CHAPTER IX Brahmagupta as an Algebraist Ancient Indian name for algebra is Bijaganita where bija means element or analysis and ganita stands for the science of calculation, As early as 860 A.D., Prthudaka Svami used this epithet for algebra in his commentary. Brahmagupta calls algebra as Kuttakaganita or merely kuifaka,a term which was later on used for “pulveriser” which deals with that special sec- tion of algebra which is connected with indeterminate equations of the first degree. Algebra is often also known as avyakta- ganita or the calculations with unknowns, in contrast to arith- metic which was known as vyakta-ganita or the calculations with knowns. Algebra goes to Europe from India In the history of mathematical sciences, as Colebrooke rightly remarks, it has long been a question to whom the inven- tion of algebraic analysis is due. There isno doubt that Europe got algebrafrom Arabs mediately or immediately. But the Arabs themselves scarcely pretend to the discovery of algebra. Colebrooke says that they were not in general inventors but scholars during the short period of their successful culture of the sciences; and the germ at least of the algebraic analysis is to be found among the Greeks in an age not precisely determined, but more than probably anterior to the earliest dawn of civilisation among the Arabs; and this science in a more advanced state subsisted among the Hindus prior to the earliest disclosure of it by the Arabians to modern Europe. (Colebrooke: Disserta- tion on the Algebra of the Hindus)’. Colebrooke based his observations on the texts he could procure for his studies. These were: Bhaskara II's Bijaganita or Vsjaganita (1150A.D.) and Lilavati (1150A.D.), the Ganitadhyaya and Kuttakadhyaya of Brahmagupta in his famous treatise the Brahma Siddhanta or rather the Brahmasphutusiddhanta (628 1, Colebrooke, H, T., Miscellaneous Essays, Vol. I, 1872, p. 418,190 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST AD.). There can be no doubt regarding the age of these two authors. Bhaskara II completed his great work on the Siddhanta- firomani in 1072 Saka, and Karana-kutahala a practical astro- nomical treatise in 1105 Saka; these dates are based on the passazes given by Bhaskara himself in his works. The Bija- ganita and the Lilavati form parts of the great treatise, the Siddhanta-firomani. The genuineness of the text is established, as Colebrooke says, with no less certainty by numerous commen- tatots in Sanskrit, besides a Persian version of it. Those com- mentaries comprise a perpetual gloss, in which every passage of the original is noticed and interpreted : and every word of it is repeated and explained, From comparison and collation of various texts, it appears then that the work of Bhaskara, exhibit- ing the same uniform text which the modern transcripts of it do, was in the hands of both Muhammedans and Hindus, between two or three centuries ago: and numerous copies of it having been diffused throughout India, at an earlier period, as of a performance held in high estimation, It was the subject of study and habitual reference in countries and places so remote from each other as thenorth and west of India and the Southern Peninsula. This though not marking any extraordinary antiquity, nor approaching to that of the author himself, was a material point to be determined : as there will bein the sequel so says Cole- brooke, occasion to show, that modes of analysis, and in parti- cular, general methods for the solution of indeterminate prob- lems both of the first and second degrees. are taught in the Bija-ganita, and those for the first degrees repeated in the Lilavati, which were unknown to the mathematicians of the West, until invented anew in the last two centuries by algebraists of France and England? Bhaskara who himself flourished more than six hundred and fifty years ago, was in this respect a compiler and took those methods from Indian authors as much more ancient than himself. Regarding the age of the precursors of Bhaskara II, Cole- brooke says: The age of his precursors cannot be determined with equal precision. He then proceeds to examine the evidence as follows ; &. Colebrocke, H. T., Miscellaneous Essays, p. 421.ALGEBRA GOES TO EUROPE FROM INDIA 191 Towards the close of his treatise on Algebra. Bhaskara II informs us, that it is compiled and abridged from the more diffuse works on the same subject, bearing the names Brahme (meaning no doubt Brahmagupta), Sridhara and Padmanabha; and in the body of his treatise, he has cited a passage of Sridhara’s algebra and another of Padmanabha. He repeatedly adverts to preceding writers and refers to them in general terms, where his commentators understand him to allude to Aryabhata, to Brahmagupta to the latter's scholiast Caturveda Prthudaka Svami and to the other writers above mentioned. Most, if not all, of the treatises, to which ke thus alludes, must have been extant, and in the hands of his commentators, when they wrote; as appears from their quotations of them; more especially those of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata, who are cited, and particularly the first mentioned, in several instances. A long and diligent research in various parts of India, has, however, failed of recovering any part of the Padmanabha Bija (or the algebra of Padmanabha) and of the algebraic and other works of Aryabhata. But the translator has been more fortunate in regard to the works of Sridhara and Brahmagupta, having in his collection Sridhara’s compendium of arithmetic, and a copy incomplete however, of the text and scholia of Brahmagupta’s Brahmasiddhanta comprising among other no less interesting matter, a chapter treating of arithmetic and mensuration; and