CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1
Introduction
Food, cloth and shelter are three basic human needs. Textiles have its own
importance in daily life of peoples. It is consumables and essential commodity as final
products to the public. Textile is one of essential consumable commodity hence it
comes under essential commodities Act 1955. India is an agricultural country wherein
cotton is one of main cash crop cultivated. It is the major raw material for textile
industry which provides bread and butter to millions of farmers and workers involved
in cotton to cloth process. India is 3rd largest cotton producer in world thus it may
called that it is white gold of India. Cotton is a natural fibre which grows on plants
which are scientifically known as Gossypium. There are some advantages of cotton
textiles such as it is comfortable to wear for a pleasant touch, do not irritate the skin,
can be cleaned properly and washed in hot water. Printing can be easily on cotton
textiles.

When cotton is spun in small villages with a simple tools which can manage
manually such as charkha or handlooms, it is called ‘a cottage industry’1 When cotton
as a raw material is spun into yarn which then is woven, bleach, dyed and lastly
converted into cloth in a great extent by man power and machinery, we may called
‘cotton textile industry’ An industry is thus characterized by the conversion of raw
materials into final product with the help of human efforts working with machines,
themselves the product of past human labour.2

The cotton textile industry has an immense prospective as economical, social

and environmental sustainability in India. The history of cotton is the same as old as
history of India. From ancient time, India was the only country famous for its cotton
cloths. Cotton is mostly produced in three zones i.e. Northern zone consist of Panjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan. The central zone consists of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
and Gujarat. The southern zone consists of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. Cotton cultivation has gained momentum in the eastern state of Odisha.

Textile industry is an imperative agro-based industry, in context of

employment creation, national GDP and export earnings in the country. It contributes
about 14% to the industrial production, 4% to the GDP and 11% to the country’s
export earnings.3 Cotton accounts for 40% of the total global fibre production. About
60% of the Indian textile Industry is cotton based. India is the second largest producer

2
of fibre in the world and the major fibre produced is from cotton. After agriculture,
huge job creation both skilled and unskilled works in the textile industry.

The textile industry has a great existence in the country’s economy and in the
worldwide textile economy. The textile sector is the second largest provider of
employment after agriculture. Therefore, all the growth and development of cotton
and cotton mills is an important bearing on the overall development of the Indian
economy. The overall effect of the global recession in economic growth in 2011-12 is
expected to affect the cotton consumption of textile products and thus demand of
cotton fibre domestically and internationally.

Maharashtra ranks second in the production of cotton in India. It is the

important cash crop in the state. Nearly three million farmers are mostly busy in the
cultivation of cotton in backward Marathwada and Vidarbha region. Maharashtra state
accounts 20% of the country’s total cotton production and 30% of the country’s total
area under cotton cultivation.

Origin of Cotton
There is no doubt that India is the birth place of cotton. The earliest and most
scared record of the lives of ancient Aryans in India is the Rig-Veda. India had its
own cotton textile fibre even during the period of Rig-Veda which is put by some
authors back to 400 B.C. and even beyond that date. According to others it is the
period before 2000 B.C.4 it is interesting to note that even today, 3000 to 4000 years
after its holding a unique position in the national economy of India.5

Cotton has been cultivated within the Indian subcontinent for manufacture of
textiles since 1750 BC, the date ascribed to the Mohenjodaro fragments of the Indus
valley civilization.6 Four hundred and fifty years before Christ, Herodotus testified
that “India had wild trees that bore fleeces as their fruit of these the Indians made their
clothes.” About 300 before Christ, Greek merchants commenced to import small
quantities of cotton cloth from India.7

About 150 B.C., they discovered the trade winds, and learnt that a ship could
sail eastward in the autumn with the Northwest monsoon and return with cotton
loaded in the late spring with the south east monsoon. The result of this discovery was

3
huge pick up in the cotton cloth trade and in the wealth of India as well as Egypt
which became the distributor of Indian goods.8 Two thousand four hundred years after
Herodotus wrote about ‘the wild trees which bear fleeces as their fruits’, cotton
remains the most cultivated money crop of India.9

The Imperial Gazetter of India acknowledges evidence which shows Babylon

trades with India in 3000 B.C. Mummies in Egyptian tombs have been found the best
quality wrap in Indian muslin.10 there was an extremely big consumption of Indian
producer in Rome. It means that very early time Indian fabric was exported to Egypt,
Palestine, Persia, and Arabia. Cotton goods imported from India were used by the
nobles of the Roman Empire. Muslins of Dacca were well known to the Greeks under
name of Gangetika. It was also famous during the Mogal period. Different types of
fine cotton cloth were manufactured in overall India; Ahmedabad was also well-
known for its Dupattas and Dhoties. From early time cotton has held the uppermost
position among the family of fibres i.e. Natural and Man-made. Cotton is a vegetable
fibre grown on seasonal plants, mostly grown in tropical areas. India, Egypt, America
and Pakistan are the principal cotton growing areas in the world.

In the 13th century, Marco Polo observed that ‘Masulipattam produced the
very attractive and ultimate cottons to be found in any part of the world’11 Baines,
wrote in his book ‘History of cotton manufacture (1835), that ‘Not more than a
century ago Indian cotton cloth was low-priced and gorgeous that European country’s
thought it needed to prevent or impose heavy duties, to protect their own
manufacturers’. India was the only country known for its cotton fabrics, the rest of the
world clothed by wool. Cotton has been grown in India for more than three thousand
years, and it is referred to in the Rig-Veda, written in 1500 BC.12

Cotton Trade in India

Cotton cloth has been used in India cotton was probably grown and woven
into cloth in our country before anywhere else done in the world. The tourists who
came to India in the 3 rd century AD mentioned about the Indian cotton textiles.13 In
ancient times, Indian cotton textiles were well-known all over the world; India was
exporter of cotton textiles early on industrial revolution in Europe.14 In the beginning
cotton to cloth manufacturing process was done at home by the weaver’s family. They

4
bought raw cotton from farmers, gin it, card it and spin it into yarn on spinning
wheels. The yarn was woven into cloth on a loom and then coloured (dyed).

Depiction of the information or facts about cotton textiles is richly found in

ancient literature as like Kalidas and Bana.15 Handloom cotton grown under the
sponsorship of princes. It was continued in Mughal period also. They developed a
market in the foreign countries. Handloom industry was mainly cast based in India.
The weavers had their own well familiar guides for standards and regulations.

Until 1200 AD, mostly weavers had settled in villages even though a few
weavers in the towns. After that the large number of weavers moved together and
settled in a few villages and towns.16 Some of these towns were Kanchipuram in
Tamil Nadu, Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Daulatabad in Maharashtra and Cambay in
Gujarat. From these places was easy to buy and sell due to big markets and then
weavers no longer had distant to sell their products.

The yarn prices have been greater than before while increased in the cloth
demand. The number of peoples made money only through yarn making. They
obtained cotton; spin it into yarn and then sold to the weavers. Over time different
process of cotton to cloth started by specialized way. Ginning, carding, spinning,
weaving and dying each of these was done by a separate craftsman. Each aspect of the
cloth making process became specialized and was done by different groups of
craftsmen. From 1500 onwards traders from several European countries also began to
come in India to buy cloth. 17 The Indian cloth market was expanded around the world;
Africa, Iran, China and Indonesia had demanded to Indian cloths.

Putting Out System:

The trader’s agent would go to the weavers and demand to cloth of particular
design. They gave money as an advance for buying the yarn. When the cloth was
ready to sell it would sell only to these traders and take the rest of the money. This
was the ‘Putting out system’ also called ‘Dadan pratha’.18 At many places, especially
in Bengal, the traders began to enforced the weavers throughout aid of local authority.
The advance payments for weavers became a necessity so the power of the traders and
their agents increased. They started dictating the prices. Thus the putting out system

5
led to a decrease the weaver’s income. By 1700 AD the weavers was gone in very bad
condition; they had to borrow money even for their daily food.

In 1725 AD nearly 300 lakh meters of cloth was being exported to Europe. By
1850 AD this trade had completely dried up. Between 1700 and 1800 when the big
textile mills were being set up in Europe while putting out system was being practiced
in India.19 the British would buy Indian cotton for their mills in England and then sell
their cloth to entire world. Mills-made cloth was cheaper than cloth made by
handloom thus Indian peoples also began to buy this as a substitute. In shortly there
was no demand stay behind to weavers made cloth accordingly weavers find some
other job for their bread and butter.

The Europe continued to import from India until 15th century. The Vasco da
Gama arrived at the Indian port of Calicut via Cape of Good Hope. This sea route
made possible trade with England; thereafter in 17th century sale of cotton goods
expanded very rapidly.20 In 1700 a bill was introduced in the British Parliament to ban
the imports of Indian cotton. By 1721, ‘The Calico Act’ was approved, which banned
the use and wear of all printed and dyed calicos in cloths.21 The art of spinning and
weaving which employed to the peoples has now become destroyed. By 17th century,
the cotton trade developed between India and Great Britain. The east India
encouraged the producer to make great quantities, as the export trade in cotton goods
was really money-making. In the 19th century, England began to manufacture cotton
goods in a great extent, export to India.

