Academic Writing For Grad Student - 3rd Edition - Unit 5

Unit Five
Writing Summaries
Of all the writing tasks we have discussed so far, summary writing may well
be the one you are most familiar with. We make summaries of many differ-
ent things, including meetings, lectures, and readings. OUf summaries may
be quite elaborate, or they may only involve one or two key phrases, depend-
ing on our purpose for writing them. These summaries of what others have
written or said may be for our own personal use. Most often we use this
material for future reference. In an academic setting especially, summaries
can form an essential part of our preparation for an exam, a class discussion,
a research paper, a thesis, or a dissertation. In these situations, we are free to
concentrate on what we think is important Of interesting about the source,
In the first half of this textbook, you could successfully complete most
of the writing tasks by relying either on information that you already pos-
sessed or on a small amount of information from a source. In the second
half, we will pay more attention to writing that heavily relies on the use of
sources. Unit Five deals with summary writing. Unit Six expands our discus-
sion of summary writing to the writing of critiques of or critical responses to
source material, including book reviews. Finally, in the last two units, we
move on to writing sections of an entire research paper.
Summary writing may be part of a more public communication {such as
a published research article} and an integral part of other work that you may
do. For example, your advisor may ask you to summarize some recent litera-
ture that could be useful for your research group. Instructors may ask you to
write a literature review or critique articles. You may need to write a major
research paper at key points in your degree program or write a proposal. At
the very least you will need to summarize some published work to support
claims in your papers and to build a foundation for your research. In each of
these cases, you use the work of others to add credibility to your claims and
you have an opportunity to "display" your understanding of the work in
your field. Look back at the reality television text that starts on page 56. By
188
S: WRITING SUMMARIES 189
summarizing relevant portions of this text, you can support your view as to
whether reality TV programs are similar to or different from traditional doc-
umentaries.
Considerations before Writing a Summary

It is not likely that you will be assigned to produce a simple summary of a
published paper or book unless you are writing an annotated bibliography.
Instead, it is more likely that you will need to write a summaty as part of
some other writing task. These summaries can be extremely challenging to
write. A good summary has tbree principal requirements.
1. It should be focused on the aspects of the source text or texts that are
relevant for your purpose.
2. It should represent the source material in an accurate fashion.
3. It should condense the source material and be presented in your own
words. Summaries that consist of directly copied portions of the origi-
nal rarely succeed. Such a summaty may suggest that you can find
potentially important information but will likely fail to reveal the
extent to which you have understood it. In addition, you may be pla-
giarizing (see pages 196-197).
Notice that we have not said anything about the length of a summary,
which will often be determined by your putpose. Sometimes instructors will
ask for a one-page summaty of an article (or maybe a two-page summaty of
a book) as part of a critique assignment. They may also ask for a paragraph-
length abstract (see Unit Eigbt) or even a mini-summary of one to two sen-
tences (as is typical of annotated bibliographies). Regardless of the type of
text, to do a good job, you must first thoroughly understand the soutce
material you are working with. So, here are some preliminary steps in writ-
Ing a summary.
1. Skim the text, noticing and noting the subheadings. If there are no
subheadings, try to divide the text into sections.
2. If you have been assigned the text, consider why. Determine what type
of text you are dealing with-that is, the genre of the source text (e.g.,
a research paper) or perhaps the organization (problem-solution or
general-specific). This can help you identifY importanr information
and focus your reading strategies.
190 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
3. Read the text, highlighting important infotmation or taking notes.