another, the subject of which is algebra: both of them fortu- nately complete. The commentary is a perpetual one; successively quoting in length each verse of the text; procceeding to the interpretation of it, word by word; and subjoining elucidations and remarks; and its colo- phon, at the close of each chapter, gives the title of the work and the name of the author. Now the name which is there given, Caturveda Prthudaka Svami, is that.of a celebrated scholiast of Brahmagupta. frequently cited as such by the eommerttaries of192 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST Bhaskara and by other astronomical writers; and the title of the work, Brahmasiddhanta or sometimes Brah- masphutasiddhanta, corresponds, in the shorter form, tothe known title of Brahmagupta’s treatise in the usual references to it by Bhaskara’s commentators, and answers, in the longer form, to the designation of it, as indicated in an introductory couplet whichis quoted from Brahmagupta by Laksmidasa, a scholiast of Bhas- kara II. Remarking this coincidence, the translator proceeded to collate, with the text and commentary, numerous quotations from both, which he found in Bhaskara’s writings or in those of his expositors. The result confirmed the indication and established the identity of both text and scholia as Brahmagupta’s treatise, and the gloss of Prthtdaka. The authenticity of the Brahmasiddhanta is further confirmed by numer- ous quotationsin the commentary of Bhattotpala on the Samhita of Varahamihira: as the quotations from the Brahmasiddhanta, in that commentary, (which is the work of an author who flourished eight hundred and fifty years ago) are verified in the copy under consideration. A few instances of both will suffice, and cannot fail to produce conviction. It is confidently concluded, that the chapters on arith- metic and algebra, fortunately entire ina copy in many parts imperfect, of Brahmagupta’s celebrated work as here described, are genuine and authentic. It remains to investigate the age of the author. Mr. Davis, who first opined to the public a correct view of the astronomical computations of the Hindus, is of opinion, that Brahmagupta lived in the seventh century of the Christian era. Dr. William Hunter, who resided for some time with a British Embassy at Ujjay- ini, and made diligent researches into the remains of Indian science at that ancient seat of Hindu astrono- mical knowledge, was there furnished, by the learned astronomers whom he consulted, with the ages of the . Principal ancient authorities. They assigned to Brah- , Magupta the date of 550 Saka; which answers to A.D.ALGEBRA GOES TO EUROPE FROM INDIA 193 628. The grounds on which they proceeded are unfor- tunately not specified: but as they gave Bhaskara’s age correctly, as well as several other dates right, which admit of being verified; it is presumed that they had grounds, though unexplained, for the information which they communicated. Mr. Bentley, who is little disposed to favour the anti- quity of an Indian astronomer, has given his reasons for considering the astronomical system which Brah- magupta teaches, to be between twelve and thirteen hundred years old (1263 years in A-D. 1799). Now as the system taught by this author is protessedly one corrected and adapted by himto conform with the observed positions of the celestial objects when he wrote, the age, when their positions would be conform- able with the results of computations made as by him directed, is precisely the age of the author himself: and so far as Mr. Bentley’s calculations may be consi- dered to approximate the truth. the date of Brahma- gupta’s performance is determined with like approach to exactness, within a certain latitude however of uncertainty for allowance to be made on account of the inaccuracy of Hindu observations. The translator has assigned on former occasions the grounds upon which he sees reason to place the author's age, soon after the period when the vernal equinox coincided with the beginning of the lunar mansion and zodiacal asterism Awvini, where the Hindu ecliptic now commences. He is supported init by the senti- ments of Bhaskara and other Indian astronomers, who infer from Brahmagupta’s doctrine concerning the solistitial points, of which he does not admit a periodi- cal motion, that he lived when the equinoxes did not, sensibly to him, deviate from the beginning of Asvini and middle of citra on the Hindu sphere. On these grounds it is maintained. that Brahmagupta is rightly placed in the sixth or beginning of the seventh century of the Christian era, as the subjoined calculations will more particularly show. The age when Brahmagupta194 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST flourished, seems then, from the concurrence of all these arguments, to be satisfactorily settled as antecedent to the ecrliest dawn of the culture of sciences among the Arabs; and consequently establishes the fact, that the Hindus were in possession of algebra before it was known to the Arabians. Brahmacupta’s treatise, however, is not the earliest work known to have been written on the same subject by an Indian author. The most eminent scholiast of Bhaskara II (Gane$a) quotes a passage of Aryabhata specifying algebra under the designation of Bija, and making separate mention of Kujfaka, which more par- ticularly intends a problem subservient to the general method of resolution of indeterminate problems of the first degree : he is understood by another of Bhaskara’s commentators to be at the head of the elder writers, to whom the text then under consideration adverts, as having designated by the name of Madhyamaharana the resolution of affected quadratic equations by means of the