The true policy of the govt., according to the cotton supply association of
Manchester ‘is to legislate so as to drain the raw cotton out of the country and create a
demand for manufactured goods in lieu of those now manufactured in India.’
Evidence was tendered before the parliamentary select committee (1840) which stated
that the British govt. forced the Indian territories to receive the British producer and
woolens duty free, cottons at 2 ½ percent, while they continued to levy duties varying
from 10 percent to 100% on Indian goods.22 When the death domestic cotton industry,
India's exports of raw cotton to the manufacturing country was the only alternative.
Japan was the largest consumer of Indian cotton demanded upto 50% of our total

6
exports. India needed also imports high staple cotton from abroad as like Egypt,
Kenya and U.S.A. etc. In 1935-36, Indian mills consumed 2.7 million cotton bales
which were 40% of the total Indian crop. The Bombay, Madras and the united
provinces were the key consumers of Indian cotton.

Indian Cotton Textile Industry: A Historical Background

The word ‘Textile’ is derived from the Latin word ‘textilis’ and the French
‘texere’ mean ‘to weave’. Textiles are originally woven fabric; the term is now
applied to any manufacture from fibers, thread or yarns, natural or man-made
obtained by interlacing.

The textiles history is quite a long time, almost as old as human culture. Rig-
Veda contains the literary information regarding textiles and it refers to weaving. The
well-known Indian classics i.e. Ramayana and Mahabharata described the existence of
spacious range of fabrics in ancient India.23 the history of Indian textiles has been
documented from the commencing of the Vedic period.24 Indian textile enjoys a rich
heritage and the origin of Indian textile traces back to the Indus valley Civilization
where peoples weaving their clothes by using homespun cotton.25

In 6th and 7th century BC, the oldest recorded hint of uses of fibers comes
with the invention of flax and wool fabric at the excavation of Swiss lake inhabitants.
The silk culture of India was introduced in 400 AD, while spinning of cotton traces
back to 3000 BC. In China, the discovery & development of sericulture and spin silk
methods got initiate at 2640 BC while in Egypt the art of spinning linen and weaving
developed in 3400 BC. The innovation of machinery and their widespread application
in processing natural fibers were a direct outcome of the industrial revolution of the
18th century.

War clouds began gathered over Europe from 1938. The World War II broke
out in Sept. 1939 and the Britain with its empire geared up for war efforts. Defense of
India act was transmitted throughout raw cotton & textile mills were placed under
essential commodities Act. About 65% of the cloth produced by composite mills in
organised sector was reserved for military purpose. Imports were stop and the textile
mills made wealth during next 10 years. The war ended in 1945 and Europe was busy
with rebuilding of its industry. It had great opportunity to Indian textile industry to

7
increase the export. But by 1955 the textile mills began losses. By 1959 there were
45000 looms in the powerloom sector.26 further; composite mills were difficulties
after 1947; such as higher taxation, export compulsion, shortage of raw cotton, strict
labour laws etc. The industrial policy was relaxed. New industries were showing more
profits in engineering, pharma, fertilizers and hence the capital was attracted towards
these sectors. Since the textile industry was not updated to meet new technical
standards and that's why became out dated; could not find in profits and started
closing down to the end of 20th century. There was hardly any mill running to its full
capacity. The Calico, Finlays, Binnys, Century, and Bombay dyeing were the
international brands addict to the past.

During its child stage the powerloom industry which was decentralised and
labour oriented has enjoyed various taxation and over heads were low besides low
wages. The powerloom industry grew by limits during that period but now it is more
than 23 million in India in 2012-13.27

By 1948, new cheap and competed viscose fibres become available as well as
in 1955, man-made fibres as like polyester, nylon, synthetic etc entered in India and
affected to the cotton textiles. Accordingly the synthetic cloth became for poor man
besides cotton cloth completely for the leaders. The discovery of a variety of synthetic
fibers generates a wide range of market for textile goods and step by step leads to the
new source and invention of natural fibers.

Cotton is an important industrial crop providing raw material for industries as

like textile, paper and chemical etc. cotton seeds contain about 20% vegetable oil.28
cotton oil is used in manufacturing soaps, glycerine, stearing technical oils etc. while
cotton cake is a food for farm animals that's why fine-fibre cotton professionally is
money-making in industry and also farms.

Types of Fibers:
The textile industry is using varied types of fibres as its input to produce
fabrics. In a broad sense fibre includes Natural fibres and Man-made fibres. Currently
textile industry used Natural fibres as like Cotton, Wool and Silk etc. and Man-made
fibres as like Nylon, Polyester, Rayon and Viscose etc.

8
The fibers are also categorized into three general groups:

1. Natural fibers

2. Man-Made fibers

3. Synthetic fibers

1. The Natural fibres which produce by plants, animals and used for fabrics
manufacturing. Cotton fibre is the suitable and superlative to the men skin; it acquire
maximum share in all types of fibres in India.

2. For the man-made fibers man has taken natural materials i.e. cellulose and protein,
and transformed its form and characteristics into long or short fibers.

3. The synthetic fibers do not arise in nature in any way at all. Men use separately
chemical components as like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc. and synthesize them into
new textile fibers with numerous characters that not present in the man-made or
natural fibres.29

Types of Fibres

Natural Fibres Man-Made Synthetic

Fibres Fibres

Plant Animal Organic Inorganic

Diagram 1.1

The Natural Fibres consists:

1. Plant (vegetable) origin style fibre as (i) Seed and fruit fibres i.e. Cotton. (ii) Bast
fibres i.e. Jute, Flax, Hemp, Sunnkenaf, Urena, Ramie and Nettle etc. (iii) Leaf fibres
i.e. Sisal, Henequen, Abaca (Manila), etc.

9
2. Animal origin fibres such as Wool, Silk, etc.

3. Mineral origin fibre as like Asbestos.

The Man-made Fibres consisting:

(A) Natural Polymer fibres: (i) Cellulose fibres such as Viscose, rayon. (ii)
Cellulose ester fibres. (iii) Protein fibres such as Soyabean, Groundnut protein. (iv)
Natural rubber etc.

(B) Synthetic Fibres: (i) Polyamide fibres includes variety of Nylon. (ii) Polyester
fibres (iii) Polyolefin. (iv) Polyurethane fibres, (v) Ploy vinyl derivative fibre (vi)
diverse Synthetic fibres as like Glass, Aluminum, Silicate, Metallic, Polycarbonate,
etc.

Chart 1.1: Types of Fibres and Their Sources/Classification

Fibers Sources Or Classification
Natural Fibers:
Cotton Cotton Plant (Cellulose)
Linen Flax Plant (Cellulose)
Wool Sheep (Protein)
Silk Silkworm (Protein)
Man-Made Fibers:
Viscose Rayon Cotton Plant (Cellulose)
Cuprammonium Rayon Cotton Plant (Cellulose)
Acetate Tree (Cellulose)
Vicara Corn (Protein)
Synthetic Fibers:
Nylon Polyamide
Orlon Acrylic
Acrilan Acrylic
Dynel Acrylic
X-51 Acrylic
Dacron Polyester
Vinyon N Vinyl Resin
Saran Vinylidene Chloride
Fiberglas Glass

10
In addition animal fibers as like camel’s hair, cashmere, mohair, llama, alpaca, and
vicuna as well as certain mineral and vegetable fibers, also have different uses in the
textile industry.30

Salient features of cotton fiber:

Cotton fiber is the only lengthened cell. This fiber have about 90% cellulose
and about 6% moisture, the remaining contains are natural contamination.31 this fibers
simply spun into yarn. It is feeling soft and cool to touch. The long filament is known
in the textile industry as continuous filament fiber. The short filament is called staple
and is used for soft cloths.32 cotton is the short fiber, varying from ½ inch to 2 ½
inches.

Cotton Products:

COTTON

Lint (Fiber) Seed

Textiles (Fabrics) Oil (15%) Cake (85%)

Diagram 1.2

Nature of the Textile Industry in India

Indian Textile industry generally divided into two broad sectors first one is
‘Mill sector’ and second is ‘Decentralised sector’. Both have huge importance and
contributing in rising quantities of textiles in the total cloth production in the country.

Textiles is being produced into three kinds namely, (1) cotton cloth, (2)
mixed/blended cloth in which cloth is manufactured using both cotton thread and

11
man-made fibre and (3) cloth manufactured by using only man-made fibres. It may
also be pointed out that cloth is produced in India in the ‘Decentralised sector’ which
is made by thousands of powerlooms and handlooms with which cloth is produced
and moreover cloth is also produced in the organised textile mills.

The textile industry is very comprehensive industry, it consist of two broad sectors i.e.
organised sector and Decentralised sector.

