed later). The computer will execute this expression (on the
right) and the value is assigned to the variable (on the left). Expression is not
necessarily a constant only. It can be a combination of variables and constants.
Expressions should be able to be calculated. This means that if a variable is used, that
variable should be assigned a value before used in an expression. Consider example
Programme 8.1 below:

Programme 8.1

/* Calculate body weight index */

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {

float weight, height, bodyweightIndex;

weight = 55.5; /* value assignment */

height = 1.55; /* value assignment */

bodyweightIndex = weight /(height * height);

/* expression assignment */

printf(“Your body weight index is %.2f\n”, bodyweightIndex);

Activity 8.6 }

94
 ACTIVITY 8.6

Using your computer,

1. Write, compile and execute Programme 8.1.

2. Change Programme 8.1 by allowing the use to input the weight and
height values.

8.4.2 Multiple expression assignment statement

In C assignment statements, other than variables and constants, expressions can also be
other expressions. This means we can do several assignment statements in one
statement just like:

a = b = c = 40;

Observe the example above. Remember that any assignment statement will solve the
expression on the right and assign the value of the expression to the variable on the
left. Look at how the statements are worked out:

x = y = (z = 10) /* assign value 10 to variable z */

x = (y = (z = 10)) /* expression z = 10 will have value 10. This value will

be assigned to y so that y is 10 */

(x = (y = (z = 10))) /* expression value y=z=10 will be assigned to x so that x is

10*/

Multiple statements are useful when we want to give initial values to some
variables that are newly declared, that is before they are used. Using the multiple
expression statements, we do not have to write one assignment statement for every
variable. This will reduce the lines of the programme code.

The example below shows the variable age and numOfSiblings assigned the initial
value of 0in one multiple expression. The same would be for the variable weightand
95
heightassigned initial value of 0.0in one multiple expression.

int age, numOfSiblings;

float weight, height;

/* giving initial values to variables */

age = numOfSiblings = 0;
weight = height = 0.0;

ACTIVITY 8.7

Which of these values would be the value assigned to y by the

following statements:
float x, y;

y = x = 10.0*2

A) 10.000000 C) 20.000000
B) 20 D) none of the above

8.4.3 Compound assignment statement

In writing programs, sometimes we would like to modify a variable’s value,

where the variable’s original value is added to or multiplied by another value and is
assigned back to the original variable. It is normally written as:

weight = weight + 1.5;

If the value of weight originally is 45, the expression on the right (weight + 1.5) will
result in the value 46.5(see (1) in Diagram 8.1). This value is assigned to the variable
weight (see (2)). It means that the original weight (45) will be replaced with the new
value which is 46.5(see state after (2)).

96
 Figure 8.1: Compound statement calculation process [weight=weight+ 1.5]

In C, statements like this can be written using compound operators. Table 8.7
below shows compound operators.

Table 8.7: Compound Operators Example

Operator Example Meaning
+= cnt += 5; cnt = cnt + 5;
-= cnt -= 5; cnt = cnt - 5;
*= cnt *= 5; cnt = cnt * 5;
/= cnt /= 5; cnt = cnt / 5;
%= cnt %= 5; cnt = cnt % 5;

Precedence level for the compound operators is the lowest. This means that this
operator will be evaluated last of all while solving some expressions. Observe the
statement below:

points +=currentPoints + bonus * currentPoints;

Based on the precedence level, the statement above is solved in this manner:

points + = currentP oints + bonus + currentP oints;

⇔ points = points + currentPoints + (bonus * currentPoints)

97
 ACTIVITY 8.8

Assume that x has the value of 1 0 . 0 . What is the value that is assigned to x after
the statement below is executed?
x = x - 20.0;
A) -10 B) -10.0
C) -20 D) 10

8.5.Relational Operator

Arithmetic operators are used to represent arithmetic formulas to solve problems that
are associated with it. Other than arithmetic operators, C also provides operators that
are used to compare data that is known as relational operators.

The task of these operators is to compare the values of two expressions; either equal to,
not equal to, less than, more than etc. Table 8.8 below lists the relational operator
symbols and their meanings.

Table 8.8: Relational Operators Symbols and Relational Expression Examples

Operator Meaning Relational Expression Value
< Less than 6<9 1
<= Less than or equal to 12<=1 1
> More than 37>10 0
>= More than or equal to 9 >= 5 1
== Equal to 7 == 5 0
!= Not equal to 6 != 5 1

This operator has 2 operands that can be made up of a variable, constant or a

combination of both. Relational expression is created from a relational operation.
Relational expression will return the value of 1if true and 0 if false.

98
 Activity 8.9

Assume that x has the value of 15.0 and y has the value 25.0. What is the
value for these relational expressions?

Expression Value
x! = y
x >= y – x
x<x
x == y = x – y

8.6.Logical Operator

Relational operators can only test one case at a time. If we want to test a few cases that
are related to get a result, we can use the logical operator. Table 8.9 below lists the
logical operators.
Table 8.9: Logical Operator
Symbol Meaning
& and
||& or
! not

Operator &&and ⎢⎥ must have two operands whereas the operator !has only
one operand. Table 8.10 below shows how the logical operator functions. The
table is known as the truth table. 1represents truth and 0 represents false.
Table 8.10: Logical Operator Examples
a b a && b a ⎢⎢b
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

a !a
0 1
1 0

99
 Logical operators can be combined with relational operators to form a compound
expression that is more complex. In evaluating the logical expression, precedence
levels for the relational operator is higher than the logical operator. Assume a =
1, b = 5, c = 15and d = 25, notice how these logical expressions are evaluated:

(a) (a>=1) && (b== 5)

<=> (1>=1) && (5== 5)
<=> 1 && 1
<=> 1

(b) (c >= (b * 3)) ⎥⎥ (a == 3)

<=> (15 >= (5 * 3)) ⎥⎥ (1 == 3)
<=> (15 >= 15) ⎥⎥ (1 == 3)
<=> 1⎥⎥ 0
<=> 1

(c) ! (c > a)
<=> ! (15 > 1)
<=> ! 1
<=> 0

(d) ! (a < b) ⎥⎥ (c > d))

<=> ! (1 < 5) ⎥⎥ (15 > 25))
<=> ! ( 1 ⎥⎥ 0
)
<=> ! 1
<=> 0

ACTIVITY 8.10
100
 If a= 5, b= 10, c= 15 and valid has the value 1, what is the value of the
expression below?

Expression Result
a) c = = a + b ⎥⎥ !valid
b) a! = 7 && valid ⎥⎥ c >= 6

8.7.Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment and Decrement operators are unique operators. Table 8.11 below shows
the operators.

Table 8.11: Increment and Decrement Operators

Symbol Meaning
++ Add 1to the operand
-- Subtract 1from the operand

This operator needs an operand only. The operand is usually an integer variable. Do
you still remember integer variables? If you do not, please refer to Chapter 5. It can
also be written in the form of an assignment statement. Table 8.12 below explains
the meaning of increment, decrement, and the statements that are equivalent to them.

Table 8.12: Increment and Decrement Expressions

Expression Meaning Statement
i++ i=i+1 i += 1;
++i i=i+1 i += 1;
i-- i=i-1 i -= 1;
--i i=i-1 i -= 1;

To increase or decrease the value of one variable, the position of the operator
does not matter, whether it is a prefix or postfix of the variable. However, when the
operator is combined to other operators in an expression, the position would determine
the value returned. Look at table 8.13 below:

Table 8.13: Sequence of Increment and Decrement Operator

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 Expression Meaning
i++ Value i increased after used in expression
++i Value i increased before used in expression
i-- Value i decreased after used in expression
--i Value i decreased before used in expression

Also consider when we use the operator ++i (prefix increment) as shown below:

i = 5;
j = ++i - 2;

In this statement, the value initially for i (which is 5) is incremented before

(making it 6). Then the new value of i is subtracted by 2; makes j become 4. This
statement is similar to the statement given below:

i = 5;
i++;
j = i - 2;

Activity 8.11

1. What is printed?
i = 3; printf(“%d\n”, i);
printf(“%d\n”, --i);
printf(“%d\n”, ++i);

2. Write the output for the two sets of sub programmes below:
Sub programme Output
Postfix decrement
i = 7; printf(“%d\n,i);
printf(%d\n”,i--);
printf(%d\n,i);

102
 Prefix decrement
i = 7; printf(“%d\n,i);
printf(%d\n”,--i);
printf(%d\n,i);

3. If
Expression jValue
i=5
j = ++i –2;
Therefore j = ?
i = 5, j = 3;
i++;
j=i–j
Therefore j = ?

8.8.Cast Operator

Sometimes in an expression, we need to combine different types of variables. In this

situation, C does the variable conversions automatically. That is the type that is
smaller in range is changed to the type that is larger. Automatic changes like this often
happen in arithmetic expressions combining variables of integer and real type.
Observe the example below:

int total, count;

float average;
.....
average = total

In the statement average = total / count; we need to calculate the average value and
possibly that the average value is of real type. Therefore, we will declare the variable
average as float type.

103
When the value of total = 10 and count =2, therefore average value obtained is 5.0. But
when the value of total = 15and count = 2, average value obtained is 7.0! In this case,
both the operands for the divide operation are of type integer. So, integer division is
carried out and would result in integer value. Even though this integer value is assigned
to a real value, the decimal part is truncated.

In cases like this, we need to do a real division operation. The easiest way to do this is
by changing the value of total variable and/or count to type float before the division
operation is done using the cast operator.

Take note here! We do not redefine total and count as type float because we want to
retain the value as an integer for the other parts of the program. The changes made are
as follows:
average = ((float) total) / ((float) count);

The changes are made only at the part where they are needed. Cast operator would
change the value of total and count temporarily to a real value. Therefore, the
division that is executed will be real division and will result in a real value too.

ACTIVITY 8.12

Consider the programme segment below: printf(“%f\n”, (float)5 / 4);

printf(“%.1f\n”, (float)15 / 4);
printf(“%.2f\n”, 15 / (float) 4);

What will be printed?

8.9.Conditional Operator
?: operator is known as conditional operator. It is used for evaluating
conditional expressions. The syntax used is:

expression_1 ? expression_2 : expression_3;

Generally, to get a value for the conditional expression above, we first need to
determine whether expression_1 is true or false. If expression_1 is true then, the
value of the conditional operator is expression_2, but if expression_1 is false, the
value of the conditional operator is expression_3.

104
 expression_1? expression_2 : expression_3
True
False

Consider the following example:

m ? mx + c : c;

In the example above, m value will be determined. If m is true (non- z e r o ), the

value for the entire conditional expression is mx + c. On the other hand, if m is false,
the value for the entire conditional expression will be the value of c. Therefore,
if m is true and we execute the statement:

y = m ? mx + c : c;

y will be assigned the value of mx + c. However, if m is false, then y will be

assigned the value of c. The statement above is actually a shorter version of

if (m)
y = mx + c;
else
y = c;

Activity 8.13

1. Consider the programme segment below:

int x = 3; inty =
5; int min;

printf(“%d\n”, min = y < x? y: x);

What is printed?
2. For each of the algebra expressions below, write the equivalent C
arithmetic expression.

a) b2 - 4ac b)a (b+c)

105
 3. Assume i, j and k are integer variables with i = 5 and j = 3.
What are the values of the following statements?