4. In your own words, list the points of each relevant section. Try to
write a one-sentence summary of each.
5. List the key support points for the main topic, and include minor
details if necessary.
6. Make sure your notes reflect the strength of the claims or conclusions.
7. Write your reactions or thoughts about the sections you have identi-
fied as important. (Keep in mind that informarion from sources
should support, but not become or be offered insread of, your own
interpretation and explanation.)
8. Go through the process again. Read the text several times if necessary,
making changes to your notes as appropriate.
,
TASK ONE
Let's say you have been asked to write a paper in Public Health
that examines the consumption of energy drinks such as Red Bull,
Lipovitan-D, and Cobra. You come across this article and want
to use it to support your claim that these drinks are potentially
harmful and should be closely regulated. Underline the information
you might borrow to support your perspective. Be prepared to dis-
cuss your choices.
Caffeinated Energy Drinks-A Growing Problem

Reissig, C. J., Strain, E. c., and Griffiths, R. R. (2009).
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99, 1-10.
o In 2006, annual worldwide energy drink consumption increased

17% from the previous year to 906 million gallons, with Thailand
leading the world in energy drink consumption per person, but the
U.S. leading the world in total volume sales (Zenith International,
2007).8 Although "energy drinks" first appeared in Europe and
Asia in the 1960s, the introduction of "Red Bull" in Austria in 1987
and in the U.S. in 1997 sparked the more recent trend toward
aggressive marketing of high caffeine content "energy drinks."
o Since its inception, the energy drink market has grown exponen-
tially, with nearly 500 new brands launched worldwide in 2006
5: WRITING SUMMARIES 191
Uohnson, 2006), and 200 new brands launched in the U.S. in the
12·month period ending July 2007 (Packaged Facts, 2007). "From
2002 to 2006, the average annual growth rate in energy drink
sales was 55% (Packaged Facts, 2007) (Fig. 1).0 The total U.S.
retail market value for energy drinks (from all sources) was esti·
mated to be $5.4 billion in 2006 and has shown a similar annual
growth rate over this same period (47%) (Packaged Facts, 2007).
o These drinks vary widely in both caffeine content (ranging from
50 to 505 mg per can or bottle) and caffeine concentration (rang·
ing from 2.5 to 171 mg per fluid ounce) (Table 1).0 For compari·
son, the caffeine content of a 6 oz cup of brewed coffee varies
from 77 to 150 mg (Griffiths et aI., 2003).0 The main active ingre'
dient in energy drinks is caffeine, although other substances such
as taurine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, nicotinamide, other B vitamins,
and various herbal derivatives are also present (Aranda and Mar·
lock, 2006). 0 The acute and long·term effects resulting from
excessive and chronic consumption of these additives alone and in
combination with caffeine are not fully known. Gil Although the full
impact of the rise in popularity of energy drinks has yet to be real·
ized, the potential for adverse health consequences should be can·
sidered and may be cause for preemptive regulatory action.
Figure 1. Energy Drink Sales in the U.S. 2002-2006
800
700 +---
J 300
zoo"
100
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Fig. 1. Data are based on scanner data from over 32,000 stores such as supermarkets, drug stores,
and discount merchandisers other than Wal-Mart. Data are from retailers with $2 million or more in
annual sales but exclude: clubstores/warehouse clubs, convenience stores, dollar/variety stores, food
service, vending, concession sales and specialty channels/retailers of all types (e.g., gourmet/specialty
food stores, hardware/home improvements stores, military exchanges). (Based on data from Pack-
aged Facts, 2007.)
Table 1. Caffeine in Energy Drinks (United States)