completion of the square. Itis to be presumed, therefore, that the treatise of Aryabhata then extant, did extend to quadratic equations in the determinate analysis, and to indeterminate problems of the first degree; if not to those of the second likewise, as most probably it did. This ancient astronomer and algebraist, so says Cole- brooke, was anterior to both Varahamihira and Brahmagupta, being repeatedly named by the latter; and the determination of the age when he flourished is particularly interesting as his astronomical system, though on some points agreeing, essentially dis- agreed on others, with that which the Hindu astrono- mers still maintain. He, as Colebrooke says, is considered by the commen- tators of the Saryasiddhanta and Siromani, as the earliest of uninspired and mere human writers on the science of astronomy, as having introduced requisite corrections into the system of ParaSara, from whom he took the numbers for the planetary mean motions; asALGEBRA GOES TO EUROPE FROM INDIA 195 having been followed in the tract of emendation. after a sufficient interval to make further correction requisite, by Durgasinba and Mihira; who were again succeeded after a further interval by Brahmagupta, son of Jisqu. In short, says Colebrooke, Aryabhata was founder of one of the sets of Indian astronomers, as Puli§a, an author likewise anterior to both Varaamihira and Brahmagupta, was of another: which were distingui- shed by names derived from the discriminative tenets respecting the commencement of planetary motions at sunrise according to the first, but at midnight accord- ing to the latter, on the meridian of Lanka, at the beginning of the great astroriomical cycle. A third sect began the astronomical day, as well as the great period, at noon. Aryabhata’s name accompanied the intimation which the Arab astronomers (under the Abbasside Khalifs, as it would appear,) received, that three distinct astro— -nomical systems were current among the Hindus of those days: and it is but slightly corrupted, certainly not at all disguised, in the Arabic representation of it Arjabahar, or rather Arjabhar, (corrupted form of Aryabhata). The two other systems were, first. Brahmagupta’s Siddhanta which was the one they became best acquainted with. and to which they apply the denomination of the sind-hind; and second, that of Arca, the Sun, which they write Arcand a corruption still prevalent in the vulgar Hindi. Aryabhata appears to have had more correct notions of the true explanation of celestial phenomena than Brahmagupta himself, so says Colebrooke; who ina few instances, correcting errors of his predecessor, but oftener deviating from that predecessor’s juster views- has been followed by the herd of modern Hindu astro- nomers, in asystem not improved, but deteriorated. since the time of the more ancient author. Considering the proficiency of Aryabhata in astronomi- cal science, and adverting tothe fact of his having196 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIS1 written algebra, as well as to the circumstance of his being named by numerous writers asthe founder of a sect, or author of a system in astronomy, and being quoted at the head of algebraists, when the commen- tators of extant treatises have occasion to mention early and original writers on this branch of science. it is not necessary to seek further for a mathematician qualified to have been the great improver of the ana- lytic art, and likely to have been the person by whom it was carried to the pitch to which it is found to have attained among the Hindus, and at which it is observ- ed to be nearly stationary through the long lapse of ages which have since passed : the later additions being few and unessential in the writings of Brahmagupta, of Bhaskara and of Jinaraja, though they lived at intervals of centuries from each other. Aryabhata, Colebrooke rightly says. then being the earliest author known to have treated of Algebra among the Hindus, and being likely to be, if not the inventor, the improver of that analysis, by whom too it was pushed nearly to the whole degre of excellence which it isfound to have attained among them; it becomes in an especial manner interesting to investigate any discoverable trace in the absence of better and more direct evidence, which may tend to fix the date of his labours; or to indicate the time which elapsed between him and Brahmagupta, whose age is more accurately determined. Taking Aryabhata, for reasons given, to have preceded Brahmagupta and Varahamihira by several centuries; and Brahmagupta to have flourished more than twelve hundred years ago, and Varahamihira, concerning whose works and age, Colebrooke has given a few notes, and has placed him at the beginning of the sixth century after Christ, it appears probable that this earliest of known Hindu algebraists wrote as far back asthe fifth century of the Christian era; and perhaps in an earlier age. Hence it is concluded that he is nearly as ancient as the Greecian algebraist Diophantus, sup-ALGEBRA GOES TO EUROPE FROM INDIA 197 posed on the authority of A bulfaraj, to have flourished in the time of the Emperor Julian or about A.D. 360. Colebrooke further says: Admitting the Hindu and Alexandrian authors to be nearly equally zncient, it must be conceded in favour of the Indian algebraist, that he was more advanced in the science; since he appears to have been in rossession of the resolution of equations involving several unknowns, which it is not clear. nor fairly presumable, that Diophantus, knew: and a general method of indeterminate problems of at least the first degree, to a knowledge of which the Greecian algebraist had certainly not attained ; though he displays infinite sagacity and