Expression Value
a) k = j ++;
b) k = i * j-;
c) k = ++ j;
d) k = i * -j;

14

4. Write a programme to do the following:

(a) accept the value of temperature in the Celsius unit and
change it to a value in Fahrenheit.
(b) accept the value of a radius and calculate the area and
circumference.

(Use a separate paper to answer these questions)

8.10. Summary

• Special arithmetic operators are normally used to write programmes.

• Integer division happens when both the operands are of integer type.
Operands can be a constant or a variable.
• Real division is done when one or both of the operands have a real value.
• C arithmetic expressions are a combination of one or more arithmetic
operations.
• Precedence level of C arithmetic expressions would determine the arithmetic
operation sequence in solving the problem.
• Other than arithmetic operators, C also provides operators that are used to
compare data that is known as relational operators.

106
Unit 9 Selection Central Structure

9.0.Introduction

There are three main structures in algorithm. They are the sequence structure,
selection structure and repetition structure. In a structural programming language, we
can also divide the logical flow of a programme into three basic control structures
which are:
1.sequence
2. selection
3.repetition

The sequential structure is a control flow that we have seen through examples in the
previous units. Programmes that we have written so far (by using the assignment
statements as well as printf() function and scanf() function) are to execute the
statements one by one in the sequence that they are written. The selection control
structure represents the selection structure in the algorithm, whereas the repetition
structure is to represent the repetition structure. In this unit, we will see the selection
control structure using the if, switch and break statement.

9.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 write C syntax for single selection, dual selection and multi selection
structures
 choose between the if and switch statement based on the problem
given

9.2. The if Statement

The if statement is used to represent the selection structure. The selection structure
allows us to choose and execute only one of the many choices available based on a
certain condition. In C language, we use the relational expression, or the logical
expression to represent a selection condition. We have seen the selection structure for the
algorithms divided into 3 main types, which are single selection, dual selection and multi
selection. The if statement can also be divided into 3 similar forms which are:

107
 Table 9.1: The if Statement

1st Form 2nd Form 3rd Form

General if (expression) if (expression) if
Form statement; statement-1; (expression-1)
else statement-1;
statement-2; else if (expression-
2) statement-2;
else
statement-3;

Explanation The Statement-1 will be

statement If the value of the executed when the
above will only be expression is non-zero value of expression-
executed when the (true), then statement- 1 is non-zero(true).
value of the 1 will be executed. Statement-2 will be
expression is non- Alternatively, if the executed when
zero (true). value of the expression-1 is
Expression can only expression is zero zero(false) and
be made up of (false) then statement- expression-2 is non-
relational or logical 2 will be executed. zero(true).
expressions that Statement-1 and Statement-3 will be
would have the statement-2 can also executed when both
value of true or be made up of
false. expression-1 and
compound statements expression-2 are
(surrounded by { and zero (false).
}).

Statement here could mean to be more than one statement. These statements are
called compound statements. The compound statements must be surrounded by the
braces { and }.

Have a look at the example below:

if (k < j) {
min = k; /* this compound statement */
printf(“k less than j\n”); /*will be executed when k < j*/
}

The compound statement above will be executed when the value of k is less than j.
Notice that the compound statement is written by tabbing a few spaces from the if
statement.
108
The opening brace { is written on the same line as the if statement whereas the
closing brace } is written parallel to the if statement on a new line after the compound
statement. Writing programmes with a good style will make it easier for us to read the
program and will make it easier to find errors that surface.

ACTIVITY 9.1
We need to be careful when writing compound statements.
Consider what would happen if we left out the braces {}, like the code segment
below:

if (k < j)
min = k; /* executed when k < j */
printf(“k less than j\n”); /* will always be executed,
even when the
expression k < j is
false */

Programme 9.1

/* if-else programme. Prints a certain message according the body

weight index */
#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
float weight, height, bodyWeightIndex;
printf(“Enter your weight (kg): “);
scanf(“%f”, &weight);

printf(“Enter your height (m): “);

scanf(“%f”, &height);
bodyWeightIndex = weight / (height * height);
printf(“Your body weight index is %.2f\n”,
bodyWeightIndex);

if (bodyWeightIndex >= 25.0)

printf(“Your body weight is more than ideal
weight.\n Try reducing.\n”);
else
printf(“Congratulations! Your body weight is
normal.\n”);
}

109
Programme 9.2

/* if-else program. Prints a certain

message according the body weight index
*/
#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
float weight, height, bodyWeightIndex;
printf(“Enter your weight (kg): “); scanf(“%f”, &weight);
printf(“Enter your height (m): “);
scanf(“%f”, &height);
bodyWeightIndex = weight / (height * height);
printf(“Your body weight index is %.2f\n”,
bodyWeightIndex);
if (bodyWeightIndex >= 30.0)
printf(“You’re obese! Do more exercise and less
food.\n”);
else if (bodyWeightIndex >= 25.0)
printf(“Your body weight is more than ideal
weight.\n Try reducing.\n”);
else
printf(“Congratulations! Your body weight
is normal.\n”);
}

110
 Programme 9.3

/* Prints character categories that is

input using logical expression */
#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
char chr; scanf(“%c”, &chr);

if ((chr >= ‘a’ ) && (chr <= ‘z’))

printf(“Lower case letter\n”);

else if ((chr >= ‘A’) && (chr <= ‘Z’))

printf(“Capital Letter\n”);

else if ((chr >= ‘0’) && (chr <= ‘9’))

printf(“Digit\n”);
else
printf(“Special Character\n”);

ACTIVITY 9.2

1. What is the value of bodyweight index and output message

displayed for each of the cases below?

bodyWeightIndex
weight height Output
Message
80.0 1.5
60.0 1.5
55.0 1.5

(a) Given the data above, edit, compile and execute program 9.1.
Fill in the information.

(b) Modify Programme 9.1 to 9.2. Test the data above and fill in
the information.
111
 (c) Edit, compile and execute Programme 9.3.

2. What is the output of the following programme segment: (a) int code;
code = 2;
if (code = 1)
printf(“Man\n”);
else printf(“Woman\n”);

(b) int i;
i = 14;
if (i % 2 == 0)
printf(“Even Number\n”);
else
printf(“Odd Number\n”);

(c) float weight;

weight = 55.5;
if (weight <= 50.0)
printf(“Good\n”);
else printf(“Exercise\n”);

(d) int marks;

marks = 84;
if (marks >= 85)
printf(“Excellent\n”);
else
printf(“Work Harder\n”);

3. Given the programme segment below,

float i, j;
scanf(“%f”, &i);
if (i > 3.0)
if (i < 12.0)
j = i / 100 * 5;
else
j = 10 / i * 2.5;
else
j = 5.5 * i / 2;
printf(“%f”, j);

what is the output if the input value is:

(d) (a) 5.0 15.0

(e) (b) 3.0 12.0
(f) (c) 2.5 11.5
112
 9.3. The Switch and Break Statement

Switch and break statements are used to select only one choice from many choices that
exist. This statement is very useful when the choice is dependent on the value for one
variable or simple expression. The value for the expression can only be of type int and
char, but not of type float. Consider the syntax for the statements switch and break:

switch (expression) {
case expression-1 :
statement-1; break;
case expression-2: statement-
2;
break;
:
case expression-m :
statement-m; break;
default : /* can be ignored */
statement-n;
break;
}

The expression at the switch statement will be evaluated and matched to

expression-1 until expression-m at the case. If it matches, the case statement will be
executed and will be followed by the break statement.

The break statement will bring the programme control out of the switch statement
without executing the next case statement. If the expression cannot be matched, and the
default statement is available, then statement-n will be executed. If the default
statement does not exist, control will exit the switch statement.

ACTIVITY 9.3

What is the difference between using if.....else and

switch.....case control structure?

113
Programme 9.4

/* This programme will print the name of the breakfast food based on the
menu choice*/

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {

int choice;

printf(“Input menu choice : “);

scanf(“%d”, &choice);

switch (choice) {

case 1 :

printf(“SadzaStew\n”);/* if choice == 1 */

break;

case 2 :

printf(“Rice chicken\n”);/* if choice == 2 */

break;

case 3 :

printf(“Fish\n”);/* if choice == 3 */

break;

default :

printf(“Not in the menu\n”); /* if other than 1, 2 or 3

*/

}
114
Look at Programme 9.4 Assume the choice value that is the input, is 2 and is
compared to the expression in the first case statement. Because 2 != 1, therefore the
comparison is continued to the second case statement which is case 2. If this
comparison is true, the statement printf(“Rice chicken\n”) is executed and next the
break statement will bring the control out of the switch statement without test the next
case statement.

If the input value of choice is 7, and each comparison with the case statement is
false, then the statement for the default statement which is printf(“Not in the
menu\n”) will be executed.

Consider the input and output results of the example execution of the programme
code segment in Table 9.1 below:

Table 9.1: Input/Output Example of Program 9.4

Input (Choice) Output
3 Fish
1 SadzaStew
5 Not in the menu

Case and break statement above can be written in the form of if-else-if statements as
below:

if-else-ifscanf(“%d”, &choice);
if (choice == 1)
printf(“SadzaStew\n”); /* if choice == 1*/
else if (choice == 2)
printf(“Rice Chicken\n”);/* if choice == 2*/
else if (choice == 3)
printf(“Fish\n”); /* if choice == 3*/
else
printf(“Not in the menu\n”); /* if choice other than 1,2 or 3 */

Break statement plays an important role in allowing the switch statement make
only one statement just like the if-else-if statement. If the break statement is not
used then the control will continue to the next case statement after the case
statement that has been successfully compared.
As extra reference, go to http://gd.tuwien.ac.at/languages/c/
programming-bbrown/c_028.htm and do the interactive quiz at the
address http://gd.tuwien.ac.at/languages/c/programming-
bbrown/c_029s.htm

115
 ACTIVITY 9.4
ACTIVITY 9.4

Use Programme 9.4 and remove the break statement. Think of the result.
Prove what you have thought about by compiling the programme in the
computer.1. What will be printed by the switchstatement below if the value
for colour is ‘R’?
switch (color) { /*no break statement */ case
‘R’: printf(“Red\n”); case ‘B’:
printf(“Blue\n”); case ‘Y’:
printf(“Yellow\n”);
}

3. By using the switch_case statement, build a programme that will input

a letter and output to state whether it is a vowel or consonant.

9.4. Summary
• There are three forms which are if, if-else and if-else-if and each
represents single selection, dual-selection and multi-selection.
• The if statement is used to represent the selection structure.
• Switch and break statements are used to select only one choice from many
choices that exist.
• This statement is very useful when the choice is dependent on the value for
one variable or simple expression.

116
Unit 10 CASE STUDY
LEARNING OUTCOMES

10.0. Introduction

Computer programmes are not only used to do boring tasks. You can also have
fun by writing computer game programmes. Now that you have learnt the basic
syntax for C language, we will demonstrate a computer game case. This example
will show how to solve problems in stages using methods discussed in Unit 1.
Then we will write programmes using the C syntax that were introduced in Unit 4
to Unit 9.