Caffeine
Ounces per Concentration Total
Bottle or Can (mg/oz) Caffeine (mg)
Top selling energy drinks'
Red Bull 8.3 9.6 80.0
Monster 16.0 10.0 160.0
Rockstar 16.0 10.0 160.0
Amp 8.4 8.9 7S.0
Tab Energy 10.S 9.1 9S.0
Higher caffeine energy drinks"
Wired XSOS 24.0 21.0 SOS.O
Fixx 20.0 25.0 500.0
BooKoo Energy 24.0 15.0 360.0
SPIKE Shooter 8.4 35.7 300.0
Cocaine Energy Drink 8.4 33.3 280.0
H
lower caffeine energy drinks
80mba Energy 8.4 8.9 75.0
HiBall Energy 10.0 7.5 75.0
Vitamin Water (Energy Citrus) 20.0 2.5 50.0
H
High concentration energy drinks
RedLine Power Rush 2.5 140.0 350.0
Ammo 1.0 171.0 171.0
Powershot 1.0 100.0 100.0
Fuel Cell 2.0 90.0 180.0
Classic soft drinks
Coca-Cola Classic 12.0 2.9 34.5
Pepsi Cola 12.0 3.2 38.0
Dr Pepper 12.0 3.4 41.0
Mountain Dew 12.0 4.5 54.0
* Top selling energy drinks in the u.s. 2006, listed sequentially as a
centage of market share (based on data from Packaged Facts, 2007).
** Examples of energy drinks drawn from the hundreds of energy drink
products currently marketed in the U.S., listed sequentially on total caffeine
content.
Data on drink volume and caffeine content were obtained from the manu-
facturer via product label, website, or personal communication with manu-
facturer representatives. The one exception was that the caffeine content
for BooKoo Energy was obtained from the energyfiend website (Energyfiend
website, 2008).
Copyright Elsevier. Used with permission.

Here are two other possible writing scenarios that are very different
from the original task.
1. You are working on a course project focused on product develop-
ment for a beverage company, and you have been asked to pro-
pose ideas for a new beverage. You think that the company
should create an energy drink. Would you choose the same infor-
mation as you did at the beginning of the task (see page 190)?
2. You have been asked to write a recommendation about including
energy drinks in campus vending machines. Would your selec-
tions from the source text change?
Underlying the three hypothetical scenarios in Task One are

yes-no questions that can be answered using information from the
text. For instance, in the case of public health, the question is
broadly, "Are energy drinks a possible public health problem?" If
your answer is yes, you will choose information consistent with that
perspective. Note that by considering an underlying yes or no ques-
tion, you need to take a stance. What might be the yes-no questions
underlying the other two scenarios? What is your stance?
In this next task we would like you to take a look at some attempts at
using the energy drink text to support the claim that energy drink use may
be a growing health concern. But first, we need to make a few comments.
Whenever possible, you should directly cite original sources, rather than cite
a citation (indirect citation). If you wanted to use the information on the
number of energy drinks introduced to the market, you should find and
read the Johnson (2006) paper. As a scholar, it is better to check the original
source to make sure that the information you saw elsewhere is accurate. If
the source is not accessible but you want to use information from it, then
you need to make it clear that this is what you have done by citing both
sources. The data in the report prepared by Packaged Facts, a market
research company, is not easily accessed and so it would be reasonable to use
the cited information from it.
This citation suggests that you have read the repon yourself, which
would be misleading.
Research by Packaged Facts (2007) has shown ...
To indicate that you are citing a citation, this would be appropriate.
Research conducted by Packaged Facts (as cited in Reissig et

aI., 2009) has shown that ....
Note that this citation clearly attributes the data to Packaged Facts and not
to Reissig et a1.
? nnw :u
TASK TWO
Which of these five texts seems best as a general background para-
graph for a paper arguing that energy drinks are a potential public
health problem? Explain your choice.
1. In the U.S., 200 new energy drink brands were launched in

the 12-month period ending July 2007 (Packaged Facts, 2007).
From 2002 to 2006, the average annual growth rate in energy
drink sales was 55% (Packaged Facts, 2007) (Fig. 1). In 2006,
the total U.S. retail market value for energy drinks (from all
sources) was approximately $5.4 billion and has shown a similar
annual growth rate over this same period (47%) (Packaged Facts,
2007). These drinks vary widely in both caffeine content (rang-
ing from 50 to 505 mg per can or bottle) and caffeine concentra-
tion (ranging from 2.5 to 171 mg per fluid ounce).
2. According to Packaged Facts (as cited in Reissig et al., 2009),
between 2006 and 2007 hundreds of energy drink brands were
introduced into the U.S. market. This was likely a result of
producers recognizing energy drinks as a very profitable product
with growth potential. In fact, the average annual growth rate
in energy drink sales was 55% (Packaged Facts, 2007) (Fig. 1).
Research by Packaged Facts (as cited in Reissig et al., 2009)
shows that the total U.S. retail market value for energy drinks
(from all sources) was estimated to be $5.4 billion in 2006 and
has shown a similar annual growth rate over this same period
/-'--u'7"'- __
(47%). These drinks vary widely in both caffeine content