1. Organised Sector also called Mill Sector consist two kinds of mills,

(a) Spinning Mills producing yarn only.

(b) Composite Mills producing yarn as well as weaving cloth (both the spinning and
weaving process takes place under one roof).

2. Decentralized Sector consisting:

(a) Power looms where produces fabrics from mill made yarn, and

(b) Handlooms producing cloth both from mill made and hand spun yarn.

Textile Sector

Organised Sector
(Mill Sector) Decentralised Sector

Spinning Mills
(Only Spinning Composite Powerloom
Process) Mills Sector Handloom
(Spinning +
Weaving +
Sector
Processing)

Diagram 1.3

Mill Sector (Organised)

The mill segment is organized more than powerloom and handloom sector.
The reason is that this segment is occupied by the capitalists. Country’s first mill was

12
established in Mumbai in 1854; near the ports where imports and exports facility were
situated. Moreover, free lands and tax facilities greatly contributed to enlarge the
textile industries. As a result the regional inequality came into exist in the textile
sector in India.

 Spinning mills: there is chain procedure from cotton bales to yarn or threads.
The yarn is wound in form of cones and these packages go to powerlooms for
weaving process. Spinning activity is a unique task and requires capital in large
extent to run a spinning process. Now days, spinning mills are largely centered in
south India like Tamil Nadu.

 Composite mills practices spinning, weaving and processing activity. The mills
those converts cotton into a finished cloth is called as ‘composite mill’. It
engaged in cotton to cloth process so produces ultimate fabrics/cloths such as
Dhotis, Sarees, Suiting, shirting or other items.

The farmers are harvesting cotton physically in cotton farm and put on the
market to either procurement agency of govt. or traders. This so collected cotton
grading by a grader for examine parameters such as staple length fibre maturity, luster
etc. and stored in the ginning sections. The ginning factories which located in cotton
growing area, gin the cotton by removing seeds, stones, trash, unfamiliar things etc.
and press the cotton in the form of bales of 170 kilos each that is raw material for the
spinning and composite mills. The composite mills made a yarn and wound it in cones
for to weave a cloth. After the yarn is woven into cloth it is sent for succeed
processing such as bleaching, dyeing and printing before it is sold to target
consumers. Composite mills are a large business enterprise wants huge investments
and working capital.

Recently mill sector suffered crises such as losses, lack of demand for
products during global recession period, yet mills faced a number of problems which
include outdated plant and machineries, scarcity of skilled labour force and lack of
quality raw material as per require staple etc. accordingly many mills going towards
the sickness and some have been closed due to these. It requires huge capital for its
replacement of machinery or modernization.

13
Powerloom Sector
The term powerloom means looms working by electrical power which is
automatically transmitted and is not created by human. In broad sense, the handloom
industry, which contains efficient automatic power with a view to eliminate boring
and fruitless operation, is known as powerloom industry. There are two types of
powerlooms, the first one is automatic powerlooms and second is non-automatic
powerlooms. Powerlooms spread all over either urban or sub-urban part of the
country. It has become a source of employment to the educated or uneducated
unemployed both skilled and unskilled peoples.

Powerlooms is an intermediate process in cotton textile industry. It has only

weaving process. The powerloom sector purchase cotton yarn which produces by the
spinning mills, convert it into cloth/fabrics as per require quality and market demands.
This is decentralised sector and such the gray cloth is sold to traders who collects
similar quality cloth from powerloom owners and gather a one lot which is necessity
for processing. The powerlooms technology is of lower order and capital required is
also much less. Further it encourages the entrepreneurship to middle class people.
This sector now manufacturing nearly 65 % of the total fabrics which produced in
India.33 In the developing nations as like India, the powerlooms play a leading role in
generate the employment. The powerloom sector has now come to wait and growing
and also modernizing to fight with the attack of other countries like china. So far this
industry was labour intensive, but with the introduction of modernize or electronic
equipments it will be capital intensive industry.

Handloom Sector
The handloom cloth namely ‘Himroo’ was famous in India for the skill of
weavers while day after day the handloom weaving is dropping. At present a short
number of cities in India are produced handloom cloths. This industry is also facing
different problems in India, because it’s completely labour oriented one. The
implementation of modern techniques and economic liberalization has made worried
into the handloom sector. The powerloom and mill sector (organised), generate
competition for handloom sector; reason that of availability of cheaper imported

14
fabrics, changing consumer preferences and alternative employment opportunities etc.
since independence, govt. has been supporting the handloom sector throughout a
number of programmes and schemes.

In the recent scenario India produces around 325 lakhs cotton bales (170 kgs
each) in 2012.34 Genetically modified (BT) cotton has been launched in India thus
farmers are now using new techniques in cultivation of cotton resulting India into a
net exporter of cotton which till 1990 was dependent on imports.

Fabric/cloth manufacturing chain:

The steps in the manufacture of fabrics, from raw material (cotton lint) to finished
goods, can be summarized thus:

 Fibre Spinning Yarn Weaving /KnittingGrey FabricFinishing

Process Finished Goods.

 Testing Fibers  For Identification

 Spinning  Cotton Fibre to Yarn

 Weaving Yarn to Fabric/Cloth

 Finishing  Appearance and Serviceability

 Dying  Finishing with Color

The cotton textile industry includes process from ginned cotton to cloth (fabric) or
finished goods. It goes through following stages:

15
Cotton Textile Manufacturing Process (Farm to Fabric)

Cotton Cultivation

Ginning Cotton Lint

(Fiber)

Spinning
Yarn

Weaving
Grey Fabric/ cloth

Dying

Finishing

Final Fabric/Cloth

Diagram 1.4:

Cloth (fabric) making is not only weaving process but it also consist pre and post
weaving practices. The details are given below:

16
Pre-Weaving Process:
 Cotton Picking and Harvesting: generally picking is yet mostly done by hand
in India. So, no doubt that it’s first preference than mechanical picking, as the
worker in the farm selects mostly mature bolls.

 Pre-Ginning Action: Before start the ginning course the cotton seeds is
subjected to a process of warm up and clean-up where sizeable quantity of trash,
dust etc. is eradicate.

 Ginning: The process of separating seeds from cotton is called Ginning. Two
generally known methods of ginning are ‘saw-ginning’ and ‘roller-ginning’.
Roller-gin is use for short and medium cotton. It gives clean lint with full
safeguarding of pre-ginned fiber characteristics. Saw-gin cotton is considered to
be better-quality and high percentage than with roller-gin.35

 Baling: cotton mills are generally located far away from the farm and ginning for
that reason it become essential that move the ginned cotton in a suitable form as
bales. After that blow room machines are required for processing cotton bales.36

Spinning: (Conversion of Fiber into Yarn):

The conversion of fiber into yarn which going through some basic process such as
Carding, Combing, Drawing, Twisting, and Winding. While unprocessed fiber passes
through concern processes, it is serially called as Lap, Silver, Roving, and finally
Yarn. Yarn is raw material to make cloth (fabric) which is made by fibres. It may be
made by natural fibres such as cotton, silk or wool fibres. 100 % non-cotton yarn
made by man-made fibres, Blended Yarn it means mixing of natural fibres into man-
made fibres for example, some cloths made by 60% cotton fibre with 40% polyester
fibre.

 Opening and Blending in Blow-room: the compressed bales of cotton fiber are
opened in blow room for release and expose to the air. The blending process is
for better homogeneity in the fibres. The real work of opening, cleaning and
blending is done by the blow room machines. It is the one and only purpose of
the blow-room machinery. 37

17
 Carding: the preliminary process of organize the different variety of fibers in a
matching approach, is called as carding. The main aim of carding is to remove
the contamination is an important task of the carding machine. Carding is the
heart of the complete spinning process and it is the most important step for
cleaning cotton, next to blow-room. 38

 Combing: The combing is the process which launched to manufacturing superior

or high quality yarn. The carded matter still includes some quantity of short
fibers, leaf particles and neps.39 The combing machine is for remove the
unnecessary content as like short fibres, neps and such other contamination. All
these to make straight or equivalent, better-quality, homogeneous and strong
yarns, and develop look of the yarns.

 Speed Frames: Speed frame is the last step into introductory spinning processes.
This is aiming to diminishing the sliver thickness to an appropriate width as much
as necessary for the ring frame. Drafting or fiber size falling right through
subsequent pairs of drafting breakers is the key task of a speed-frame. 40

 Doubling: In simple word, twisting collectively more than one yarn into single
ultimate yarn is called as doubling. The doubling process is to mix more yarns to
obtain more durable and standard yarn for wide-ranging utility. 41

 Roving: Bobbins are sited in the roving structure; these are of two types one is
medium and fine is second one.

 Spinning: Spinning is the last and an ultimate yarn manufacturing step. All the
prior stages are taking into account as an introductory spinning. Drafting is the
key process in spinning. The simple meaning of drafting is that reduction in
thickness of a collection of fibres. 42

Weaving Process: (Conversion of Yarn into Fabric):

The weaving is the second stage of development of cotton into cloth, next to spinning.