10.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 analyse programme development processes following the phases stated in
Units 1 to 3
 apply C library functions in programs depending on examples
 describe how selection control structure is used in a problem

10.2. Problem Statement

Have you played computer games? In this case, we will write an easy computer
game programme. You may have probably played this game when you were
younger. It is called “paper, rock, and scissors”. Two players usually play the game.
Every player uses their hand to represent one of the three objects. Putting their
palms at a horizontal level represents “paper”, making a fist is “rock” and putting up
two fingers is “scissors”. Players will sit facing each other and count
“one, two, three!”. At the count of three, both players will show their choice. If their
choices are the same, then the result is a tie. If not, the result will be based on:

• Paper hides rock (Paper wins)

• Rock breaks scissors (Rock wins)
• Scissors cuts paper (Scissors wins)

117
 Figure 10.1: Symbols used for computer games

10.3. Analysis

To simulate this game, we will write a programme that will allow a user (player 1)
to play with a computer (player 2). Both players can choose an integer 0, 1, or 2 that
will each represent paper, rock and scissors.

Table 10.1: Number Representation

Representation Number
Paper 0
Rock 1
Scissors 2

To enable the computer to choose a number at random between 0 and 2, we need to

use the rand () function. This function returns a random integer number that can
have a value between 0 till RAND_MAX, usually 32767. This value depends on
the computer system where the programme is executed. By using only the rand ()
function, we might get a large number. To ensure that the number is in between 0
and 2, we need to use the following formula:

Random number = rand() % 3

As an example, let us say rand() returns 1694. The expression value (rand()
% 3) is 2. To ensure the rand() function creates a different number every time
the program is executed, we would use the following function call:
118
 srand(time(NULL));

The time (NULL) function returns seconds calculation that has been lapsed since
1 January 1970 (UNIX systems date of birth). By passing this integer second
calculation (surely different each time the time(NULL) function is called) to the
srand()function, will determine where the rand() function starts. Thus, the value
returned by the rand()function will always be different. Both the
rand() and srand() function prototypes is in the file stdlib.h whereas the
time()function prototype is in the time.h file. Because of that we need to insert
the pre-processor instruction #include <stdlib.h> and #include<time.h> in the
programme. To decide the winner is easier if we build the table below:

Table 10.2: Determining the Winner

T shows a tie result that will be obtained when the choices of the Player and the
Computer are the same. P shows the combination of choices by the Player and
the Computer that ends with the Player winning. T shows the combination of
choices by the Player and the Computer that ends with the Computer winning.
Therefore, we have 7 conditions to show the game results message that is to be
printed.

10.4. Data Requirements

As usual, we need to identify input and output.

Input

int player; /* player-1’s choice (user) */

119
Output

Player and computer’s choices

Results – “Tie”, “You (user) have won”, or “You lose”Design

Initial Algorithm

Our initial algorithm is as follows:

1. Start.
2. Display introductory message and instruction.
3. Input player choice as integer value.
4. Generate computer choice as integer value.
5. Do comparison to display player and computer choice in
text form.
6. Do comparison to determine the winner based on the player
and the computer choices and display the result.
7. End.

Steps 1, 2, 3 and 7 are simple and do not need any details. On the other
hand, steps 4, 5, and 6 need more details. Let us see the detailed steps.

(a) Detailed Step 4

4. Generate computer choice as integer value.
4.1 Call srand(time(NULL)) function to ensure the number
generated is always different.
4.2 Computer = rand() % 3

(b) Detailed Step 5

5. Do comparison to display player and computer choice in text form.
5.1 Display title “YOUR CHOICE RESULT
5.2 IF (player == 0) start_if_1 COMPUT ”.
5.2.1
ER Display “PAPER”.
end_if_1

120
 if_else if (player == 1) start_if_2
5.2.2 Display “ROCK”.
end_if_2
if_else if (player == 2) start_if_3
5.2.3 Display “SCISSORS”.
end_if_3
5.3 if(computer == 0) start_if_1
5.3.1 Display “PAPER”.
end_if_1
if_else if (computer == 1) start_if_2
5.3.2 Display “ROCK”.
end_if_2
if_else if (computer == 2) start_if_3
5.3.3 Display “SCISSORS”.
end_if_3

(c) Detailed Step 6

To do this detail, we can refer to table 10.1.
6. Do a comparison to determine the winner based on the player and
computer choices.
6.1 if (player == computer) start_if_1
6.1.1 Display “TIE”.

end_if_1
if_else if ( ((player == 0) && (computer ==
1))|| ((player==1)&&(computer==2))||(player
== 2) && (computer== 0))) start_if_2
6.1.2 Display “YOU WIN!”.
end_if_2
if_else if ( ((computer == 0) && (player ==
1)) || ((computer == 1) && (player ==
2))||((computer == 2) && (player == 0)))
start_if_3

6.1.3 Display “YOU LOSE!”.

end_if_3Implementation

121
Programme 10.1

/* Paper, Rock and Scissors Game Programme */

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <time.h>

void main(){

int player, computer;

printf(“\n%s\n”, “***PAPER, ROCK, SCISSORS***\n In this game you

are given three choices:\n”);

printf(“Input your choice: “);

scanf(“%d”, &player); srand(time(NULL)); computer = rand() % 3;

printf(“\n%15s %15s %15s\n”, “YOUR CHOICE”, “COMPUTER”,

“RESULT”);

printf(“%15s %15s %15s\n”, “===========“, “=========“,

=========“);

switch (player){

case 0: printf(“%15s “, “PAPER”);

break;
The programme interacts as follows:
case 1: printf(“%15s “, “ROCK”);

break;

122
case 2: printf(“%15s “, “SCISSORS”);

break;

switch (computer){
Activity 10.1
case 0: printf(“%15s “, “PAPER”);

break;

case 1: printf(“%15s “, “ROCK”);

break;

case 2: printf(“%15s “, “SCISSORS”);

break;

if (player == computer)

printf(“%15s\n”, “GRACE”);

else if ( ((player == 0) && (computer == 1)) || ((player == 1) &&

(computer == 2)) || ((player == 2) && (computer == 0)) )

printf(“%15s\n”, “YOU WIN!”);

else if (((computer == 0) && (player == 1)) || ((computer == 1) &&

(player == 2)) || ((computer == 2) && (player == 0)) )

printf(“%15s\n”, “YOU LOSE!”);

123
 ***PAPER, ROCK, SCISSORS***
In this game you are given three choices:
0 is paper
1 is rock
2 is scissors.

Input your choice: 2

YOUR CHOICE COMPUTER RESULT

=============== =============== ==============
SCISSORS ROCK YOU LOSE!

ACTIVITY 10.1

By stating the Analysis, Data Requirements, Design, and

Implementation; solve the following problem.

You are instructed by your lecturer to write a programme to calculate

assignment marks for this course. Marks awarded will take into
consideration timely submission or late submission. Students who
submit their assignments late, will be fined, that is their marks will be
deducted. The programme needs the user to input marks and marks
correction factor. The correction factor value is 0 if the assignment is on
time. On the other hand, the correction factor value for late submission is
in between 0.0 and 1.0. Value 0.20 means that 20% of marks will be
deducted. The programme has to display the latest marks. Below is the
example of input/output:
Input marks > 71
Input correction factor (0 if not late) > 0.20
New marks= 56.80
Input marks > 83
Input correction factor (0 if not late) > 0
New marks= 83.00
124
 ACTIVITY10.2

1. You do not need to write a programme for this problem. You need
to show how to calculate the charges for using water for a particular
month that is provided by the Water Utility Company. Charges are
calculated based on these information:
outstanding payment amount
• previous meter reading
• current meter reading

Payment rates are given as:

0 - 15 m3 : 0.42 every m3,
15.1 - 40 m3 : 0.65 every m3,
40.1 m3 and above : 1.05 every m3

with minimum payment of 5.00

(a) State the input and output of this problem.
(b) State the formula involved.
(c) Give the detailed algorithm for this problem.

2. Write a programme that would calculate the marks needed for

the final examination by a student to enable him/her achieve a
particular grade in a course. Your program should have input/output
interaction as below:
Input grade > B
Input minimum average marks needed to reach grade >
79.5
Input your current average marks > 74.6
Input percentage contributed by final examination >25
==========
You need to get at least 94.20 marks in the final examination
to get a grade B. In the example above, the final examination
marks contribute to 25% of the overall marks.

125
 10.5. Summary

• The process of building a programme is carried out in stages, from

analysing problems, data requirements, and algorithm design until the
implementation.
• Selection control structure is very important to solve any problem.

126
Unit 11 Repetition

11.0. Introduction
Do you still remember the repetition structure in Unit 2? With this structure, we
can represent problems that repeat until a certain condition is fulfilled. In the
logical flow of a program, this repetition structure can be interpreted as a repetition
control structure.

In this unit, we will introduce to you the repetition control statement. C has three
types of control statements that are concerned with repetition, which is for, while
and do-while statements.

11.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 implement C repetition structure using for, while and do-while
statements
 differentiate between for, while and do-while statements
 use continue and break statement as a jump instruction
 write nested loops depending on the problem given

11.2. The For Statement

The for statement is for loops with an easy format, simple but the number of
repetitions are to be known while writing the programme. For your information,
the for statement has a general form as in Figure 11.1.

127
 Figure 11.1: for execution statement

In the Figure 11.1, you can see that the statement is made up of two parts, the
head and the body. The for statement's head is to control the repetition statement
that is contained in the body.

You will notice that it is made up of three statements, which are the initialisation,
test, and update. Initialisation is the statement that is assigned an initial value at
the beginning of the execution that is before the first loop. Test is the statement
that will determine if the repetition is to be continued or not. The third statement is
the update that will be assigned after each repetition is executed. The flow
chart in Figure 11.1 explains the concept of the for control structure execution.

Example 11.1
Here is an example of a forstatement.

initialisation test update

for (x=1; x<= 8; x++)

printf(“%d\t”,x);

128
Consider the initialisation, test and update for this statement. We can see that
the body of the for loop is made up of one printf() statement that will print the
current value of x.

Refer back to Figure 11.1, can you see that the printf() statement is repeated
eight times? This is because the test component will be valued as false when the
variable xis greater than 8. The following fact will be understood when the initial
value of xis 1 and the variable is added by 1after each repetition. Therefore, the
printf()statement will be executed eight times.

Output that is generated by the statement above is as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ACTIVITY 11.1
Create a flow chart for Example 11.1 that is in the text above.

ACTIVITY 11.1

1. What is the output generated by the following loop?

for (x=10; x > 0; x—)
printf(“%d\t”, x);

2. What is the output generated by the following loop?

for (dig=0; dig <= 20; dig = dig+2)
printf(“%d\t”, dig);

3. Write the segment code again below by changing the for loop
with the whileloop?
for (c=’A’; c <= ‘Z’; c++)
printf(“%c\t”, c);

According to C syntax, the for statement body has to be one statement. What
happens if a group of statements needs to be repeatedly executed? The way is to
combine the statements into a compound statement. The compound statement is
formed by surrounding the statements with the symbols { and }.

129
Consider Programme 11.1 that will read 10 numbers and then output the total and
average.

Programme 11.1
/* Input 10 numbers and then output the total and
average */

#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{ int x;
int number; int total; float average;
total = 0;
for (x = 0; x < 10; x++)
Compound statement

{ //display message
printf (“Enter an integer value”) //input integer
//latest total
scanf(“%d”, &number);
total = total + number;
}

average = (float) total/10;

printf(“Total: %d\n”,total);
printf(“Average: %.2f\n”, average);
}

ACTIVITY 11.2

Based on Programme 11.1, trace the forloop and display the output generated.

130
11.3. The While Statement

Other than the for loop, repetition can also be coded as the while statement. See
Figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2: while statement

Besides the for statement, the while statement also has a head and body.
However, the head for this statement has only one component, which is the test
that will determine whether the execution of the body is to be repeated. Just like
the for statement, the while statement can be made up of one statement or a
compound statement. An example is shown where the while statement has more
than one statement.