ingenuity in particu- lar solutions ; and though a certain routine is indiscer- nible in them. Colebrooke appears to be of the view that Greeks were the first to discover the solution of equations involving one unknown; and this knowledge was passed to ancient Indians by their Greek instructors in impro- ved astronomy. But “by the ingenuity of the Hindu- scholars, the hint was rendered fruitful and the algeb- raic method was soon ripened from that slender beginn- ing to the advanced state of a well arranged science, as it was taught by Aryabhata, and asit is found in treatises compiled by Brahmagupta and Bhaskara.”” We do not agree with this analysis in entirety. Indian algebra is entirely of Indian roots. It had its beginning in the times of Samhitas and Brahmanas. Some of the equations and problems were solved by geometric methods. It must have had its origin in the Sulba period if not before. Aryabhata undoubtedly was the. discoverer of many algebraic solutions of equations of the first and higher order with one and more unkno- wns. It is rather too much to trace the influence of Diophantus on Indian algebra which developed in this country independently. Brahmagupta is one of the most brilliant algebraists we ever had in the entire history of mathematics.198 BRAHMGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST Technical Terms Coefficient — In the ancient Indian algebra, there is no systematic term for the coefficient. Usually, the power of the unknown is men- tioned when the reference isto the coefficient of that power. At one place, for example, we find Prthudaka Svami (the commenta- tor of Brahmagupta's Brahmasphatasiddhanta) writing “the num- ber (anka) which is the coefficient of the square of the unknown is called the ‘square’’and the number which forms the coefficient of the (simple) unknown is called the ‘unknown quantity’ (avyakta- mana). However, at many places, we find the use of a technical term also. Brahmagupta once calls the coefficient samkhya* (number) and on several other occasions gunaka® or gunakara* (multiplier). Prtthadaka Svami (860 A.D.) calls it azka (number) or prakrti (multiplier). These terms may also be seen in the works of Sripati® (1039) and Bhaskara II’ (1150 A.D.), The former also used the word rapa for the same purpose.® Unknown Quantity The unknown quantity has been termed as yavat-tavat (meaning so-much-as or as-many-as) in literature as early as 300 B. C. (vide the Sthananga-sutra’), In the Bakhasali Manuscript, it has been termed as yadyccha. vaticha or kamika (or any desired quantity). Aryabhata I in one of his verses calls the unknown as gulika™ (literally meaning a shot) From the early seventh century A.D. the word avyakta was used for unknown quantities. Brahmagupta uses this term in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta™ 1, BrSpSi, XVIII. 44 (Com.) 2, aare aaah wate at dear | —BrSpSi. XVIII 63 3. ae Be aig gus aie ga fdas | —BrSpSi. XVIII 64 TRS ge ent aay aT AAR | —BrSpSi. XVII 70 4. meieagert quan welaga am: | —BrSpSi, XVIII 69 5. BrSpSi XVIII. 4¢ (Com.) 6. Side XIV, 33-5, 7, Bijaganita 8, Side XIV. 33-5, 9. Stitra 747, 10. BMs, Folio 22, verso; 23, recto and verso, LL. qferate ate aa: | 12. ser eet Fs TEMA |TECHNICAL TERMS 199 Power Since long, the word varga has been used for the second power; the word also stands for square (Uttaradhyayana Sutra’, B.C. c. 300). The third power is similarly known as ghana the fourth power as varga-varga (square-square), the sixth power as ghana-varga (cube-square) and the twelfth power as ghana-varga- varga (cube-square-square). In later days, the fifth power was called vargaghana ghata (here the word ghata means product; the term means product ofcube and square). The former system was multiplicative, rather than additive; wheras the latter was on the additive system. The seventh power on the additive system was known as varga-varga-ghana-ghata (product of square-square and cube). Brahmagupta, however, uses a more scientific system for expressing the powers more than four. He calls the fifth power i as Pafica gata (literally meaning, raised to the fifth), the sixth power as sad-gat (raised to the sixth) and so on, thus adding the suffix gata to the name of the number indicating that power? Bhaskara II has followed the system of Brahmagupta almost consi- stently for powers one and upwards. Equation Perhaps Brahmagupta has for the first time used the term samakarana or samikarana (literally meaning making equal) or simply sama (equal or equation )*. Prthudaka Svami (860) employs the term sdmya (equality or equation) for equation‘, The equation is said to possess two Pak;as® (sides) Itara-Paksa and apara-paksa. Absolute Term Brahmagupta uses the term ripa (literally meaning appeer- ance) for an absolute term. It represents the visible or known 1, Chapter XXX, 10, 11. 2. seaTa Taal-a-tae- Tee | ara Rat sient areas siear: 3. ad sare wea wate eelag | feert Rensft wieeesaacure fi ae azas FIR AR IR STERN ASAT: | 4, Side, XIV. 19. 