Preparation for weaving: in the basic arrangement of the cloth weaving process, the
lengthwise/vertical yarns are called warp. The across/horizontal yarns are called as
weft. Yarns proposed for the warp necessity to go by subsequently process as spool,
warp, and slash etc.

18
Amount of twist: the total round of wind as per inch is an important thing in
complete consumer goods. It determines the look as well as the strength of finished
cloths.

Yarn count: usually there is a fixed relation between the weight of the original size of
fiber and the length of the yarn produced from that extent of cotton. It is determined
by the extent of the drawing out process and is nominated by numbers, which are
called the yarn count.

Thread count: the durability of a fabric depends on the variety and quality of the
fiber, the strength, and round of wind in the yarn, the use of ply yarns as compared
with singles and compression of manufacturing. 43

Cloth Designs: in the textile industry, a pattern of the weave to be used in the
manufacture of a cloth is designed on cross section paper. Textile designer use that
type of graph paper to design textile/fabric weave. The horizontal squares represent
the filling yarn, vertical squares represent the warp.

 Plain weave: plain weave is the easy kind of manufacture hence economical to
produce. It use widely for cotton cloth and for cloths that are to be decorated with
printed designs.

 Twill weave: a different design in the form of crosswise is attributing of the

second basic weave called as twill. The twill weave present a distinct design in
the form of a diagonal.

 Satin and sateen weaves: in basic construction the satin weave is as like to the
twill weave but the diagonal of the satin weave is not able to be seen because it is
purposely broken up.

 Pile weave: the pile weave is a fancy weave that also includes a plain or a twill
structure weaving. The pile is produced by weaving an additional warp yarn or
filling yarn into the basic structure.

 Double cloth weave: in the double cloth weave two fabrics are woven on the
loom at the same time, one on top of the other. The fabric may have a plain
weave on one side and a twill weave on the other.

 Gauze weave: the gauze weave construction produces a fabric very light in
weight and with an open mesh effect.

19
 Swivel weave: the swivel weave is the technique by which attractive effects for
example dots, circles, or figures are interlock on the surface of a fabric while it is
being make on the loom.

 Lappet weave: the lappet weave is also used to place over a small design on the
surface of a cloth while it is being woven.

 Dobby weave: the dobby weave is a patterned weave used to construct design.
The dobby weave is created on a plain loom by means of a mechanical
attachment, called a dobby or cam.

 Jacquard weave: the jacquard design is first worked out on squared paper. The
preparation of a jacquard weave is the most expensive part of its construction.44

Post-Weaving Process:
Finishing (Appearance and Serviceability):

When fabric comes from the loom it called grey fabrics does not mean finished
products. It must go by different stages in finishing process. Finishing process
develops the appearance of the fabric and also may add to its serviceability and
durability.

Steps in Finishing Processes:

Finishing of fabrics generally goes through many forms, its adoption is depends on
the category of fibers and yarn used in the fabric manufacturing.

The universal stages which accepted to finishing of fabrics are as follows:

1. Singeing/ Gassing: singeing is one of the first essential preparatory processes

while a fabric is to have smooth finish. In the singeing process gray fabrics goes
rapidly over rows of gas flames or electrically heated plates with the speed of 100 to
250 yards per minute.

2. Bleaching: bleach can be done in the yarn stage as well as in the constructed fabric.
If cloth is to be finished white or is to be given surface ornamentation, all natural
color must be removed by bleaching. When cloth has been bleached for finishing, it is
called bleached product.

20
3. Mercerizing: mercerizing is an important preparatory process for cotton fabric.
Mercerizing is the simplest chemical method of producing luster in cotton and linen.
In addition to increased strength and luster, this process gives fabrics greater
absorbency for dyes.

4. Shrinking: when fibers are spun into yarn, they are under constant tension during
the weaving process. The yarn is made to assume a final condition by shrinking the
fabric in a preparatory finishing process this minimizes subsequent shrinkage.

5. Tentering: as a fabric passes through various finishing process, it becomes

irregular in width. To restore it to its proper width, the cloth must be stretched in some
parts and shrunk in others. This process is called tentering.

6. Sizing or dressing: cotton and lien can be given stiffness, smoothness, weight, and
strength by immersion in a solution of starch. This process is commonly known as
sizing.

7. Weighting: fabrics are sometimes weighted to give them additional body. When
cotton fabric is weighted with any of the various sizing agents, it is heavier and
appears to be closely constructed.

8. Calendering: calendaring is essentially an ironing process. It presses out folds or

creases in the fabric by passing it around a series of heavy, highly polished steam
heated rollers that move at different rates of speed and have varying degrees of heat.
Calendaring flattens the fabric, removing inequality of surface.

9. Schreinerizing: schreinerizing is an inexpensive method for imparting luster to

low priced cottons.

10. Moireing: by attaching engraved rollers to the calendaring machine, the

attractive, lustrous wavy design known as moiré can be produced.

11. Napping: in the napped fabrics, the thickness is only a surface fuzziness that is
the result of a brushing process. When a fabric is to be napped, the yarns intended for
the construction of the cloth are given only a slack twist in the spinning process.

12. Shearing: shearing is done by a cylindrical machine having rotating spiral blades
whose action resembles that of lawn mower. After shearing, the fabric is
automatically brushed to remove the sheared ends of the yarns.

21
13. Water repellency: there is only one method of making a fabric permanently
waterproof: by coating the surface of the cloth with rubber or with plasticized
synthetic resins treated with solvents. Water repellent fabrics must not be confused
with waterproof fabrics. A water repellent treatment does not affect the natural
characteristics of a fabric, including its porosity.

14. Flameproofing: flame proofing is a practical form of fire protection where a fire
resistant quality is desirable, as in fabrics used for awnings, mattresses, work clothes,
or draperies.

15. Mildewproofing: To prevent mildew, inorganic salts, such as magnesium

chloride, calcium chloride, and zinc chloride, are used as warp sizing.

16. Milium processing: this is a process of adding a coating of metallic particles on

one side of a fabric to give remarkable warmth retentive properties.

17. Slip resistance: in fabrics that have a low thread count, the warp yarns sometimes
slip along the filling yarns. This action is known as slipping. Fabrics labeled slip
resistant should be examined closely for thread count, as the resinous coating may be
used to create an effect of compactness in construction.

18. Antiseptic finishes: chemical antiseptic finished impart a self sterilizing quality to
a fabric. Dry cleaning does not impair the finish. 45

Dying (Finishing with Color):

Dyeing is the process in which coloring apply to the fabric/cloth. The dyeing and
printing processes to give lifelong attractiveness and pleasure to the eyes; it adds color
to fabrics and color joy by relaxing. Dyeing and printing be different in the process by
which color is applied to fabric.

Selection of Dye: To select the proper dye a fiber, it is necessary to know which dyes
have an affinity for the vegetable, animal, man-made or synthetic fibers. Direct dyes
are the easiest to produce, the simplest to apply, and the cheapest in their initial cost
as well as in application. Therefore, both the kind of fiber to be dyed and the intended
use for the fabric enter into the selection of the dye.

22
Natural dyes: primitive man obtained dyes from flowers, nuts, berries and other
forms of vegetable and plant life, as well as from mineral and animal sources. These
same sources have provided what are termed natural dyes throughout the succeeding
years of civilization.

Artificial dyes: although artificial dyes were first derived from coal tar in 1856, they
were not developed in the United States to any great extent until world war I.
innumerable dye compounds made from coal tar have now supplanted natural dyes.
These artificial or synthetic dyes are constantly being improved as to beauty of color
and colorfastness.

Classification of synthetic dyes:

The synthetic dyes are classified as 1. Acid, 2. Basic or alkali, 3. Neutral or

substantive. The substantive dyes are a new class especially adapted for cotton, linen
and rayons. For this reason, they are called direct cotton dyes.

Selection of Method of Dying: textiles may be dyed at any stages of their

development from fiber into fabric.

The methods are summarized as follows:

1. Stock dyeing, in the fiber stage: in stock dyeing, the fibers are immersed in a dye
bath, and the dyestuff is allowed to penetrate them. This method is considered most
desirable because maximum penetration may be expected when material is in this
form.

2. Yarn dyeing, after the fiber has been spun into yarn: Yarn dyed fabrics are usually
deeper and richer in color and tend to be more colorfast than when the fabric is dyed
after it is woven. In such fabrics, the warp yarn is usually one color and the filling
another color.

3. Piece dyeing, after the yarn has been constructed into fabric: when cloth is dyed
after it is woven, the process is called piece dyeing, sometimes dip dyeing. This
method is commonly used for the less expensive fabrics and it is used for a wide
variety of fabrics.