Consider the segment code below that will input a positive number n and then
calculate the total of all the numbers from 0 to n-1.

131
 total = i = 0;
printf(“Enter a number greater than 0”);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
while (i != n) {
total += i;
i++;
}

Figure 11.2 shows the execution of the while statement in the form of a flow
chart.

Execution of the while statement is shown below:

1. Evaluate test
2. If test component is true (non-zero), execute statement body. Repeat step 1.
3. Alternatively, if testis false (zero), execution of while statement ends.

This code segment involves three variables:

1. Variable n to keep positive numbers that are input.
2. Variable i to keep numbers that will be added to total.
3. Variable total that will have the value of total when the while loop ends.

ACTIVITY 11.3

Try to sketch the execution flow for the segment code above for Example:
Calculating the average of a set of data given in program 11.3

1. Complete the segment code below so that the output generated is as

follows:
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
i = 1;
while ( ){
printf( );
;
}

132
 2. Write the output generated by the programme code below:
int i;
i = 9;
while (i > 0)
{
printf(“%d\n”, i); i -= 2;
}

11.3.1 The Relationship between while and for statements

If we compare the flow of the for statement execution with the while statement
execution, we can see the equality between them. Still, a for loop can be changed
into a while loop that is similar to it and vice versa. We will see now how to
change a for loop into a while loop.

Recall that the for general form is:

for (initialisation; test; update) statement;

We can use the segment code below as a template to write a while loop which is
comparable to the for loop.

initialisation;
while (test)
{
statement;
update;
}

Sketch the execution flow for the while loop code template above. Compare
the flow chart in Figure 11.1.
133
11.3.2 Integer expression and loop initialisation

As we understand it, a non-zero represents the true value whereas a zero

represents a false value. This can allow us to control the repetition of the
execution of the body in a loop statement.

Consider the code segment below:

printf(“Input a number larger than 0:”);

scanf(“%d”, &num);
x = num - 1;
total = 0;

1
while (x != 0)
{
total += x;
x--;
}

Looping of the while statement in the code segment is controlled by the

condition (x != 0). In other words, the repetition of the statement body will
continue as long as the condition is true, that is as long as the value x has not
reached zero. Based on how C represents the value true and false, we can rewrite
the whilestatement in the segment code above as below:

2
while (x)
{
total += x;
x--;
}

Statement while2 is comparable to statement while1 since both will end when the
value of x reaches zero. Sometimes the test component of a while statement is
false at the beginning of execution of the statement. In this case, the body of the
loop will not be executed at all.

134
11.3.3 The endless loop

When we write a repetition statement, the most important thing that we look into is
its stopping condition. We need to ensure that the execution of the statement will
eventually end. Observe the following code segment:

printf(“Input a number: “);

scanf(“%d”, &num);
x = 0;
while (x != num)
x++;
printf(“Value of i is %d\n”, i);

In that code segment, an integer number will be input and assigned to the
variable num. Variable x is initialised to the value 0. The while statement will
increase variable x by 1repeatedly until the value of the variable is the same as
the value of num.

The code segment above looks reasonable. Still, what will happen if a negative
value is input? We will see that the execution of the while statement will not end.
The test component for the statement is always true since the value of variable x
will not be the same as num. If this condition happens, we would say that an
endless loop has been created.

ACTIVITY 11.5

Try to rewrite the programme above using the forrepetition control structure.

11.3.4 The while loop controlled by condition

The while loops in the examples before are called loops determined by condition.
135
 These loops will continue its repetition until a certain condition is met.

Programme 11.2 is another example that uses loop determined by condition. The task
of this programme is to input a number of data, count the even and odd numbers
and at the end output a summary.
11.

Programme 11.2

/* Input the number of data followed by the data itself. Then count the number of
even and odd numbers for input data.*/

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {

int count, x, num, countEven, countOdd;

x = countEven = countOdd = 0;
printf(“Number of data:”);
scanf(“%d”,&count);
while(x<count){
printf(“Enter positive integer:”);
scanf(“%d”,&num);

if(num%2==0)

countEven++; Do these repeatedly: Read the

else data and update the number of
countOdd++; odd and even numbers
x++;
}
printf(“Number of even numbers:\t%d\n”,countEven);
printf(“Number of odd numbers:\t%d\n”,countOdd);
}
Think of the output for Programme 11.2 if the input given is as follows:
Calculated output
mber of data: 5
Number of positive integer: 3 2 1 4 7

136
11.3.5 The while loop controlled by sentry
Consider programme 11.2 again. This programme needs to know how many data
is to be input because that is the number of data being input. Still, there might be
situations where the number of data being input cannot be determined earlier.

Therefore,
A loop controlled by sentry is a loop that will repeat according to a value
that is called the sentry value.

(i) Sentry value is the value that is out of the boundary of valid data.
(ii) Loops like these are suitable to be used in situations where the number of
repetitions cannot be determined.

To help in your understanding, do the following exercises.

Activity 11.7

Consider the programme below:

scanf(“%d”, &data);
while (i != -1)
{
printf(“%d “, data/5);
scanf(“%d”, &data);
}

1. What is the sentry data used in the code segment above?

2. What is the output generated by the code segment
above if the input data is 5, 10, 15, 20, -1?

11.4. The Do-while Statement

Another statement that can be used to express repetition is the do-while statement.
This statement is similar to the whilestatement because it also has a body and test
component. Still, it is different from the statement because the testing is done at
the end of each loop. The do-whilesyntax is given below:
137
 do
statement;
while (test);

Generally, the statement will be executed until the test is false (zero). The do-
while loop execution can be described as:
1. statement executed
2. test done
3. If test is true (non-zero), then repeat step 1 till 3.
4. If test is false (zero), stop looping.

The do-whileloop execution can be described through the flow chart in Figure
13.3.

Figure 11.3: Flow Chart of a general do-whilestatement

Because the testing is done at the end of the loop, the number of repetitions
possible for any do-while statement is at least once. For the while loop, testing is
done before looping, therefore the number of repetition possible for the while
loop is at least zero. Observe the code segment below:

printf(“Enter a number greater than 0”);

scanf(“%d”, &num);
total = x = 0;
do {
total += x;
x++;} while (x != num);
138
This code segment calculates the total of all numbers between 0 and (n-1)
where the value of n is the value that is accepted as input. Calculation of the
addition is executed by the do-whilestatement. This segment code is similar to the
segment code discussed earlier in Unit 11.2. The difference is that the code
segment uses the do-whilestatement where the stopping condition is tested at the
end of the loop.

ACTIVITY 11.8

Try to plot a Figure like Figure 11.1 and 11.2 for the do-while statement.
List the differences between the three repetitive control structures.

Write a code segment that uses a while loop which would execute
similarly to the execution of the do-whileloop below.
do{
scanf(“%d”, &data);
}
while (data != -1);

11.5. The Continue Statement

We have seen three types of statements that allow us to code loops. The three
statements have a test component that allows us to specify how to control the
execution of each body loop.

Other than the test component, there are two statements available in C for
controlling looping statements in the for, do-while and while which are continue
and break statements. We will see the continue statement in this section. The break
statement will be explained in Unit 11.6.

The continue statement allows us to continue on to the next loop without

completing the current loop. In other words, when this statement is executed, the
next statement will not be executed.

On the other hand, the test component of the while statement will be valued to
determine the next loop. The syntax for the continue statement is:

139
 continue;

11.5.1 The continue flow control statement

Notice the for statement below:

for (x = 0; x <= 9; x++) {

if (x % 2 != 0)
continue;
else
printf(“%d even number\n”, x);
printf(“Print even numbers only ! \n”);
}

This for statement will repeat the execution of its body 10 times. For each
repetition, the value of x will be tested if it is even (that is x % 2 equals 0) or odd
(x % 2 doesn’t equal 0). If even, two messages will be displayed. For example, if
the current value of x is 4, then the message output is:

4 even number
Print even numbers only!

The first message displayed by printf() statement in an if-else, statement, whereas

the second message is displayed by the printf() statement after the if-else
statement. What if the current value of x is odd? In this situation, the continue
statement in the if-elsestatement will be executed.

What happened is that the current loop is ended; the second printf()
statement in the body of the statement is not executed. Alternatively, the test
component in the for statement will be continually tested for the next loop.

Next is the output by the segment code above.

140
 0 even number
Print even numbers only !
2 even number
Print even numbers only !
4 even number
Print even numbers only !
6 even number
Print even numbers only !
8 even number
Print even numbers only !

11.6. The Break Statement

Previously, we have seen the continue statement and its usage in controlling
repetition. In this section, we will see the break statement which also has the same
reason but with a different execution effect compared to the continue statement.

In the previous unit, we learnt the use of a break statement to exit from the
execution of a switch statement. Besides that, the break statement can also be used
to exit from the execution statement of a for, while and do-while.

11.6.1 The break control flow statement

The code segment below uses a break statement to exit from the for statement
execution. At the beginning of the execution, an integer number between 1 to 10 is
input. Then the code segment will output a list of integers from 1 to the
number that have been input. When the for has finished looping, a message will
be displayed.
printf(“Enter a number between 1 and 10:”);
scanf(“%d”, &num);
for (x = 1; x <= 10; x++) {
if (x == num)
break;
printf(“%d “, x);
}
printf(“\nExit from loop when the value is reached %d”, i);

141
Notice that the head of the for loop specifies the number of repetitions as 10
times. But, when the value of i is the same as the value input by the user, the
repetition statement for will stop immediately because of the break statement
execution inside the if statement. Control will move to the printf() statement after
the for statement.

Next is the output that is generated if the users input the number 6.

Enter a number between 1 and 10: 6

12345

Exit looping when the value reach 6

Activity 11.9
Complete the code segment below so that the output generated is as
follows:
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

i = 1;
while (1) {
printf( );
if ( )
break;
;
}

11.7. Nested Loops

Nested loops refer to the looping statement where the body has a looping
statement. As an example, a forstatement can have a body with a whileloop. In
this unit, we will see the execution flow of a nested loop as well as an example of
its usage.

11.7.1 Tracing nested loops

Consider the code segment below:

142
 for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) { A
for (j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
printf(“%d, %d\t”, i, j);
} B
printf(“\n”);
}

Notice that the code segment has two for statements that are marked as A and B.
Statement B is part of the statement that is in the body of statement A. From the
heading of statement A, we know that the statement execution is done twice. The
same as statement B, the body will repeat 5 times.

Because looping statement B is nested in looping statement A, statement B will

loop 5 times for every loop of A.

Output generated is as follows:

0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4

1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

Example 11.1: Calculating the Average of a Set of Data

Suppose we wish to write a programme that is able to calculate the average of a
few integer numbers. For each set of numbers, the programme will input its data,
calculate the average and then output the calculated value. Programme 11.3 shows
how this can be done using the nested loops.

143
144
There are two for statements that are involved and are marked A and B.
Statement A will repeat its execution of body for every number set that needs
processing. For every repetition, the following items will be executed for every
number set:
(i) Input how many numbers will be input for that set.
(ii) Input every number in that set and at the same time update its totals.
(iii) Calculate the average for that set.
(iv) Output the average for that set.

Execution of step (ii) would surely need looping because for every set, the
numbers would be input one at a time.