5, Bijaganita,200 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST portion of the equation whilst its other part is practically invisible or unknown’. Unknowns and Symbolism Aryabhata I (499 A. D.) probably used coloured gulikas or shots for represtnting different unknowns. Brahmagupta men- tions varpa as the symobls for unknown. He has, however, not indicated how these varnas or colours were used as symbols for unknowns. Perhaps we might conculude from this that the method of using colours as symbols for unknown quantities was very common and familiar to the algehraists. Datta and Singh say that the Sanskrit word varya denotes colour as well as a letter of alphabet, and therefore, letters of alphabet came into use for unknown quantities : kalaka (black), nilaka (blue), pitaka (yellow): lohita (red), haritaka (green), svetaka (white), citraka (variegated), kapilaka (tawny), pingalaka (reddish-trown), dhtimraka (smoke- coloured), pajalaka (pink), savalaka (spotted), syamalaka (blackish) necaka (dark blue) etc®. Tt should be further noted that the first unknown quantity yavat-tavat is not a varna or colour. It thus clearly indicates that the use of colours as symbols came at a later stage, whilst the word yavat-tavat was in currency from much earlier times. Some authorities think that the term yavat-tavat is a corrupted form of yavakastavat (where yavaka teans red). Prthudaka Svami has sometimes used the term yavaka for an unknown quantity*, Laws of Signs Brahmagupta has in his Chaper XVIII devoted a special section entitled “Dhanarna Sunyanam Samkalanam” or calcu- lations dealing with quantities bearing positive and negative signs and zero, 1. sappet wat Tet eae gaSzE | —BrSpSi XVIII. 43 at aad feat wart ae afar Ut —BrSpSi XVII. 44 2. Taare areca TAS aa: ay etifRaeSecre: | Seart aera aRTTEReI ay ATA ARITA Baa ailery Tres Aiea eRe: | Vue fas afiae veTer Tg BT TAA Il err aeaae- feet tn: | «= Narayana, Bijaganita 3. BrSpSi XU, 15, (Com.) ; XIL18,LAWS OF SIGNS 201 Regarding addition, Brahmagupta says : The sum of two positive numbers is positive, of two negative numbers is negatix e; of a positive and negative number is the difference’. Regarding subtraction, Brahmagupta further says : From the greater should be subtracted the smaller; (the final result is) positive, if positive from positive, and negative, if negative, from negative. If, however, the . greater is subtracted from the less, that difference is reversed (in sign), negative becomes positive and positive becomes negative. When positive is to be subtracted from negative or negative from positive, then they must be added together®. Mahavira (850 A, D.), Bhaskara II (1150 A.D.) and Narayana (1350 A. D.) have also given similar rules regarding addition (Samkalanam) and the subtraction (vyavakalanam), Again, the rule given by Brahmagupta regarding Multipli- cation is as follows : The product of a positive and a negative (number) is negative; of two negatives is positive; positive multiplied by positive is positive’. His rule regarding division is as follows ; Positive divided by positive or negative divided by negative becomes positive. But positive divided by negative and negative divided by positive remains negative®. Similar rules for multiplication and division were provided by later authorities as Mahavira and Bhaskara II. 1. BrSpSi XII. 15. (Com.); XII 18. (Com.) 2. wainaenntied deat ea Se | seudet a areTeT IPR: PR FLU —BrSpSi. XVIIL-30 3. saaferiate vt eareasefae | sae To Sed a TAT walS yahderrreat wef et wale ZRTATETT | met aa verse TST aT FEAL NL —BrSpSi XVII. 31-32 4. sR era oe Hae | gent: @ vad: @ eee ae: ee —BrSpSi XVUII. 33 5. erat Eee of walt G aR SI wR ea a ERT Fala | —BrSpSi. XVIII. 34202 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST Brahmagupta lays down the rules regarding evolution and involution as follows : The square of a positive or a negative number is positive The (sign of the) root is the same, as was that from which the square was derived’. As regards the latter portion of this rule, Prthadaka Svami has the following comment to make : “The square-root should be taken either negative or positive, as will be most suitable for subsequent operations to be carried on.” ‘It will be interesting to observe the following observation of Mahavira (850 A. D.) regarding square-root of a negative quantity “Since a negative number by its own nature is not a square, it has no square-root.’? So says Sripati : “A negative numter by itself is non-square, so its square-root is unreal; so the tule (for the square-root) should be applied in the case of a posi- tive numter.’” Algebraic Operations Brahmagupta and other algebraists recognise six operations as fundamental in algebra : addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring and the extraction of the square-root. Regarding addition and subtraction Brahmagupta says: Of the unknowns, their squares, cubes, fourth powers, fifth powers, sixth powers, etc. addition and subtraction are (performed) of the like; of the unlike (they mean simply their) statement severally.’ Tn place of “‘of the like”, Bhaskara II uses the term “of those of the same species (jati) amongst unknowns” : Addition and subtraction are performed of those of the same species (jati) amongst unknowns; of different species they mean their separate statement.® 1. ays te Te GET | sat: a d ae Hf ahdy a I —BrSpSi, XVII, 35 2, GSS, 1. 52, 3, Side, XIV, 5, 4. semen saat st dant serra | seri deter saat seer II —BrSpSi.XVIII. 41. 5. SMisek 3g cart weirs oniter ora eaters | - Bhaskara II, Bijaganita.ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS 203 This means that the numerical coefficients of x cannot be added to or subtracted from the numerical coefficients of y or x* or x* or xy and so on because these terms belong to different jati or they do not belong to the category of the “like”. Again, regarding multiplication, Brahmagupta says : The product of the two like unknowns is a square; the product of three or more like unknowns is a power of that designation. The multiplication of unknowns of unlike species is the same as the mutual product of symbols; it is called bhavita (product or factum).! Having given the rules of the operations for addition, sub- traction and multiplication, Brahmagupta does not think it necessary to deal with other operations. His section on the calculations with zero, negative and positive quantities ends here. How is an Equation