4. Cross dyeing, is a combination of either stock dyeing or yarn dyeing with

subsequent piece dyeing. Cross dyeing produces varied effects.46

23
Decoration (With Color Design):

Yarn is used to create some form of decoration in the fabric. In the weaving
process, decoration is also obtained by the pattern of the weave. All the foregoing
decorative effects are obtained at various stages of construction of the fabric some at
the fiber stage, others during the spinning and weaving processes, still others during
the finishing and weaving processes.

Methods of Decoration with Color: Decoration in the form of color can be applied
after the fabric has been otherwise finished. One such form of decoration is called
printing. Fabric that is to be must be singed, bleached and cleaned.

The methods of decoration that produce color designs are:

1. Block printing: the oldest method of printing designs on fabric is the hand method
called block printing.

2. Roller printing: this method of producing attractive design is relatively

inexpensive when compared with any hand method.

3. Duplex printing: duplex printing simulates a woven pattern by printing the fabric
on both sides.

4. Discharge or extract printing: the discharge or extract method of printing cloth

receives its name from the fact that color is discharged or extracted from fabric that
has first been piece-dyed.

5. Resist printing: in resist printing, bleached goods are run through cylinders that
stamp a pattern on the fabric in the form of a resist paste, a resinous substance that
cannot be penetrated when the fabric is subsequently immersed in a dye.

6. Stencil printing: In stencil printing, the design must first be cut in cardboard,
wood, or metal. A stencil design is usually limited to the application of only one color
and is generally used for narrow widths of fabric.

7. Screen printing: the chief advantage of screen printing is individuality of design.

The method is especially adapted for printing large designs having elaborate effects.

8. Warp printing: warp printing is roller printing applied to warp yarns before they
are woven into fabric. This method produces designs with soft, nebulous, but striking,
effects. Warp printing us used for expensive cretonnes and upholstery fabrics.

24
9. Photo printing: in this process, the fabric is coated with a chemical that is
sensitive to light. Any photograph then may be printed on the fabric.

10. Batik dyeing: the hand method of producing designs known as batik originated in
java. Batik is somewhat similar to the machine method of resist printing.

11. Tie dyeing: the results of tie dyeing are similar to batik, but the designs can be
only circular in form, as the dye is resisted by knots that are tied in the cloth before it
is immersed in the dye bath.

12. Spray painting: spray painting is used when surface coloring is to be done
quickly and economically: for example, designs on tablecloths.

In most of these methods, the dye is imprinted on the fabric in paste form, and any
desired pattern may be produced. Paste dyes require a sizing, such as cornstarch or
wheat starch, which acts as a blinder. 47

Table 1.1: Indian Textile Industry: At A Glance

(For the Year 2011-12)
Sr. Share
Items Unit India Maharashtra
no. (in %)

Cotton /Man-Made Fibre 1957 190

1 No. 9.71
Textile Mills (100) (100)
1761 153
2 Spinning mills (Non-SSI) No. 8.69
(89.98) (82.63)
196 37
3 Composite mills (Non-SSI) No. 18.88
(10.02) (19.47)
4 Spinning mills (SSI) No. 1336 27 0.02
Lakh
5 Powerloom units 5.20 2.87 55.19
No.
Lakh
5 No. of Powerlooms 22.98 11.77 51.22
No.
Lakh
6 No. of Handlooms 23.77 5718 0.24
No.
Source: Office of the Textile Commissioner, Mumbai.
Note: 1. figures in brackets shows % to row no. 1.

25
 Table 1.2: Fibre-Wise Cloth Production in India
(For the year 2011-12)

Types of Fibre Cloth Million Sq. Mtr.

Cotton 30570 (50.57)

Blended 8468 (14.01)

100% Non-Cotton 20567 (34.01)

Khadi, Wool & Silk 848 (1.40)

Total 60453 (100)

Source: Office of the Textile Commissioner, Mumbai.
Note: figures in brackets shows % to total.

Table 1.1, indicates textile glance of India with Maharashtra state. In the year
2011-12, there are 1957 Cotton/ Man-made fibre textile mills in India, 1761 (89.98%)
are spinning mills and 196 (10.02%) composite mills out of these. The share of
Maharashtra is 190 mills (9.71%) only. Besides there are 1336 small scale spinning
mills, 27 (only 0.02%) are in Maharashtra. The Maharashtra state has about 2.87 lakhs
powerloom units (55.19%) as against 5.20 lakh powerloom units in the country.
Maharashtra has 5718 handlooms which is only 0.24% as against 23.77 lakhs
handlooms in India. It is clear that the textile industry of Maharashtra is consolidating
with powerloom sector. (see table 1.1)

Table 1.2, show the fiber wise cloth production in India for the years 2011-12.
The cloth made by cotton fibre, blended fibre, totally non cotton fibre, it also made by
the wool, silk and Khadi fibre etc. From the above table one point is clearly reveal
that the major cloth (50.57 %) 30570 million sq.mtr. made by cotton fibre. Remaining
cloth made by 100% non-cotton (34.01%), blended (14.01%) and Khadi, wool & silk
(1.40%) fibres respectively. (see table 1.2)

26
 Indian textile industry can be divided into some segments such as Cotton
Textiles, Silk Textiles, Woolen Textiles, and Hand-crafted Textiles. In the modern era
highly modernized technique and computerized looms are used for the production of
fabrics. The entire process is being done by high technique machines. Earlier, textile
industry comprised only cloth weaving, but today it includes ginning, reeling,
spinning, weaving, processing, sizing, printing and also garments manufacturing.

Indian Textile Industry in the World Textile Economy

India contributes around 20% to world spindle age capacity, it is the second
highest spindle age in the world after China. It contributes 6% to the world rotorage
and 62% to the world loomage.48 yet this industry’s contribution is only 4.1% to the
world Shuttless loomage in High-tech Shuttless Looms. India produces about 12% of
the world textile fibers and yarns production. It is the largest producer of Jute, second
largest producer of silk and cellulose fiber / yarn, third largest producer of cotton and
fifth largest producer of synthetic fibers / yarns. India’s key assets include sufficiency
in raw material and spinning capacities, a large and low-cost labour force and sizable
supply of fabric. On the basis of these strengths, India becomes a major outsourcing
hub for foreign manufacturers and retailers, with composite mills and large integrated
firms being their preferred partners. It will thus be essential for SMEs to align with
these firms that can ensure a market for their products and new orders.

Role of Textile Industry in India

The textile industry plays a crucial role in the India’s economy. It has a great
contribution to the economy of the country. It also contributes to the industrial output,
employment generation and foreign exchange earnings. The value addition in the
manufacturing sector is 14 percent and the contribution to GDP is from 4 percent.
Export earnings by the textile industry in India are 11 percent of the total export. The
textile industry spread from rural areas to the big cities as like Ahmedabad, Mumbai,
Calcutta, and Chennai etc. In rural areas handlooms are busy in producing cloth. In
small cities, thousands of powerlooms are working in the textile field. Lakhs of poor
people are getting their livelihood by manufacturing cloth. They also provide the local

27
requirement of cloth on a lower rate of price. In this respect, the textile industry is
ranked next to agriculture in India. Textile industries are established near the cotton
growing areas and near the port, which had the facility of import and export.

Growth of Indian Handloom Sector

Handloom industry is the oldest one in the country. This industry has been
playing a vital role in the production of cloth for countries. The Indian Muslim
weavers attracted the buyers of foreign countries as like Egypt, Arab, Greece and
Rome. The handloom sector was in full gear during the Second World War. During
the ear time, this industry satisfied the internal demand of the country. After the war,
this sector however, suffered a setback. Handloom weaving is one of the largest
economic activities after agriculture providing direct and indirect employment to
more than 43 lakh weavers and allied workers. This sector contributes nearby 15% of
the cloth production in the country49 and also contributes to the export earning of the
country. 95% of the world’s hand woven fabric comes from India.

The handloom and power loom sector is the largest activities after Agriculture
providing direct and indirect employment to more than 30 lakh weavers. 50 This sector
contributes nearly 22 percent of the total cloth produced in the country and also
contributed substantially to the export income of the country.

The handloom sector has been assigned place of pride in various policy
pronouncement and programmes of the government of India. In 20 point programme
to “Attack on rural poverty”, inter alia, commits the government to promote
handlooms, handicrafts, village and small industries and improve skills for self
employment. The approach to the VIII plan focuses attention on stepping up
employment growth rate by adopting suitable strategies in urban and rural areas.
About 6000 years ago, the handloom weavers realized the significance of ‘community
activity’ and gradually started to have their smaller groups.51 Of course, all the
members of a family have been used to get involved in weaving and other related
functions, to produce a handloom product. This family involvement then developed
into a handloom society. Different handloom products were named with their regional
identification e.g. kanchipuram silk, solapuri chaddars, farukabad prints, uppada and
kothapali is Buta work sarees, Banarasee sarees, etc. Every region was specialised in a

28
particular handloom product and related designs. The handloom weavers would
usevarieties of fibres to make the product durable and distinctive. They used cotton,
pure silk, artificial silk, wool, jute, coir, hemp, flax, synthetic threads (zari).