Activity 11.10

1. What is the output generated by the code segment below if the

data input is 5?

scanf(“%d”, &data);
for (row=1; row <= data; row++) {
for (col=1; col <= row; col++)
printf(“%d”, col);
printf(“\n”));
}

2. Write a programme that will display a rectangle which width

and height is input by the user. Below is an example of the
programme execution.

Enter rectangle width: 6

Enter rectangle height: 5
******
******
******
******
******

145
 11.8. Summary

• The three types of statements that are made available in C for us to code
repetition, which are the for statement, the while statement and the do- while
statement.
• The other statements that are relevant to repetition are continue and break
statement.
• Other than specifying the test component, we can use the continue and
break statements to control execution of repetition statement.

146
 Unit 12 Functions
ARNING OUTCOMES

12.0. Introduction
So far, the programme examples given are easy and small. In fact, all programme
statements can be put into one function which is the main() function. This
structure is not suitable for large programmes because it makes the programmes
hard to read and understand. Proper code arrangement is needed so that it can
clarify logical structure and flow of programme execution. This will make sure
programs are easier to read, understand and maintained.

C is a procedural language. It has functional features that enable us to structure

our programmes better. In this unit we will explain these functional features and
how they are defined and called.

12.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 use functions with the correct technique
 categorise two (2) types of variables, local and reference as well as
their scope
 describe and explain how recursion function works
 explain the role of functions in a top-down design

12.2. What is Function?

ACTIVITY 12.1

Before you continue reading, try to think, what can you say about functions in the
context of programming?

Functions can be seen as a small programme code that would do a specific task.
For example, we might write a function to execute a task of displaying a curve on
the screen. With this function, we do not need to write the code to execute the
task for every curve that we want to display. We just need to call the function and
provide the information that is needed by it for the execution of the task of
display. We can see how the use of functions reduces the repetition of code in
programs.

148
We have actually used functions in previous examples. As an example, we used
the functions printf() and scanf() that are available in the C standard library,
to output and input data. Other than using functions that are available, we will
see later how programmers can define their own functions.

12.3. Calling a Function

To execute a function, you need to call the function. Calling a function means
transferring the control of the programme from where it is called to the function
and continue with executing the function code. When calling a function, we can
assume the function as a black box. In other words, we can use the function even
without knowing how it does its task. For example, so far we have been using the
printf() function to do output. However, deep knowledge about this function is not
one of the requirements to use it.
In C, calling of functions is executed by calling its name. By doing this, the control
of the programme will be transferred to the function code. After the function code
is executed, the control will be transferred back to the place where it was
called from, and the next statement will be executed.
There are functions that need certain information from the calling statement so
that it can execute its task. For example, for a function to calculate the area of any
square shape, it would need to know information on the dimension of the given
shape. Without this information, the function would not be able to do the
calculation.

In C, this information can be transferred to the function in the shape of a

parameter. There are two ways of calling a function. We will first see the calling of
a function without any parameters.

149
 Figure 12.1: Function Calling

12.3.1 Calling a function without parameter

Calling of a function without a parameter is very easy because we only have to
call its name. The function calling syntax is given below:

No parameter
function_name()

As an example, assume the following function is ready to be used

draw_head() - draws alien’s head

draw_body() - draws alien’s body
draw_feet() - draws alien’s feet

The following code segment will call the functions above to display an alien with
three heads, two bodies and six legs.

int i;
for (i=0; i < 3; i++)
draw_head();
} draw_body();
draw_body(); How to call functions
without paramneter
for (i=0; i < 6; i++)
draw_legs();

12.3.2 Calling a function with parameters

There are functions that need information from calling statements to do a task.
This information is represented in the shape of a parameter for that function. To
call this type of function, other than calling its name, we also need to send
parameters to it. The syntax is given below:

150
 function_name(parameter_list)

When sending parameters to a function, the parameter sequence that is sent must
be the same as the parameter sequence that has been specified by the function.
For example, let us say a function is to calculate the area of a square. It needs the
width and height parameters of the square. When calling the function, the
parameters that need to be sent should also be the width followed by the height of
the square.

In addition, the type of each parameter sent must be equivalent to the type
specified by the function for its parameters. For example, if any parameter
specified by a function is a type char, the matching parameter sent to the
function should also be equivalent to a char.

As an example, assume the following function is ready to be used.

draw_alien (int numHeads, int numFeet, float cFerence)

- draw an alien with the number of heads and feet as
numHeads and numFeet, as well as circumference
for each of its heads measured as cFerence.

draw_alien() function above requires three parameters. The first and second
parameters are two integer (int) values that each specifies the number of heads and
number of feet the alien has to display. The third parameter is of type float that
represents the measurement for each of the alien’s heads.

The next code segment will call the function above to display five aliens with
three heads, six legs as well as having a head circumference of 1.23 meter.

int i;
for (i=0; i < 5; i++)
draw_alien(3, 6, 1.23); /*function call
using parameters */

12.3.3 The C standard library

Programme code reuse is one of the methods often practiced by programmers

when developing any software. Through this method, the programmer’s
productivity can be increased. By using programme code reuse that has been
151
written and tested for software before, programmers can avoid writing the same
programme code again.

C Language provides library functions that has many types of functions already
defined and can be used again by programmers. For example, sqrt() function to
calculate square root is available in the mathematics standard library. The next
program contains examples of reusing this sqrt()function.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
void main(void)
{
double num, amount;
printf(“Enter number: “);
scanf(“%f”, &num);
/* available function calls with
Amount = sqrt(num) parameters */
printf(“Square Root %lf: %lf”, num, amount);
}

Let us look at the sqrt() function calls in the programme code above that causes
the execution of the function code. In the call, the value of the argument num is
passed from the calling function to be used in the calculation.

For example, let us say the number being input is 16.0. Therefore, the variable
amount calls the sqrt() function to calculate the square root of that number. After
the function code is executed, the control of the programme will move back to the
calling programme. The result of the calculation will be returned and assigned to
the amount variable. The programme ends by outputting the result of the
calculation using the printf() function.

Notice however that the programme above contains the pre-processor directives
#include <math.h>. This instruction will cause the header file math.h to be included
with the programme code before compilation. The header file is needed because it
contains useful information on the functions that are available in the mathematics
standard library including the function sqrt() that will be reused in the programme
code above.

152
 12.4. Writing a Function

To build a function you need to know how to call and define the function.
Previously, we have seen how to call a function where the code is already
available. Now we are going to learn how to define our own functions. The
general definition of functions is as follows:

returntype functionname(variable_declaration_list)
{
function heading
variable _declaration_list
statements function body
}

As mentioned above, the function declaration is divided into two parts, which are
the head and the body. The function heading specifies the following information:

(i) returntype
This is the data type that would be returned by the function. If the function
does not return anything, we can state the returntype as void. Return
type will be explained in detail in section 12.4.3.

(ii) functionname
This states the name of the function declared. Usually, the rules to name a
function are the same to name a variable.

(iii) variable_declaration_list
This is the declaration of every function parameter and is divided by a
coma. In C, function parameters are special parameters that are assigned
values passed by the calling function while calling a function. If the function
does not have any parameters, the variable_declaration_list can be replaced by
the keyword void. Parameters that are declared at the head of the function
declaration are also known as formal parameters. It is to differentiate them
from actual parameters, which are parameters that are sent from the calling
function during the function call.

153
The function body declaration is divided into:
(i) variable_declaration_list
The variable_declaration_listis a group of variable declaration that
can only be used in the function body.

(ii) statements
The statementsare a group of statements that are executed when the
function is called.

ACTIVITY 12.2

The function naming rules are the same as the naming of variables. Try to list
the rules again.

12.4.1 Writing a function without parameter

Next is an example of a function declaration without parameters.

void draw_sides4 (void)

{
int row, columns;
for (row=0; row < 4; row++)
{
for (column=0; column < 5; column++)
printf(“*”);
printf(“\n);
}
}

Notice however the keyword void after the name of the function. This states that
the function is declared without any parameters.

Consider the programme below that calls the function above:

154
 void main(void)
{
printf(“This is a square\n”);
draw_sides4(); /*calling a function without a parameter*/
printf(“Good Luck!”);
}

Figure 12.2: Calling a function without parameters

This programme generates output as given below:

This is a rectangle
*****
*****
*****
*****
Good Luck!

155
12.4.2 Writing a functions with parameters

The draw_sides4() function in the 12.4.1 would only be able to display a rectangle
with 4 rows and 5 columns. Now we are going to parameterise the function so that
it can display any rectangle. In addition, it can display a rectangle using any
character. Next is the result of updating the function:

void draw_sides4 (intwidth, int height, char character)

{
int row, column;
for (row=0; row < height; row++)
{
for (column=0; column < width; column++)
printf(“%c”, character);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

We are introduced to three parameters, which are the width, height, and
character that represent the width and height of a rectangle and a character that is
used by the function to display its shape. Notice how the parameters are used in
the function body to make the function more general than the one before it.

For example, previously the loop on the outside will loop for 4 times. This time,
the number of loops depends on the value of the parameter height that is
passed by the calling programme. The next programme shows an example of
calling the function above.

void main(void)
{
printf(“This is a rectangle\n”);
draw_sides4 (5, 4, ‘*’); /*calling function with parameters*/
printf(“Good Luck!”);
}

Output generated by this programme is the same as the output that was given in the
previous section.
156
 Figure 12.3: Calling Functions with Parameters

12.4.3 Returning values

Notice that the returntype for both the functions draw_sides4() that was given
earlier is stated as void. This means that both the functions do not return any values
to the calling program.

For the functions that do return values, returntype must be stated for the type of
data returned. Returning values to the calling function is done through the keyword
return. Return statement syntax is given as:

return statement;

When the returnstatement is executed, control of the programme will immediately

go to the calling function. Statement value will be returned to the calling function
for the next step; for example, the calling function may use the value in a
calculation. It is important to understand that the return statement is only written
for functions that return values; it is not written for functions that do not return any
values. The following programme shows an example of a function that returns a
value and how to use it

157
 #include <stdio.h>
double circleArea(double radius)
{
double area; Definition of function
area = 22.0/7 * radius * radius;
return area;
}
void main(void)
{ double j, area;
printf(“Enter radius: “);
scanf(“%f”, &j); Parameter function
area = circleArea(j); call and return
printf(“Circle area. %d”,area); of value

Can a return statement return more than one value?

Generally, functions can be classified as follows:

Function Call

No passing value Passing value

Function
No return value Use void Parameter
definition
With return value Use return Parameter and return

158
Activity 12.3

1. Consider the following function:

float calcPay(int j, int total) {
float g;
if (j <= 40)
g = 4.5 * j;
else
g = (j - 40) * 5.5 + 4.5 * 40;
if (j > 100)
g += (j-100) * 3.0;
return g;
}
What is the value returned by the function for the calls below:
(a) calcPay(35, 120)
(b) calcPay(50, 100)
2. Write the function definition for the function
displayRectangle() that will display a rectangle on the
screen. This function has two parameters which are the width
and height of the rectangle that will be displayed by it. As an
example, calling displayRectangle(6,4)will display the following
output:
******
******
******
******
3. Write a function definition for printNumber() that receives two
integer numbers M and N as its parameters. This function will
print all numbers between Mand N, including the two numbers. If
M is smaller than N, the function will print the numbers in
ascending order. Alternatively, if Mis larger than N, the numbers
will be printed in descending order.
For example, if M and N are 7 and 3 respectively, then the
output is:
7 6 5 4 3

159
12.4.4 Variable scope

Every variable in a programme is associated with a scope. Variable scope refers to

an area where the programme can reach it. There are two categories of variables:
Table 12.1: Local Variable Scope and Global Variable Scope
Category Local Variable Global Variable
Scope In the function body Outside the function
Life Expectance Throughout Throughout
function execution program execution
Reach Only in the function it is The entire program
Usage Encouraged Not encouraged
(difficult to control)

Look at the programme below. Variable xand ydefined in the main()function is a

local variable. This means that it can only be reached directly through that
function. This variable cannot be reached directly in the function f1().