Formed? Prthudaka Svami while commenting on a verse in Brahma- ssphutasiddhanta speaks as follows : In this case, in the problem proposed by the questioner, yavat-tavat is put for the value of the unknown quantity. Then performing multiplication, division etc. as required jn the problem the two sides shall be carefully made equal. The equation being formed in this way, then the rule (for its solution) follows.” Plan for Writing Equations When in regards to a given problem. an equation has been formed, it has to be written down for further operations. This writing down of an equation is technically known as nydsa Perhaps the oldest record of nyasa is to be found in the Bakhagali Manuscript. According to the procedure prescribed in this work, the two sides of an equation are put down one after the other in the same line without any sign of equality being inter- posed. Thus the equations : Vatb=s Va-7 appear as t weaiseada aitice: Gaara I —BrSpSi.XVIL. 42. 2. BrSpSi. XVIII 43 (com)204, BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST 0 5 yu ma 0 sa 0 7 + ma Ql 1 1 eee 1 Here yu (g) stands for yuta (qa), meaning added, subtraction is+sign, derived from Ksaya or (#4) meaning diminished, gu @) for guna or gunita, meaning !multiplied; bha (1) for division from bhajita and mu (4) for square-root, from mila meaning root; zero (°) was used to mark a vacant place. Again, the following equation xt+2x+3 X3x+12 x 4x=300 is represented as ; Rl? +i? 3 pe 4] dysya 300 pti ili iti 2! There is no sign for unknown in the Bakhasali Manuscript. Later on this plan of writing equations as adopted in Bakha- $als Manuscript was abandoned in India; a new one was adopted in which the two sides are written one below the other without any sign of equality. It must be stated that in this new plan the term of similar denominations are usually written one below the other and even the terms of absent denominations on either side are clearly indicated by putting zeros as their coefficients. We find a reference to this new plan in the algebra of Brahmagupta. From which the square of the unknown and the unkno- wn are cleared, the known quantities are cleared (from the side) below that’. Here in this verse, the words “adhastat” clearly indicate that one side of the equation is written below the other., As an illustration, Prthudaka Svami represented the equation? :— 10x—8=x7+1 as: ya va 0 ya 10 ra 8 (22.0+2%.10—8) ya val ya O ra 1 Gltx.0+1) which means, x* was written as yavat-varga (y@ va) and % Was written as yavat or ya. The minus sign was represented by adot at the top of the number(—8 was written as 8), We shafl take another illustration from Prthudaka Svami. . He would write the equation 197x—1644 y—z=6302 as 1. BrSpSi. XVI. 43; compare also Bhaskara II, Bijaganita- 2. Br SpSi. XVII. 49 (com.)PLAN FOR WRITING EQUATIONS 205 ya 197 ka 1644 m 1 ra 0 va 0 ka Ons 0 ra 6302 Here the first unknown x is represented by ya(vat), the second unknown y by a(laka) and the third unknown z by nv (laka) and the term without unknown, a mere number is wrirten by ri(paka). The two sides, one written below the other if written in the present form, would appear as: 197x—1644y—z+0=0x +09 +07 +6302. The Bijagayita of Bhaskara II also follows the same proce- dure, One instance from it would be quoted here to illustrate the method of expressing equations. 8xP + 427+ l0y? x= 408+ lyre or 8x°+4x?+10y?x= 44° +0x7+ 12x is written as follows on Bhaskara’s or Brahmagupta’s plan : x* is ghana of yavat (abbreviated as ya gha) x is varga of yavat. (abbreviated as ya va) y* is varga of kalaka (abbreviated as ka va) the coefficients 10 and 12 are bhavita (abbreviated as bha). The equation is: ya gha 8 va va 4 ka va ya. bha 10 9a gha 4 ya va 0 ka va ya. bha 12 Datta and Singh state that the use of the old plan of writ- ing equations is sometimes met with in later works also. For instance, in the MS. of Prthtdaka Svami's commentary’ on the Brahmasphutasiddhanta, an incomplete copy of which is preserv- ed in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (No. I B6), we find a statement of equations thus : “first side yavargah 1 yavakah 200 va 0; second side yavargah 0 yavakah 0 raz 1500. Sodhana or Clearance of an Equation After nyasa or statement of an equation, the operation to be performed is known as fodhana (clearance) or samsodhana (equi-clearance or complete clearance). The nature of this clearance varies according to the kind of equation In the case of an equation in one unknown only, whether linear, 1. BrSpSi. XI. 15 (com.)206 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST quadratic or of higher powers, one side of it is cleared of the unknowns of all denominations and the other side of it of the atsolute terms, so that the equation is ultimately reduced to one of the form ax’+bx=c, where a,b, ¢ may be positive or negative;some of them may even be zero. Thus Brahmagupta observes : From which the square of the unknown and the un- known are cleared, the known quantities (rapani) are - cleared (from the side) below that? On this Prthudaka Svami comments as follows : This rule has been introduced for that case in which the two sides of the equation having been formed in accordance with the statement of the problem, there are present the square and other powers of the unknown together withthe (simple) unknown. The absolute terms should be cleared off from the side opposite to that from which are cleared the square (and other powers) of the unknown andthe (simple) unknown. When perfect clearance (samsodhana) has been thus made...” Stidhara and Bhaskara II have also given the rules of clearance almost on the same lines, Thus the equation ya va 0 ya 10 a8 vavalya Onl after perfect clearance having been made will be (according to Prthudaka Syami) : yavalyal0rn9 ie. the equation 10x—8=22+1 aiter clearance would become 2 —l0x=—9, Classification of Equations Usually equations are classified as : simple equation : yavat-tavat quadratic 2 varga lectern acta 1. aime gen qene eat aera Hl —BrSpSi. XVII. 43. 