The handloom sector has a unique place in our economy. It has been sustained
by transferring skills from one generation to another. The strength of the sector lies in
its uniqueness, flexibility of production, openness to innovations, adaptability to the
supplier’s requirement and the wealth of its tradition. Due to various policy initiatives
and scheme interventions as like cluster approach, aggressive marketing initiative and
social welfare measures, the handloom sector has shown positive growth and the
income level of weavers has improved. The handloom fabric production has been
very impressive and growth has been at the rate of 6% to 7% in the beginning of the
11th Plan.

In the Indian context, there are certain inherent advantages of handloom over
powerloom and mill sectors.52 these advantages are as follows. (a) Less capital
requirement (b) cottage industry (c) employment potentiality is large (d) minor
consumption of energy (e) simple mechanism (f) taste of consumers looked after (g)
capability of introducing suitable design. (h) No formal training required.

The subsequent economic downturn has affected all the sectors in India and
handloom sector was no exception. The production had declined nominally in 2008-
09. Now, there is a positive sign and production has shown upward growth. The
export of handloom products has also shown a positive trend. In the cluster approach,
efforts were made to cover groups of 100 to 25000 weavers through different cluster
sizes for their integrated and holistic development. The yarn supply under Mill Gate
Price Scheme has increased three fold. Aggressive marketing initiative through
marketing events (600-700 events per year) has helped weavers and their cooperative
societies to understand the market trend and consumer choice, besides selling
products directly to the customers. For a focused attention on the sector, the Ministry
has started celebrating ‘Handloom week’ every year. The handloom forms a precious
part of the generational legacy and exemplifies the richness and diversity of our
country and the artistry of the weavers. Tradition of weaving by hand is a part of the
country’s cultural ethos. As an economic activity, handloom is the one of the largest
employment providers after agriculture. The sector provides employment to 43.31
lakh persons engaged on about 23.77 lakh handlooms – of which, 10% are from

29
scheduled castes, 18% belong to scheduled tribes, 45% belong to other backward
classes and 27% are from other castes. Production in the handloom sector recorded a
figure of 6900(P) million sqr. Meters in the year 2011-12, which is about 25% over
the production figure of 5493 million sqr. Meters recorded in the year 2003-04.
During 2012-13 production in the handloom sector is reported to be 5178 million sqr.
Meters in 2012.

Growth of powerloom industry in India

It is very difficult to indicate that when and where the first powerloom was set
up in the country. However, the fact finding committee had pointed out that there
were 15 thousand powerlooms in 1942. The main centers of powerlooms were
Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Ichalkaranji, Solapur, Surat, Tanda and Jabalpur. Some other
state having powerlooms are west Bengal, Karnataka and Panjab. In 1941 Mumbai
had almost 55% of the total powerloom on the country. 53 Other important states were
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. In 1958 the powerloom spread out rapidly in other
states also.

The decentralized powerloom sector plays a unique role in meeting the

clothing needs of the country. The growth and expansion of powerloom industry over
the years have been phenomenal. Not only the production of cloth but also the
employment has been increasing rapidly in the powerloom sector. The powerloom
industry produces a wide range of cloth, both grey and processed. The production of
powerloom sector is 55 percent of the total production of cloth in the country. The
first powerloom unit was set up in 1904 in the country the growth of powerloom
industry started during the First World War. The number of units was increasing
slowly. After the Second World War there was rapid growth in the powerloom sector.
In 1958 the number of powerlooms went up to 44500. In 1980 it increased by 45
lakhs.

Table 1.3: Powerloom Units with Powerlooms in India

For the year 2011-12
Powerloom units No. of powerlooms
(in Lakhs) (in Lakhs)
5.20 22,98,377
Source: Annual Report (2012-13), Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India.

30
There are 5.20 lakhs powerloom units in India with 2298377 lakhs looms installed in
the year 2011-12. It means every unit having minimum four looms or more than that.
So, it’s come under the small scale sector.

The decentralized powerloom sector is one of the most important segments of

the Textile Industry in terms of fabric production and employment generation. It
provides employment to 57.44 Lakh persons and contributes 62 percent to total cloth
production in the Country.54 More than 60% of fabric meant for export is also sourced
from powerloom sector. The readymade garments and home textile sectors are heavily
dependent on the powerloom sector to meet their fabric requirement. There are
approximately 5.24 Lakh Powerloom Units with 23.24 Lakh Powerlooms as on
30.09.2012. The technology level of this sector varies from obsolete plain loom to
high tech shuttleless looms. There is approximately 1,05,000 shuttleless looms in this
sector. It is estimated that more than 75% of the shuttle looms are obsolete and
outdated with a vintage of more than 15 years and have virtually no process or quality
control devices / attachments. However, there has been significant upgradation in the
technology level of the powerloom sector.

Powerloom Industry in Maharashtra state

After the first world war, the textile industry was mainly concentrated in
Mumbai (Bombay) due to the humid climate which is suited for the cotton spinning,
transport facility, import and export facility, connection to big cities of India by
railways, roads and air, capital of the state, cheap and skilled labour etc. Bombay was
the main place in the textile industry. All types of cloths such as long cloth, grey
cloth, suiting, shirting, printed materials, dhoties and silk Sarees were some of the
special products of Bombay textile industry. But today, Bhiwandi, Ichalkaranji and
Malegaon are the part and parcel of Maharashtra powerloom industry.

Powerloom Clusters in Maharashtra:

Bhiwandi, Malegaon and Ichalkaranji are the main powerloom clusters in
Maharashtra includes major portion of powerloom industry of state and also India.
Solapur and Nagpur also have given their own contribution to make cloth by different

31
fibres in powerloom industry. All these centres have a speciality in the pattern of
weaving and are known for their variety of cloths.

Bhiwandi is in Thane district located near to Mumbai. Because of locality,

Bhiwandi received all facilities that are available in Mumbai. The powerloom industry
got rapid growth and expansion due to financial assistance and support of mill owners
from Mumbai. Ichalkaranji has given a new concepts and dimensions to textiles in
India by setting up power looms, a sizing unit, Shuttle less looms, Export Oriented
Units etc. The specialty of this centre is the product of multi coloured. ‘Patal’ Sarees
made from imported yarn. After 1956, the weavers of Ichalkaranji shifted their
production to grey cloth in fine and superfine Dhoties and mulls. Influenced with the
present age of modernization, the weavers are on the path of modernization of
powerlooms. Ichalkaranji is famous for its superfine Dhoties and multi colour Sarees
that are engaged in manufacturing Jacquard chaddars and towels that earn a handsome
foreign exchange for the country. Malegaon and Dhule are well known for coloured
Sarees with silk and zari border Irkal, zari-zamin, Apsara, Mangla, Boutique is some
of the famous pattern of Sarees. Moreover grey cloth is another product of the centre.
Today some powerlooms are manufacturing grey cloth of cotton, polyester etc.

Needs and Importance of the Study

Textile Industry has a significant presence in the Indian economy. Apart from
providing one of the basic necessities of life, the textile industry also plays a pivotal
role through its contribution to industrial output, employment generation and the
export earnings of the country. It contributes about 14% to the industrial production,
4% to the GDP and 11% to the country’s export earnings.55 the textile sector is the
second largest provider of employment after agriculture. The Indian textiles industry
is extremely varied, with the hand-spun and hand-woven sector at one end of the
spectrum, and the capital intensive, sophisticated mill sector at the other. The
decentralized powerlooms/ hosiery and knitting sector form the largest section of the
Textiles Sector. The close linkage of the Industry to agriculture and the ancient
culture, and traditions of the country make the Indian textiles sector unique in
comparison with the textiles industry of other countries.

32
 Handloom weaving is one of the largest economic activities after agriculture
providing direct and indirect employment to more than 43 lakh weavers and allied
workers. This sector contributes nearby 15% of the cloth production in the country
and also contributes to the export earning of the country. 95% of the world’s hand
woven fabric comes from India.56 the decentralised powerloom sector is one of the
most important segments of the Textile Industry in terms of fabric production and
employment generation.