Figure 12.4a: Variable x and y as a local variable

160
 Figure 12.4b: Variables x and y as global variables

The next programme declares both variables x and y as global variables. Thus, it
can be reached in any of the functions in the programme.

#include <stdio.h>
int x, y; /* global variable */
void f1(void)

{
printf(“x = %d y = %d\n”, x, y);
}
void main(void)
{
printf(“Include two numbers: “);
scanf(“%d%d”, &x, &y);
f1();
}

161
Now, observe the next programme:

Programme 12.1

#include <stdio.h>
void calcSquare(float a, float b)
{
/*a and b are calSquare()’s local variables*/
b = a * a;
}
void main(void)
{
float x, y; /*main() function’s local variables */
x = 3;
y = 20;
calcSquare(x,y);
printf(“%1.1f square is %2.1f\n”, x, y);
}

Notice that x and y are local variables for the function main(), whereas a and b
are local variables in the calcSquare() function. When the programme starts to
execute, the main function becomes active and the local variables x and y are
created. Figure 12.5 below shows the state of the variables before calling the
calcSquare() function.

Figure 12.5: State of local variables in main() before the

calcSquare() function is called

When the function calcSquare() is called, the memory space for variables a and b is
created. After that, the values x and y are sent to the function with respective values
copied into parameters a and b. The programme control is later transferred to the
calcSquare() function. Memory space that is created when the function is called is
shown in Figure 12.6

162
 Figure 12.6: Memory states when the calcSquare()function is called

Let us try to look at the box above that represents the memory area for the entire
programme. The box labelled as main shows the memory area for the
function main(). Memory of local variables for the function which are x and y are
created from this memory area.

Two small boxes labelled x and y represent memory for both the variables. Just
like the main() function, a box labelled x and y represents memory space for
the caclSquare() function. Two small boxes labelled a and b in the box represent
memory area for local variables which are parameters a and b. Notice that the
values of a and b each represent values of x and y. This is because of parameter
passing that happens when the function calcSquare() is called.

Next, the statement in the calcSquare() function body is executed that makes the
value of the expression a * a is assigned to b. The result, value of b is now 9, as
shown in Figure 12.7.

163
 Figure 12.7: Memory area after the execution of calcSquare()
function

After the calcSquare() function is executed, the programme control is returned to

the calling function which is the main() function. With the end of the
calcSquare() function call, it means the end of the local variables life, which is a
and b. After returning, the statement that will be executed next is the one to output
the a and b variable values. The output that is generated is as follows:

3.0 Squared is 20.0

The programme output above shows that the execution of the programme is not
what we had hoped. From the output, we found that the value of b did not change
after the call to calcSquare(). Even when the calcSquare() function does the square
calculation and keeps the value in b, the result of the calculation is not assigned to
y when returning from the function. This is why the value of y is still the same
before the call to the function.

We are allowed to name a local variable in a function the same name as another
variable in another function. This is because the local variables can only be
reached by the function that has declared it; therefore, there is no confusion when
the name is used to reach a variable in a function. As an example, consider the area
variable in the programme below:

164
 #include <stdio.h>
double calcSquareArea(double width, double height)
{
double area; /*local variable */
area = width * height;
return area;
}
double calcCircleArea(double radius)

{
double area; /*local variable */
area = 22.0/7 * radius * radius;
return area;
}
void main(void)
{
double radius, l, t, area; /*local variables*/
printf(“Enter width and height: “);
scanf(“%f%f”, &l, &t);
area = calcSquareAread(l, t);
printf(“Square Area: %lf”, area);
printf(“Enter radius: “);
scanf(“%f”, &radius);
area = calcCircleArea(radius);
printf(“Circle Area: %lf”, area);
}

Notice that the name area was used to name three local variables, that were
declared in the main() function, calcSquareArea() and calcCircleArea(). Similarly
with the radius, it is used to name a variable in the main() function and another
variable in the calcCircleArea().

In the programme code above, every reference to the variable is matched to the
variable declaration. As an example, consider the statement area = 22.0/7 * radius
* radius; in the calcCircleArea() function. Radius referred to in the statement is to
the local variable radius in the function and not the variable radius in the
main()function.

C does not allow us to declare more than one local variable with the same name.
Nevertheless, we can declare a local variable that has the same name as a global
variable.

165
 Consider the programme below:

#include <stdio.h>
int x, y; /* x and y are global variables */
void f1()
{
int x;
x = 0; /* local variables */
y = 0;
}
void main(void) {
x 10; y = 15; f1();
printf(“x = %d y = %d\n”, x, y);
}

In this programme, two global variables are declared as x and y. Function f1()
also declares a local variable by the name x. The arrow at the statement x = 0; in
function f1() shows that the reference to x in the statement is referring to the
local variable xand not the global variable x.

With that, the value of the global variable x does not change when the function
f1() is called in the main() function. On the other hand, f1()function has
changed the local variable y to 0. The output generated by the programme is
as follows:

x = 10 y=0

ACTIVITY 12.4

Use the tracing method as in Programme 14.1. What would happen in this last
example, when the value x does not change but y does?

166
 Write the output that is generated by the programme below:

#include <stdio.h>
int A(int x)
{
printf(“Value received by A(): %d\n”, x);
x = x*x;
printf(“Value returned by A(): %d\n”, x);
return x;
}
void main(void)
{
int x;
x = 10;
printf(“Value of x in main() before sent to A(): %d\n”, x); A(x);
printf(“Value of x in main() after returning from A(): %d\n”, x);
}

Most of the examples shown previously did not touch on function

prototype. Can you differentiate functions without prototypes and
functions with prototypes and their advantages?

12.4.5 Function prototype

When the C compiler compiles a function call, it will need information about the
function to be called. As an example, consider the following statement:

x = displaySquare(width, height);

This statement is reasonable. Nevertheless, what if the returntype of the

displaySquare()function declaration is void? In other words, the function does
not return any value. In this case, the statement above might create a problem
since it assumes the function will return a value; and this value is to be assigned to
variable x.

With that, the compiler should report a compilation error when the statement
above is compiled. This error can only be traced if the compiler knows the
167
returntype of the displaySquare() function. This would not create a problem if
the compiler has compiled the function declaration before compiling the statement
above. Nevertheless, consider the programme below:

#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{
int width, height, x;
printf(“Enter width and height: “);
scanf(“%d%d”, &width, &height);
x = displaySquare(width, height);
}
void displaySquare(int width, int height)
{
int i, j;
for (i=0; i < height; i++)
{
for (j=0; j < width; j++)
printf(“*”);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

Notice that the displaySquare() function declaration is put after the function main()
that has the statement that calls the function. When the compiler compiles the
statement, it does not have the information about the displaySquare() function
because its declaration has not been compiled yet.

One way to overcome the problem above is to put the declaration of

displaySquare() function before the declaration of main() function. Another way
would be to declare the function by putting the prototype at the appropriate place
in the programme. Prototype of a function is the declaration of the head of the
function only. As an example:

void displaySquare(int width, int height);

The reason for the function prototype is to provide information on the type of
value that is returned from the function (if have) and the number and type of each
parameter. The following function prototype is accepted because the names of the
parameters can be ignored.

void displaySquare(int, int);

168
However, putting a parameter name in the function prototype is good because
the user can know the reason for each of the function parameter.
Next is the programme with the function prototype displaySquare() inserted.

#include <stdio.h>
void displaySquare(intwidth, int height); Function prototype
void main(void)
{int width, height, x;
printf(“Enterwidth and height: “);
scanf(“%d%d”, &width, &height);
x = displaySquare(width,height); Function
} call
void displaySquare(intwidth, int height)
{
int i, j;
for (i=0; i < height; i++) { Function
for (j=0; j < width; j++) definition
printf(“*”);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

169
ACTIVITY 12.5

1. Correct the programme below so that there is no syntax error

reported when it is compiled.
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{
int x;
printf(“Enter a value: “) scanf(“%d”, &x);
printf(“Absolute value:%d\n”, absoluteValue(x));
}
void absoluteValue(int x)
{
if (x < 0)
return -x;
else
return x;
}

2. What is the output for the following programme?

#include <stdio.h>
void func(int);
void main()
{
int x;
x = 1000;
func(x)
printf(“main: x = %d\n”, x);
}
void func(int y)
y = 5*y;
printf(“func: y = %d\n”, y)
}

170
 12.5. Recursion

If n is a round number, then the value of its factorial written as n! is

determined by the following formula:

Formula to calculate the factorial value for n(if n> 0) is as follows:

n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * ... * 1

Notice that (n-1)*(n-2)*...*1is the value for the factorial (n-1). In other words,
n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * ... * 1
= n * (n-1)!

The diagram on next page shows the calculation of the value for factorial 4based
on the observation above. To calculate the value of factorial 4, we would need to
get the value of factorial 3. Likewise, to calculate the value for factorial 3, we
would need to get the value of factorial 2. This continues until the value of
factorial 0 is needed to calculate factorial 1. Case 0! is a special case because
the formula above cannot be used for value of n which is equivalent to 0. For
this case, the factorial value of 0is defined as 1.

4! = 4* 3!
= 4* (3 * 2!)
= 4* (3 * (2 * 1!))
= 4* (3 * (2 * (1 * 0!)))
= 4* (3 * (2 * (1 * 1)))
= 4* (3 * (2 * 1))
= 4* (3 * 2)
= 4* 6
= 24

Based on the above, the formula to calculate the value of a factorial for a round
number n is shown below:

171
 1, if n = 0
n! =
n*(n-1)!, if n > 0

We can write a function to calculate the value of a factorial based on this formula.
Notice the function factorial()code on the next page:

int factorial(int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n-1);
}

The function definition above is an example of a recursive function because the

body of the function has a function call to itself (look at the elsestatement in the
code above). When we call the function to calculate the value of factorial for n
which is more than 0, it will make a series of calls to itself. This is shown in the
Figure below which shows the execution of factorial(4).

172
 Figure 12.8: Tracing of factorial (4)execution

Programme 12.2 below inputs a number between 0 and 15 and continuously calls
the function factorial()to calculate its factorial value for that number recursively.

Programme 12.2
/* Counting factorial value of n recursively */
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void) {
int n;
long int factorial(int);
printf(“Enter value n “);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
if ((n < 0) || (n > 15))
printf(“n is outside range\n”)
else
printf(“%d! = %ld\n”, n, factorial(n));
}
long int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1; /* stopping condition */
else
return (n * factorial(n-1));/* recursion */
}

Two things must be taken into consideration when we write recursive function
definition. Both regard the stopping of the function. The first is there and should
be a condition to stop the function. Once the condition is satisfied, the function
should not call itself. This is because as long as the function calls itself, the
execution will not end. This situation is called endless recursion. This is
shown by the following function definition:

void forever(void)
{
printf(“I will not end\n”);
forever();
}

Refer to the recursive function factorial() that we saw earlier. The condition to stop is
when the value of its parameter is zero, which is n==0. When this condition is met, the
function will immediately return the value 1 to its caller. The Figure below shows the
role of the condition in the execution of factorial(4).