2. BrSpSi, XVIII. 43 (com.)CLASSIFICATION OF EQUATIONS 207 cubic : ghana biquadratic 2 Varga-varga Brahmagupta classified them as @ equations in one unknown quantity : eka-varva samikarana. Gi) equations in several unknowns : aneka-varna sami- karana. Gili) equations involving products of unknowns: bhavita. - Eka-varna samikaranas (equations with one unknown) are further divided into (i) linear equations, and (ii) quadratic equa- tions (avyakta-varga samikarana). Prthudaka Svami has classified equations in a different manner as follows : (i) linear equations with one unknown: eka-yarna samikarana. Gi) linear equations with more unknowns: aneka- varna samikarana. iii) equations with one, two or more unknowns in their second or higher powers : madhyamaharana. . (iv) equations involving products of unknowns : bha- vita, As the method of solution of an equation of the third class (ie. equations with one or several unknowns in their second or higher powers) is based upon the principle of the elimination of the middle term, that class is called by the term madhyama (middle) aharana (elimination). The classification of Brahma- gupta and Prthudaka Svami more or less received recognition by later writers on algebra as Bhaskara II and others. Linear Equations with One Unknown and Their Solutions The first solution of a linear equation with one unknown is obtainable in the Sulba Sutras but not through an algebraic process,—the Sulba process is geometrical. It is said that there is a reference in the Sthananga Sutra’ (c. 300 B.C.) to a linear equation by its name yavat-tayat. There has been a good deal of208 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST controversy regarding the date of the Bakhasali Manuscript where we have definitely a method of solving linear equations by the Rule of False Position. It would be interesting to give an account of this rule here by taking an illustration from the Bakhasali Manuscript. Problem : The amount given to the first is not known. The second is given twice as much as the first; the third thrice as much as the second; and the fourth four times as much as the third. The total amount distributed is 132. What is the amount of the first ? (BMS. Folio 23, recto) In modern algebraic language, the solution of the problem would be given by the equation x+2x+6x+24x=132 where x is the amount given to the first. The solution of this equation is given asfollows in the Bakhasali Manuscript : ‘Putting any desired quantity in the vacant place’; any desired quantity is || 1 ||, ‘then construct the series’ | 1 | 2/2 3 6) 4 | pha ‘multiplied’ 11] 2|6| 241; ‘added’ 33. ‘Divide the visible quantity’ | a f which) on reduction be- comes | 7 | (This is) the amount given (to the first) (BMS. Folio 23, recto) The Rule of False Position may be regarded as an early stage of the development of thescience of algebra, since no symbol could have been evolved for an unknown quantity. As soon as the system of notations was introduced, the application of this Rule was no longer considered as necessary. Thus we find that Aryabhata I does not mention of this Rule. Aryabhata I states as follows regarding the solution of near equations : The difference of the known ‘amounts’ (ripaka) relat- ing to two persons should be divided by the differenceLINEAR EQUATIONS 209 of the coefficients on the unknown (gulika), The quotient will be the value of the unknown (gulika), if their possessions be equal.* The original verse contains the term “gulikantara” which has been here translated as the difference of the coefficients of the unknowns. We have already stated earlier that Aryabhata uses the term gulika or shot for an unknown quantity.(gulikantara literally means only the difference of unknowns). This practice is also followed by other Indian algebraists. Prthtdaka Svami rightly observed that according to the usual practice in this country, “the coefficient of the square of the unknown is called the square (of the unknown) and the coefficient of the (simple) unknown is called the unknown. The rule given by Aryabhata, then, contemplates a problem of this kind : Two persons, who are equally ricb, possess respectively a, b times a certain unknown amount together with ¢, d units of money incash. What is that amount ? Now if x be the amount unknown, then according to the problem axtc=bitd Thence gett a—b Aryabhata has merely expressed this solution in his langu- age- Regarding the solution of linear equations, Brahmagupta says: Tn a (linear) equation in one unknown, the difference of the known terms taken in the reverse order, divided by the difference of the coefficients of the unknown (is the value of the unknown),* 1. gfraria free at: Gea eae | are are aed at waft gery —Arya. Il. 30 2. BrSpSi, KVIIL. 