The Cotton / Man-made fibre textile industry is the largest organized industry
in the country in terms of employment and number of units. Besides, there are a large
number of subsidiary industries dependent on this sector, such as those manufacturing
machinery, accessories, stores, ancillaries, dyes & chemicals. As on 30.11.2011, there
were 1946 cotton/man-made fibre textile mills (non-SSI) in the country with an
installed capacity of 43.13 million spindles 5,20,000 rotors and 52,000 looms. 57 the
incidence of sickness and closure in the organized textiles industry in India is a matter
of concern. the main cause of sickness is structural transformation resulting in the
composite units in the organized sector losing ground to power looms in the
decentralised sector, on account of the latter's greater cost effectiveness. Other causes
of sickness or closure of the mills include low productivity due to lack of
modernization, stagnation in demand and inability of some units to expand in the
export market, increase in the cost of inputs, difficulties in getting timely and
adequate working capital and the availability of power, labour disputes, excess
capacity, failure to diversify in emerging areas, poor management, etc.58

Total 60 cotton/ man-made fibre textile mills (Non-SSI) are under sickness or
closer in Maharashtra state as on 31-03-2012. It includes 45 Spinning mills and 15
composite mills. Due to sickness and closer mills 1116002 Spindles, 17152 roters,
6375 looms and 36460 workers affected in the state.59

In 2011-12, Maharashtra state has 190 Cotton /Man-Made Fibre Textile (Non-
SSI) Mills which is only 9.71 per cent in compare to India. There is only 0.02% (27)
small scale spinning mills, out of 1336 in India. At the same year number of
Handlooms is 0.24% (5,718) out of India. However, Maharashtra has 30 per cent land
under cotton cultivation with produce 20 per cent raw cotton in compares to India.
Beside this there are 2.87 lakhs (55.19%) powerloom units in the state out of 5.20

33
lakhs in India. The textile industry of Maharashtra is consolidating with powerloom
sector. This majority of powerlooms are located in three powerloom clusters which
are Bhiwandi (Thane district), Malegaon (Nashik district) and Ichalkaranji (Kolhapur
district). Vidarbha, Marathwada and North-Maharashtra are the main cotton
producing areas in the state. The majority of cotton mills whether it is private or co-
operative are located in part of western Maharashtra as like Kolhapur, solapur,
Sangali etc. Handlooms are in Solapur, Nagpur, Bhandara and Nashik district which
is negligible in comparison with India.

Table 1.4: Textile Industries in Maharashtra State

No. of Industries.
Industry groups
2009-10 2010-11

Cotton ginning, cleaning etc. 582 (2.99) 927 (3.24)

Textile Group 1389 (7.14) 1974 (6.91)

Wearing apparel 557 (2.86) 1104 (3.86)

Total of all textiles groups 2528 (12.99) 4005 (14.01)

Total of all Industry groups 19459 (100) 28579 (100)

Source: Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2012-13

The textile industry group has 14.01% share in all industry groups of Maharashtra
state for the years 2010-11. It includes 3.24% of cotton ginning, cleaning, 6.91% of
textiles and 3.86% of wearing apparel respectively.

The main products exported from the State are includes textiles, readymade
garments, cotton yarn. Members in major agro-processing co-operatives such as
Cotton ginning & pressing has 4%, Spinning mills 14%, Handloom 2%, Powerloom
1 per cent.60 There is 670 co-operative handloom and 1,471 powerloom societies in
the State as on 31st March, 2012. The contribution of the State in share capital of co-
operative handloom and powerloom societies was 6.3 and 55.1 per cent respectively.
About 46.3 per cent co-operative handloom and 39.0 per cent power loom societies
were in loss. There were 161 co-operative cotton ginning & pressing societies in the

34
State as on 31st March, 2012.61 The State’s share capital of these societies was 20 per
cent. About 76.4 per cent societies were in loss. There were 166 co-operative spinning
mills in the State as on 31st March, 2012. The State’s share capital of these societies
was 84.2 per cent. About 33.7 per cent societies were in loss.

Maharashtra has ranks second in India in respect of production of cotton;

accounts for 20% of the country’s total cotton production. Cotton is an important cash
crop in the state comprises around 3 million farmers in cultivation. Maharashtra has
average 30% of the country’s total land under cotton crop. Vidarbha, Marathwada and
North-Maharashtra (Khandesh) are the main cotton producing areas in the state. The
average area under cotton crop for years 2007-08 to 2009-10, was 3,244 thousand
hectors which was 33.6 per cent in compare with 9,651 thousand hectors in India.62
During Kharif season of 2011-12, Area under cotton crop was 4,167 thousand hectors
which was 28.05 per cent of the total area under principal crops in the state. The
Production was 6,820 thousand bales (bale of 170 Kg. each) in that particular year.

Majority of the raw cotton goes out of Maharashtra for the further processing.
Thus need of adequate number of industries with modern technology and huge
installed capacity to consume cotton which is growing in Maharashtra. The cotton
textile industry is undergoing a very challenging time since the beginning of this
century. In 2005 the traditional quota system for textiles and clothing finally phased
out. The global financial and economic crisis in 2008-2009 (global recession period),
had a negative effect on the cotton textile industry. In 2011 cotton prices raised and
reached historic record levels.63

Considering the all above facts it was necessary to study the cotton textile
industry of Maharashtra. So, the researcher carried this research activity entitled
“Growth of Cotton Textile Industries in Maharashtra”.

35
OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH STUDY:
The specific objectives of the present research study were as follows:

 To study the growth of cotton textile industries in Maharashtra since industrial

revolution till the present situation.
 To examine of the agricultural profile of Maharashtra to know the growth of
cotton textile industries.
 To study the problems of cotton textile industries and to suggest the remedies
there on.
 To know the various entrepreneurial dimensions through the sample survey of
entrepreneurs in the development of cotton textile industry in Maharashtra.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDY:

The scope of the research study was well considered in two dimensions
geographically and operationally. The present research work attempts to study the
cotton textile industries in Maharashtra state. It has covered mill sector (organised
sector). This research study is based on extensive data for the period of Ten years.

Every research study has some limitations. There were certain limitations
while undertaking the present research work. This study was limited with the
geographical area of Maharashtra state and for Mill sector (organised sector) only.
The period of the research study was limited to Ten years i.e. from 2003 to 2012.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
The following different aspects of methodology were adopted for the research study.

Sources of Data Collection:

The present research work based on information which was collected through the
primary and secondary sources.

Primary Data: - Primary data was collected through questionnaire and partly
interviews with concern authorities of cotton textile industries (mills) such as
Managing Director, production Manager, Human Resource manager, spinning master,
marketing Manager (sales director), Accountant, labour welfare officer and labours

36
etc. with the help of questions to seek the information regarding problems of the mills.
Researcher questions were objective oriented and related to hypothesis of the present
research work.

SAMPLE SIZE:
As per textile commissioner Mumbai, there were total 190 (154 spinning + 36
composite) Cotton/ Man-made fibre textile industries (Mills) (Non SSI), out of which,
total 126 mills (107 spinning + 19 composite) were actually in working condition as
on March 2013. The researcher selected around 10% samples those are in working
condition in geographical regions of the Maharashtra state. For this purpose
researcher has classified geographical regions on the base of cotton growing areas as
i.e. Vidarbha, Marathwada, North Maharashtra (Khandesh) and Rest of Maharashtra.
The sample selection was based on deliberate random sampling basis. The details
about sample selection are given below:

Selection of Sample Size in Maharashtra

Regions Composite mills Spinning mills Total

Vidarbha 08 (02) 27 (02) 35 (04)

Marathwada 00 (00) 14 (03) 14 (03)

North Maharashtra 00 (00) 07 (01) 07 (01)

Rest of Maharashtra 11 (00) 59 (04) 70 (04)

Total 19 (02) 107 (10) 126 (12)

Note: Figures in bracket Shows Selected Sample Size.

Secondary data: - The relevant information collected from Annual reports and office
records of selected mills, office records of textile commissioner Mumbai. Secondary
data trapped from government publication like Economic survey of Maharashtra,
relevant books, research papers published in journals, articles in newspapers and also
from published or unpublished relevant information source. Data retrieved from
official websites of Textile commissioner Mumbai, Government of India and Ministry
of textile, government of Maharashtra.

37
DATA ANALYSIS:
For analysis and interpretation some statistical tools are used such as
percentage, average and simple growth rate, annual growth rate was used wherever
possible and needs. The graphs also used for simplification of data. Hypotheses were
tested through findings of the present research study. The conclusions are drawn on
the basis through data analysis of questionnaire, partly interviews, observations, and
also from secondary data.

HYPOTHESIS:
Following hypothesis are tested through findings of the present research study.

1. The cotton textile industries of Maharashtra state have a scope to expand their
business if they are well managed.

2. The major problems of cotton textile industries of the Maharashtra state relates to
fluctuating policies of the government and seasonal weather fluctuations.

PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH STUDY:

I. INTRODUCTION:
Chapter I introduce the research topic, its starts from origin of cotton,
historical background of cotton trade and cotton textile industry in India. Kinds of
fibers, structure of textile industry, process of fabric production etc are mentioned. An
overview of the textile industry in India and their role in world textile economy is
mentioned. In the last part of this chapter, needs and importance of the research
subject are discussed. The objectives of the research study, scope and limitations,
hypothesis are discussed here. The adoption of Research methodology, sources of
data collection, description of samples selected by deliberate random sampling
method and their analysis through statistical tools used by researcher. In the last, the
chapter scheme was proposed.
About 60% of the Indian textile Industry is cotton based. Maharashtra
accounts 2nd largest position in India as cotton production likewise 30% areas under

38
cotton cultivation. Vidarbha, Marathwada and North-Maharashtra are the main cotton
producing areas in the state.