173
The second is to ensure that for every call towards the recursive function, the
condition to stop has to be fulfilled at last. Consider the function printLines()
definition below:

void printLines(int i)
{
if (i <= 0)
return;
else
{
printf(“*”);
printLines(i-1);
}
}

This function will display recursively one line of ‘*’whose length is determined by
its parameter. For example, if we call printLines(10), ten ‘*’ characters will be
displayed on one line.

Consider the else part which contains the call to itself. The parameter that is
passed is i-1. This means that every time the function calls itself, the parameter
passed will decrease by one. This is so that the final call will be printLines(0) and
this will ensure that the stopping condition is fulfilled. Notice that the
stopping condition for the function is i <= 0and not i == 0. This is to ensure that
the function will end even when the parameter received is a negative value.

174
ACTIVITY 12.6

1. What is the advantage of using the recursive concept? Why is it important?

2. Write the output generated by the following programme:

#include <stdio.h>
long int prod(int lgt)
{
if (lgt <= 0)
return (long int) -1;
else if (lgt == 1)
return (long int) 1;
else
return 10*prod(lgt-1) + 1;
}

void main(void)
{
printf(“prod(-2): %ld\n”, prod(-2));
printf(“prod(0): %ld\n”, prod(0));
printf(“prod(1): %ld\n”, prod(1));
printf(“prod(8): %ld\n”, prod(8));
}

12.6. Functions and Top Down Design

In solving complex problems, a good programmer will overcome the complex
tasks by breaking the problem into sub-problems. If the programmer cannot solve
any sub-problem at a certain level, a new sub-problem will be introduced to a
lower level. This will continue until a level where every sub-problem involved
can be solved individually. This design is called the top-down design.

As an example, consider the problem drawing certain shapes to the screen. For
example, Figure 12.9 shows a stick-woman drawing.

175
 *
*
* *
*
*
/\
/ \
/ \
--------
-
/\
/ \
/ \
Figure 12.9: Stick-woman
drawing

Notice that the stick-woman drawing is made up of an oval, a triangle and two
lines joined at an angle. Therefore, the problem of drawing a stick-woman can be
broken into three sub-problems.
Beginning Algorithm:
1. Draw Oval
2. Draw Triangle
3. Draw Two Lines Joined at an Angle

Let us say sub-problem 1 and sub-problem 3 can be solved directly. To solve sub-
problem 2, we see the triangle as two lines joined at an angle but with a
horizontal line. Therefore, we break sub-problem 2 into two sub-problems at the
next level as shown below:

Refining Step 2:
2. Draw Triangle
2.1. Draw Two Lines Joined at an Angle
2.2. Draw Horizontal Line

At this level, any sub-problem introduced can be solved easily. We can build a
structure chart like the one shown in Figure 12.10 that shows the original problem
and sub-problems and the relationship between them.

176
 Figure 12.10: Structure Chart showing stick-woman drawing

Functions have an important role in implementing the design above in a C

program. For every sub-problem in the structure chart above, we will write a
function definition to solve it. An example of the programme that implements the
design above is given in Programme 12.3. Figure 12.11 shows the functions
defined in the program for every sub-problem given.

Figure 12.11: Combination of sub-problem with functions

177
Programme 12.3

/*Drawing Stick-Woman */
#include <stdio.h>

void draw_oval(void);
void draw_joinedLine(void)
void draw_horizontalLine(void);
void draw_triangle(void)
void main(void)
{
draw_oval();
draw_triangle();
draw_joinedLine ();
}

void draw_oval(void)
{
printf(“ ** \n”);
printf(“ * * \n”);
printf(“ * * \n”);
}

void draw_triangle(void)
{
draw_joinedLine();
draw_horizontalLine();
}
void draw_joinedLine(void)
{
printf(“ /\\\n”);
printf(“ / \\\n”);
printf(“/ \\\n”);
}

void draw_horizontalLine(void)
{
printf(“———\n”);
}

178
 12.7. Summary

• Functions are small programmes that do specific tasks.

• There are functions that need parameters when called.
• Parameters sent during function calls become input to the function.
• There are other functions that call themselves; these functions are called
recursive functions.
• Two types of variables that have different scopes, which are local and
global.
• A variable’s scope can determine the area where the variable can be
reached.

179
Unit13 File Manipulations

13.0. Introduction
In the examples that we have seen so far, the data manipulated by
programmes have either been hard coded or input by users through the
keyboard. The output generated was displayed on the video screens. This
type of input output is suitable for certain types of programmes, for
example, programmes that need to respond to users.

13.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 use C to support file manipulation
 apply the fopen() and fclose() functions to open and close files
 input data from file and channel output to a file using
special functions

13.2. File Support in C

C provides many types of support for file input output operations. With this
support, we can write C programmes to read data from files. Programme
data can be kept in data files that can be used repetitively. In addition, we
can write programs that channel output to files.

If the file is kept in hard disk media, we can get a permanent copy of
the programme output. File support that is available can also be used by
programmes to communicate with other programmes using file connections;
for example, a file which is being output from one programme is an input file
to another programme.

13.2.1 File format types

There are two types of file formats supported by C, which are text files
and binary files. This unit will concentrate on text files only. One way to
create a text file is to use a text editor. Text files are sequential characters
that are normally kept in secondary memory like hard disks.
180
Every text file will have a special character at the end of its file (end of file).
This character acts as an end of a file indicator. In addition, every line of
characters in the text file will end with a <newline> character. This
character is also special because it acts as a new line indicator.

Let us say we create a text file in a hard disk to keep these three
sentences. Assume that we did not press the enter key after typing the last
sentence.

Sentence 1.
Sentence 2.
Sentence 3.

In the hard disk, the characters that are contained in the file are kept in
sequential order as:

Sentence 1.<newline>Sentence 2.<newline>Sentence 3.<eof>

Notice that the new line character <newline> is put before the second
sentence and the third sentence. This is done so that when the file contents
are displayed, the sentences will be displayed on the next line. Notice also
that the character <eof> is put at the end of the file as an indicator
that there are no more characters after it.

13.2.2 File access types

There are two ways to access data kept in a file, sequential access or random
access. Ways of access influences how the data is read, written, updated and
deleted by the programme.

When data is accessed sequentially, it will be accessed by the way it was

written. Accessing data sequentially is like playing music on a cassette tape;
we need to play it in sequence, how it was recorded. Access data randomly,
on the other hand, is different from sequential access because data can be
accessed in any order.

13.3. File Operations

Only sequential file access will be discussed in this unit. Usually, there are
three operations that can be done to a sequential access file, which are create
file, edit (change, add), and delete data and reading a file.
181
 13.3.1 The fopen() function

Before any operation can be carried out on a file, it must be opened first. In
C, when opening any file, we must send file name and access mode (either
we want to read, write or add data to a file). The relevant function used
is fopen(). Format to invoke (call) it is as below:

fopen(file_name, access_mode)

The file_name is the name of the file to be opened, whereas access_mode is

the mode used to access the file and will be explained in detail later.
The fopen() function returns a pointer that will point to the file opened.
This pointer is used later in the operations that are carried out on the file.
Usually, the pointer will be kept in a variable type FILE *. Look at the code
segment:

FILE *fptr;
Fptr = fopen(“datafile”’ “r”);

fptris a variable that is declared to keep the file pointer. After the calling
of fopen()function ends, the pointer pointing to the file “datafile”will be
returned by the function. The pointer will then be assigned to fptr.
Access mode of any file determines the operations that can be done on that
file. Table 13.1 shows the access modes that are specified in the
fopen()function calls.

Table 13.1: Access Modes

Access Modes Explanation
“r” File is opened for read only
“w” File is opened for writing only (start from the beginning
of file)
“a” File is opened for writing only (start from the end of file)
“r+” File is opened for updating (read and write)
“w+” File is opened for updating (create, read and write)
“a+” File is opened for updating (read the whole file or writing
at the end of file.)

182
The code segment below show the usage of fopen() function to open the file
input and file output. File input is opened for reading only whereas; file
outputis opened for writing only.

FILE *fptr1, *fptr2;

fptr1 = fopen(“input”, “r”);
fptr2 = fopen(“output”, “w”);

Sometimes the file that is required to be opened cannot be opened using the
fopen() function. For example, we want to open a file to be read, but the file
does not really exist. In this situation, the fopen() function will return a null
pointer (represented by the value NULL) if it fails to open the file in the
required mode.

It is important that we can trace the event so that the errors that cause the
file operation to return a null pointer can be avoided. The code segment below
shows how to trace the return of null pointer by fopen().

fptr = fopen(“inputfile”, “r”);

if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“File cannot be opened\n”);
exit(1); /* end programme when file fails to open */
}

The if statement in the code segment tests whether the opening of inputfile is
successful or fails by testing if fptr is equivalent to NULL or not. If fptr is
NULL, it means that the file failed to be opened. If this happens an error
message will be displayed followed by calling of the exit()function. The
exit() function is a library function to stop execution of a programme. To use
it, we must use the header file stdlib.h together with the programme by
entering the pre- processor command at the beginning of the programme.

#include <stdlib.h>

13.3.2 The fclose() function

When we have finished operating on a file, the file needs to be closed. The
fclose() function is a function to close a file.

183
Calls to the function to close a file is pointed to by a file pointer fptr as shown
below:

fclose(fptr);

The following programme shows an example calling both the fopen()

and fclose() functions to open and close the file.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main (void) {
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen(“datafile”, “r”);/*open file to read*/
if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“File datafile cannot be opened\n”);
exit(1)
;
}
:
:
fclose(fptr); /* file closed */
}

13.3.3 The fprintf() function

We can use the fprintf() function to print all types of data from a file. The
syntax to call the function is as follows:

fprintf(fptr, output_format , [values_list])

Calls to the fprintf() function is nearly the same as calling the printf()
function. The difference with printf() is that it has an additional parameter;
the first parameter is a file pointer to some output file.

An example of using fprintf() function is shown in Programme 13.1.

This programme prints to an output file the values to the power of two for all
numbers between 1 and 100.

184
 Programme 13.1

/* Print to the powerof two numbers1 - 100

to output file*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void main(void) { FILE *fptr;

int x, power2;

fptr = fopen(“output”, “w”);

if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“Cannot open output file\n”);
/*displayed on the screen*/
exit(1);
}
for(x = 1; x <= 100; x++) {
power2 = x * x; /*written to output file*/
fprintf(fptr, “%d\n”, power2);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

13.3.4 The fscanf() function

The fscanf() function can be used to read many types of data from a file.
The syntax to use the function is as follows:

fscanf(fptr, format_input [, address_list]);

We will see later how the fscanf() function resembles the scanf() function; the
difference is in the fscanf() first parameter which is a file pointer to some
input file.

Programme 13.2 below reads data from file data1 and displays the data on the
screen. The data that is contained in the file is the metric number as well as
the grade for a group of students.