44 (com.) 3. Se ae SIR GaSe | Sai: MN TITS STAT TTI —BrSpSi, XVII. 43210 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST Similar solutions have been offered by the other Indian algebraists who followed Brahmagupta like Sripati, Bhaskara II and Narayana. Here again, we take a problem proposed by Brahmagupta in this connection : Problem : Tell the number of elapsed days for the time when four times the twelfth part of the residual degrees increased by one, plus eight will be equal to the residual degrees plus one. Prthtdaka Svami has solved this problem as follows : Here the residual degrees are (put as) yavat-tdvat, ya; increased by one, ya 1 rt 1; twelfth part of nated 7 four times this, wat a, plus the absolute quantity yal ra25 <3 eight, This is equal to the residual degrees plus unity. The statement of both sides tripled is val | ra25 943 a3 This difference between the coefficients of the unknown is2. By this the difference of the absolute terms, namely 22, being divided, is produced the residual of the degrees of the Sun, 11. These residual degrees should be known to be irreducible. The elapsed days can be deduced then, (proceeding) as: before. If put in the modern notations, it means the solution of the equation : : 4 Gt)+8=<41, from which we have *x+25=32+3 or 2x=22 or x=. Rale of Concurrence or Sarnkramana Brahmagupta has included this rule in algebra, whereas other Indian mathe! mathematicians included it in arithmetic. Sam- L 1 Spies coor wiser | Ssietget eat aasekt ee II —BrSpSi. XVIII. 46RULE OF CONCURRENCE 211 kramanais the solution of the simultaneous equations of the type : xty=a x—y=b Brahmagupta’s rule for solution is: The sum is increased and diminished by the difference and divided by two; (the result will be the two un- known quantities): (this is) concurrence (Samkra- mana)-* Brahmagupta restates this rule in the form of a problem and its solution : The sum and difference of the residues of two (heavenly bodies) are known in degrees and minutes. What are the residues? The difference is both added to and subtracted from the sum, and halved; (the results are) the residues.” Linear Equations with Several Unknowns The first mention of a solution of the problem with more than one unknown is found in the Bakhasali Manuscript, anda system of linear equations of this type is solved in the Bakhaéali treatise substantially by the False Position Rule. A generalised system of linear equations will be bidx— cixi=ay bedx— coxe= aie bn Bx—Cnx =an Therefore S(alc) 2 S0])-1 Hence : a oe Dale) _ _ae moe SGI)—1 ce 7S], Qe Sarees One particular case, where bi=ba=bs=......=ba =1 and a= Ca=Ca=.....=Cn =c has been treated by Brahmagupta at one place. He gives the rule as follows : 1. aitserqatet fer: dara 7 inet ad Ramat — BrSpSi. XVIII. 36 2. are feet eat Pe a TE | ed farsevafia ei a font BF 1 — BrSpSi. XVIII. 96212 BRAHMAGUPTA AS AN ALGEBRAIST The total value (of the unknown quantities) plus or minus the individual values (of the unknowns) multi- plied by an optional number deing severally (given), 7 the sum (of the given quantities) divided by the num- ber of unknowns increased or decreased by the multi- plier will be the total value; thence the rest (can be determined)? Decker Say Sxbom=az, Sabexs= aso Deicx =an Therefore 3 a Titas taste tan “ nec Hence 1(=, —patartas ten. stan, avs nee H and so on for xs, xs etc. Now we shall give the rule enunciated by Brahmagupta for solving linear equations involving several unknowns : Removing the other unknowns from (the side of) the first unknown and dividing by the coefficient of the first unknown, the value of the first unknown (is obtai- ned). In the case of more (values of the first un- known), two and two (of them) should be considered after reducing them to comon denominators. And (so on) repeatedly. If more unknowns remain (in the final equation), the method of the‘pulveriser (should be employed). (Then proceeding) reversely (the values of other unknowns can be found)? Prthudaka Svami has commented on this rule as follows : In an example in which there are two or- more un- known quantities, colours such as ydvat-tavat, etc. should be assumed for their values. Upon them should L pee GREER orm aftery | : agin toed ahs —BrSpSi: XIII. 47 2. TRA ea Creare | Ware oral eae —BrSpSi. XVIUL 51QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 213 be performed all operations conformably to the state- ment of the example and thus should be carefully framed two or more sides and also equations. Equi-clear- ance should be made first between two and two of them and soon to the last: from one side one un- known should be cleared, other unknowns reduced to a common denominator and also the absolute numbers should be cleared from the side opposite. The residue of other unknowns being divided by the residual coefficient of the first unknown will give the value of the first unknown. If there be obtained several such values, then with two and two of them, equations should be formed after reduction to common denominators. Proceeding in this way tothe end find out the value of one unknown. If that value be (in terms of) another unknown then the coefficients of those two will be reciprocally the values of the two unknowns. If, however, there be present more un- knowns in that value, the method of the pulveriser should beemployed. Arbitrary values may then be assumed for some of the unknowns. Datta and Singh have said that the above rule of Brahma- gupta, and also the one indicated in the commentary of Prthudaka Svami, embraces the solution of indeterminate as well as the determinate equations. In fact, all the examples given by Brahmagupta in illustration of the rule are of indeterminate character. So far as the determinate simultaneous equations are concerned, Brahmagupta’s method for solving them will be easily recognised to be the same as our present one. Quadratic Equations The geometrical solution of a quadratic’ equation in this country would take us to the Vedic Sulba period. The Bakha- gals Manuscript also contains certain problems which need the solving of quadratic equations. I shall quote one out of the numerous available : A certain person travels s yojana on the first day and b yojana more on each successive day. Another who travels at the uniform rate of S yojana per day, hasa start of ¢ days. When will the first man overtake the second ? ‘