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

In this chapter reviewed of available literature on several attributes on cotton
textile industries. The number of researchers gave their contribution in a different
point of view of cotton textile industry through their research study, research papers
and books. J. M. Shaikh and Virambhai S. Zala have contributed in financial aspects
of cotton mills. Pradosh Nath, N. Mrinalini and G. D. Sandhya focused on
modernization and R&D. M. Gurusamy Dr. N. Rajasekar studied Corporate Social
Responsibility. Dr. Asiya Chaudhary, Dr. P.komarsamy & Dr. L. Maniyannan, Dr.
Mukud Mudragi, Mr. V. R. Sai Ganesh significantly contribute in the study of post
MFA, competitiveness in liberalisation period, foreign direct investment etc. N. H.
Thakar, Ektate A. G. and M. L. Dantwala, Dikshita Padalkar were focused on
historical background of textile industry. B. M. Sangeetha, M. Rajeswari and Paul
Kornelius studied environmental aspects of the industry. Barua, S. and Dr. N.
Rajasekar & M. Gurusamy highlights in different point of views.

III. GROWTH OF COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY SINCE

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
In chapter III, the historical aspects of cotton textile industry are discussed from
industrial revolution at global level and first mills established in 1854 at Mumbai. The
growth of this industry in British period, in World War I and II, and growth after
independence of India is also described. The Locational pattern of this industry,
sickness problem, role of National Textile Corporation in revival of this industry,
national textile policy 1985 reviewed here.

IV. COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN THE ERA OF

GLOBALISATION:
This industry was de-licensed in 1991-92, while India accepts Liberalisation,
privatization and globalisation in 1991. Chapter IV describes the role of WTO in
textile industry, Multi-Fiber Agreement (MFA) of 1974; its replacement in the Agreement
on Textile and Clothing (ATC) in 1994. Export of India’s textiles, foreign direct investment
(FDI) in Indian textile sector. The national textile policy 2000 and growth trends in textile

39
sector after the year 2000, also reviewed here. The schemes for technology upgradation
(TUF) and schemes for integrated textile park are also stated in this chapter.

V. COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF MAHARASHTRA,

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS:
This chapter studies the cotton profile of Maharashtra state, cotton trade and cotton
industries and trade centres in ancient Maharashtra. Current scenario of this industry
in the state with co-operative sector is also stated. FDI in textile industry, performance
of TUF Schemes in Maharashtra, the growth of handlooms, powerlooms and their
schemes as well as newly sanctioned textile parks in Maharashtra. New textile policy
2011-17 is also mentioned in present chapter. Lastly the problems facing by cotton
textile industry in Maharashtra and prospects before their are highlighted.

VI. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION, HYPOTHESIS

TESTING:

The researcher analysed and interprets the data collected from selected cotton textile
industries including both spinning and composite mills those are actual working
condition in Maharashtra state. For analysis and interpretation some statistical tools
like percentage, average and growth rates are used wherever possible and needs as
well as graphs were made for simplification of data. In the last part of this chapter,
hypotheses are tested by the researcher through findings of the present research study
and with the support of relevant secondary data.

VII. CONCLUSION, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

This chapter sums up various aspects of the research work and presents an overall
depiction of the cotton textile industries in Maharashtra. Based on the field survey
through questionnaire and partly interviews, discussion with mills authorities, primary
and secondary data collected, conclusions reached about cotton textile industries in
Maharashtra are described in this chapter. Conclusions are drawn through the analysis
of filed survey which conducted by questionnaire, partly interviews, observations and
discussion with mills authorities. Secondary data’s such as annual reports of selected
mills were also use to come out the conclusions.

40
References:
1. Desai. S. M. (1988). Industrial economy of India. Bombay: Himalaya publishing
house. P. 1

2. Ibid, P. 2

3. Annual Report of textile (2012-13), Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India.

4. Thakkar N. H. (1949). Indian Cotton Textile Industry during Twentieth Century

(with special reference to war periods). Bombay: Vora & Co. Publication
Limited. p.28.

5. Dantwala M. L. (1937). Marketing of Raw Cotton in India. Bombay: Longmans

Green and Co. Ltd. p.1.

6. Retrieved from mahacot.com/pdfs/cotton.pdf

7. Dantwala M. L. (1948). A Hundred Years of Indian Cotton. Bombay: Orient

Longmans Ltd. P. 1

8. ibid, p. 2

9. ibid, p. 8

10. Thakkar N. H. (1949). op.cit. p. 29

11. Dantwala M. L. (1937). Op. cit. p. 1

12. Retrieved from mahacot.com/pdfs/cotton.pdf

13. Krishnamurthy O. S. (1970). The cotton handloom industry in India. In Vadilal

Dagli (Eds). A Profile of Indian Industry. Bombay: Vora & Co. Publishers Pvt.
Ltd. p. 175.

14. Shaikh J. M. (1992). Financial Working of Co-Operative Cotton Textile Industry

in Solapur District (1984 to 1992). Ph. D thesis submitted to Dr. B. A. M.
University, Aurangabad. p. 20

15. Ektate A.G. (1992). Production and marketing of handloom terrycot cloth in
Nanded district. Ph.D thesis submitted to Dr. B A M University, Aurangabad.

16. Retrieved from www.eklavya.in/pdfs/.../06%20 History. p. 131

17. Ibid. p. 132

41
18. Ibid. p. 133

19. Thakkar N. H. (1949). Op. Cit. p. 29

20. Ibid. p. 30

21. Dantwala M. L. (1948). Op. Cit. Pp. 5, 6, 8.

22. Mrs. Taralekar P.M. (2012). A Study of Problems and Prospectus of Weaving
Sector in Textile Industry of Ichalkaranji. Ph.D thesis submitted to Shri Jagdish
Prasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Rajasthan.

23. Badri Narayanan G. (Nov. 20, 2013). Implications of History for the Current
Policies and Industrial Structure: The Case of Indian Textile Sector. Retrieved
from http://ssrn.com/abstract=2358020

24. Dr. Asiya Chaudhary. (February 2011). Changing Structure of Indian Textiles
Industry after MFA (Multi Fiber Agreement) Phase out: A Global Perspective.
Far East Journal of Psychology and Business Vol. 2 No 2.

25. Annual Report (1992-93), Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India.

26. Annual Report, Textile (2012-13). op.cit.

27. Sanginow B. (1987). Fine-Fibre Cotton Growing in the Central Asian Region. In
Regional Imperatives in Utilisation and Management of Resources Indian and the
USSR. S. Manzoor Alam Asiya Habeeb Kidwai (Eds.). New Delhi: Concept
Publishing Company. P. 487

28. M. David Potter, Bernard P. Corbman (1954). Fibre to fabric. Gregg publishing
division McGraw-Hill book company, Inc. New York P. 2

29. Ibid. p. 4

30. Ibid. pp. 4-11

31. Ibid. pp. 14-16

32. Annual Report of Textile (2012-13). op.cit.

33. Ibid.

34. M. David Potter, Bernard P. Corbman (1954). Op.cit. pp. 49-60

35. Ibid. pp. 64-83

42
36. Ibid. pp. 89-111

37. Ibid. pp. 113-121

38. Ibid. pp. 127-36

39. Pattabhiram T. K. (1972). Essential elements of practical cotton spinning.

Bombay: somaiya publications pvt. Ltd. P. 2

40. Ibid. p. 3

41. Ibid. p. 24

42. Ibid. p. 45

43. Ibid. p. 110

44. Ibid. p. 111

45. Ibid. p. 120

46. Ibid. p. 208

47. N. Rajamannar. Op. Cit

48. Annual Report of Textile (2012-13). Op.cit.

49. Mrs. Taralekar, P.M. (2012). Op. Cit.

50. Jakhotiya, G. P. (1991). Study of the problems and prospects of the handloom
weaver’s cooperative societies with special reference to Sholapur district. Ph.D
thesis submitted to Dr. B A M University, Aurangabad.

51. Ektate, A.G. (1992) .Op. Cit. p. 18

52. Annual Reports of Textile (1992-93). Op.cit.

53. Retrieved from http://www.txcindia.gov.in

54. Annual Report of Textile (2012-13). op.cit. p. 95

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Annual Report of textile (2011-12), Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India. p. 35

58. Annual Report of textile (2010-11), Ministry of Textile, Govt. of India.

59. Retrieved from http://www.txcindia.gov.in

43
60. Economic Survey of Maharashtra- 2012-13. p. 124

61. Ibid. p. 125

62. Ibid. pp. 6, 84.

63. Dr. Christian Schindler. (25th Feb. 2014). The Global (Cotton) Textile Industry
Challenging Present and Promising Future - Guest Column in Cotton Statistics
and News, Weekly Publication of Cotton Association of India.

44