185
 Programme 13.2

/* Read data from file and display it on the screen */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main (void)
{
FILE *fptr;
int x, total, matricno;
char gr;

fptr = fopen(“data1”, “r”);

if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“File data1 cannot be opened\n”);
exit(1);
}
fscanf(fptr, “%d”, &total); Reading
for (x = 0; x < total; x++) from data file
{
fscanf(fptr, “%d %c”, &matricno,&gr);
printf(“Matric Number: %d\tGrade: %c\n”, matricno, gr);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

After the file data1 has been successfully opened, the programme will read
the first data in the file which is the total number of students. Based on the
number of students, the programme will loop to read the metric numbers, and
the grade for each student. An example of the file data1 that is appropriate to
the programme is given below:

186
 File: data1
10
1101 C
1102 E
1202 A
1203 B
1302 B
1305 C
1306 D
1401 C
1402 B
1500 C

The first line in file data1 has the total number of students, which is 10. Each
line after that, has data for each student, which is the metric number,
followed by the grade. The output generated by the programme for the data
file is given below:

Metrics: 1101 Grade: C

Metrics: 1102 Grade: E
Metrics: 1202 Grade: A
Metrics: 1203 Grade: B
Metrics: 1302 Grade: B
Metrics: 1305 Grade: C
Metrics: 1306 Grade: D
Metrics: 1401 Grade: C
Metrics: 1402 Grade: B
Metrics: 1500 Grade: C

If the fscanf() function reaches the end of the file while reading, it will return
an EOF value. This value can be used as a sentinel value while reading data
from a file.

13.3.5 The getc() function

The getc() function can be used to read a character from a file. The prototype
of this function is as follows:

getc(FILE *ptr);

187
The ptr is a pointer that the file will read. The getc() function would return
the character that was read from the file. If the function returns an EOF value,
which means the end of the file has been reached.
Programme 13.3 aims to show the contents of a file to the screen. It uses the
getc() function to read the next character from the file and the putchar()
function is to display the character on the screen. This process continues
until getc() function reaches the end of the file.

Programme 13.3

/* Read a text file and display the contents on the screen */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main (void)
{
FILE *fptr;
char nfile[20]
char letter;

printf(“File Name: “);

gets(nfile);
fptr = fopen(nfile, “r”)
if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“File %s cannot be opened\n”, nfile);
exit(1);
}
do
{
letter = getc(fptr);
if (letter == EOF)
break;
putchar(letter);
} while (1);
fclose(fptr);
}

13.3.6 The putc() function

We can use the putc() function to print a character to a file. Below is

the prototype for this function:

188
 putc(int aks, FILE *ptr)

aks is a character that will be the output; whereas, ptr is a pointer to the output
file.

Programme 13.4 below uses the putc() function to copy the contents of an input
file to another output file.

Programme 13.4
/* Copy contents of one input file to another output file */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main (void) {
FILE *f_input, *f_output
char input_name[20];
char output_name[20];
char letter;
printf(“Enter input file name: “);
gets(input_name);
f_input = fopen(input_name, “r”);
if (f_input == NULL) {
printf(“Error in opening file %s\n”, input_name);
exit(1);
}
printf(“Enter output file name: “);
gets(output_name);
f_output = fopen(output_name, “w”);
if (f_output == NULL) {
printf(“Error to open file %s\n”,
output_name);
exit(1);
}
printf(“\nCopying File %s to file %s\n”, input_name, output_name);
while ((letter = getc(f_input)) != EOF)
putc(letter, f_output);
fclose(f_input);
fclose(f_output);
}

189
 ACTIVITY 13.1

1. So far, you have learnt a few instructions in this unit. Can you
state the use of these?

Instruction Usage
1. fopen()
2. fclose()
3. fprintf()
4. fscanf()
5. getc
6. putc

2. Assume that the programme below is kept in a file atur1.c.

Write the output that will be produced by the programme if the
file that is opened is the programme file itself.
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void) {
FILE *fptr;
char aks;
fptr = fopen(“atur1.c”, “r”)
if (fptr == NULL) {
printf(“Error opening atur1.c\n”)
exit(1);
}
while (1) {
aks = getc(fptr);
if (aks == EOF)
break;
if (‘a’ <= aks && aks <= ‘z’)
aks = ‘A’+(aks - ‘a’);
printf(“%c”, aks);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

190
3. Consider the programme code below:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main(void)
{
FILE
*fptr;
int length, height, num, i;
fptr = fopen(“input”, “r”);
if (fptr == NULL)
{
printf(“Numbers File cannot be opened.”);
exit(1);
}
fscanf(fptr, “%d”, &bil);
for (i=0; i < num; i++)
display(i,num);
fclose(fptr);
}
void display(int length, int height)
{
int i, j;
for (i=0; i < height; i++)
{
for (j=0; j < height; j++)
printf(“*”);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

Write the output that will be generated if the contents of input file
is as this: 3

4. Write a programme that would read every positive integer

number from a file named number and then outputs the average on
the screen.
5. Modify the programme in (3) so that the average output is
to a file named output.

191
 13.4. Summary

• C provides many types of support for file input output operations.

• There are two types of file formats supported by C, which are text files
and binary files.
• Every text file will have a special character at the end of its file (end of
file).
• There are two ways to access data kept in a file, sequential access or
random access.
• There are three operations that can be done to a sequential access file,
which are create file, edit (change, add), and delete data and reading a file.

192
Blank page
Unit 14 Case Study

14.0. Introduction
In this unit, we will see complete samples to two problems. The first
problem is on writing programmes using user-driven menu selection. The
second problem is on writing programmes to display a calendar for any
year. For both problems, explanation on development process will be given.

14.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 develop a programme using steps shown

14.2. Menu Driver Programme

14.2.1 Problem

Many programmes need input from users. Examples of programmes that we

have seen so far will display a message when some data is input. This
message will give the users an indication about the type or choice of input
needed by the programme.

One technique of interaction between programme and user is using the menu.
Menu is a list of items that can be selected by the user. Once the menu is
displayed, the programme will wait for the user to input their choice. After
the user has chosen, the programme will continue processing based on the
chosen item.
In this section, we will develop a programme that will do these
conversions:
• convert time from minutes into hours
• convert distance from centimetres to metres
• convert temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius.

The programme will display a menu to get the type of conversion required.
Once that is done, it will ask the user for the input to be converted, do the
calculation and display the result. Then, the programme will display the
menu again and the process will continue until the user decides to stop the
program.
193
 14.2.2 Analysis

The following formula is used to do the

conversions:

1 hour = 60 minutes
1 metre = 100 cm
1 Celsius = (5/9) * (Fahrenheit - 32)

14.2.3 Design

Menu to be displayed by the programme is based on the selection

Table 14.1:

Table 14.1: Menu

Choice Code Conversion Type

1 Minutes to hours
2 cm to meters
3 Fahrenheit to Celsius
0 Programme end

Users choose the type of conversion by entering the corresponding code. If

the user enters a 0, the programme ends. If the user enters any value
other than the above, it will be ignored. The programme will re-display the
menu and the user has to choose again.

Explanation on algorithms that will be implemented is given in Table 14.2.

These variables will be used in the algorithm.

Table 14.2: Variables

Variable Explanation
Choice users choice from the menu
Minutes value of minutes input by the user
Hour keeps the converted value from minutes to hours
cm value of cm input by the user
Metres keeps the converted value from cm to metres

194
 Fahrenheit value of Fahrenheit input by the user
Celsius keeps converted value from Fahrenheit to Celsius

Beginning Algorithm

The following is a beginning algorithm for our solution:

1. Start
2. Do
2.1 Choose conversion type
2.2 IF (1 <= choice and choice <= 3) Start_IF
a. Do the conversion and display the result
End_IF
End_DO (choice != 4)
3. End

Notice how the 2nd step involves a loop to repeat Step 2.1 and Step 2.2
until the user chooses to stop the programme when the choice value is 4.

(a) Refining Step 2.1

In Step 2.1, the programme will display menu selections and continues to
wait for the user to enter their choice.

2.1.1 Display menu

2.1.2 Input choicefrom user

(b) Refining Step 2.2

Step 2.2 involves calculation that will do the conversion and then
display the results. The calculation that is carried out depends on the
type of conversion specified by the user in Step 2.1.2

2.2a.1 If (choice == 1) start if

a. Do time conversion
b. Display hourand minutes
end if
2.2a.2 If else if (choice == 2) start if
a. Do distance conversion
b. Display cmand metres
end if

195
 2.2a.3 If else if (choice == 3) start if
a. Do temperature conversion
b. Display fahrenheit and celsius
end if

(c) Refining Step 2.2a. 1a

Step 2.2a. 1a involves calculation to covert time. The calculation is
carried out after the programme receives input from the user.
2.2a.1a. (i) input minutes
(ii) calculate hours
Refining Step 2.2a. 2a

Step 2.2a 2a involves calculation for distance conversion. The

calculation is carried out after the programme receives input from the
user.2.2a.2a. (i) input cm
(ii) calculate meters

(d) Refining Step 2.2a. 3a

Step 2.2a 3a involves calculation for temperature conversion.
The calculation is carried out after the program receives input from the
user.
2.2a.3a. (i) input fahrenheit
(ii) calculate celsius

14.2.4 Implementation

Programme 14.1 below is an example of a programme to implement the design

above.

196
 Programme 14.1
/* Programme to convert time, distance and temperature */
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void) {
int choice;
int min;
Activity 14.1 /* minutes */
float hr; /* hour */
float cm; /* centimetre */
float mtr; /* meter */
float fahr;/* fahrenheit */
float celc;/* celsius */
do {

/* display menu */
printf(“\n\t\tCONVERTER\n”);
printf(“\t\t==================\n”);
printf(“\t1. Time: minutes to hours\n”);
printf(“\t2. Distance: cm to meters\n”);
printf(“\t3.Temperature:Fahrenheit to Celsius\n”);
printf(“\t4. Program End\n”);
printf(“\tYour Choice: “);
scanf(“%d”, &choice);

if (1 <= choice && choice <= 3) {

switch (choice) {
case 1 :
printf(“Time in minutes: “);
scanf(“%d”, &min);
hr = (float) min / 60;
printf(“%d minutes = %.2f hours\n”, min, hr);
break;
case 2 :
printf(“Distance in cm: “);
scanf(“%f”, &cm);
mtr = cm / 100
printf(“%.2f cm=%.4f meters\n”,cm,mtr);
break;

197
 case 3 :
printf(“Temperaturein Fahrenheit: “);
scanf(“%f”, &fahr);
celc = (5.0/9.0) * (fahr - 32);
printf(“%.2f Fahr = %.2f Celcius\n”,fahr,celc);
break;
}
}
} while (choice != 4);
}

ACTIVITY 14.1

Modify Programme 14.1 so that an error message would be displayed if

the user does not enter the correct code during menu selection.

14.3. Summary

 One technique of interaction between programme and user is using

the menu.
 Menu is a list of items that can be selected by the user.

198
References

A number of reference lists can be found on the internet but the following texts
are important to all the units.

Deitel C How to Program - 5th Edition Prentice Hall; ISBN 0-13-240416-8.

Deitel and Deitel C How to Program. 5th edition, Pearson.

Kelly and Pohl, (1998) ‘‘A Book on C’’ fourth edition, Addison-Wesley.

Kernighan Brian and Ritchie Dennis, (2000). The C Programming Language

second edition, Prentice Hall.

King K.N. C Programming: A Modern Approach.

Kochan,Stephan (2005) ‘‘Programming in C’’ third edition, Sams

Publishing.

Weaver Evan Foundations of Programming Using C, Seneca College.

van der Peter Linden Expert C Programming.

199