(ranging from 50 to 505 mg per can or bottle) and caffeine
concentrarion (ranging from 2.5 to 171 mg per fluid ounce).
Since the long-term effects of these high levels of caffeine are
not known, there is a chance that consumption of these drinks
may be harmful.
3. In 2002, sales of energy drinks in the United States were just
over $100 million. By 2006, however, this figure was $700
million. Although this tremendous growth is welcome news for
producers and retailers, it is unclear what the long-term health
consequences may be (Reissig et al., 2009). This uncertainry
may even encourage higher levels of consumption, leading to
possible health issues.
4. Hundreds of new energy drink brands have been introduced
into the market over the past decade Oohnson, 2006). Along
with this growth, sales have also dramatically increased, reaching
a market value of billions of dollars in the U.S. alone. Clearly,
the demand for caffeine, which varies widely in these drinks, is
insatiable and a public health crisis is about to emerge.
5. Energy drink consumption is rapidly growing, which is a source
of concern among health professionals (Reissig et al., 2009).
Specifically, researchers do not know what the long- and short-
terms effects of caffeine and other additives in these drinks may
be (Reissig, 2009). Thus, we may soon be facing a public health
crisis.
Now use information from the Reissig et al. text to respond to the
question of whether energy drinks pose a public health problem.
!4ii PIT E
At this point, we want to draw your attention to an issue that has been
receiving increasing attention within and outside academia, specifically
using your own words when you borrow information from the work of oth-
ers as you write your papers.
Some Notes on Plagiarism

Plagiarism is best defined as a deliberate activity-the conscious copying
from the work of others. The concept of plagiarism has become an integral
part of North American and Western European countries. It is based on a
number of assumptions that may not hold true in all cultures. One is a
rather romantic assumption that the writer is an original, individual, creative
artist. Another is that original ideas and expressions are the acknowledged
property of their creators (as is the case with a patent for an invention). Yet
another is that it is a sign of disrespect-rather than respect-to copy with-
out acknowledgment from the works of published authorities. This even
includes the use of images and figures that you have downloaded from the
internet, but for which you give no source.
Of course, borrowing the words and phrases of others can be a useful lan-
guage learning strategy. Certainly you would not be plagiarizing if you bor-
rowed items that are frequently used in academic English (skeletal phrases)
or that are common knowledge, such as these examples.
Paris is the capital of France.
An increase in demand often leads to an increase in price.
The results from this experiment seem to suggest that ....
These results are statistically significant.
Indeed, if you can never use standard phraseology and expressions of your
field or academia in general, it would be difficult to improve your writing.
The key is knowing the difference berween language used by most writers to
present their own perspectives and new ideas and language that expresses
someone else's unique content and ideas. For instance, let's look at a text that
we provided in Unit Two.
o The increasing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-

in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is attributed to the savings in
fuel costs compared to conventional internal combustion
engine (ICE) vehicles. 49 EVs and PHEVs save energy due to the
employment of reverse regenerating braking during the decel-
eration cycle. @ This energy is typically stored in batteries and
ultracapacitors (UCs). 0 The incorporation of on-board energy
storage systems (ESS) and generation in PHEVs has been facili-
tated and dictated by the market demands for enhanced per-
formance and range.
In this text, we believe there is language in Sentence 1 that you can borrow.
I
o The increasing popularity of _ _ _ _ is attributed to
So, you might write this new sentence for a completely different topic.
o The increasing popularity of Voice over Internet Protocol

(VoIP) can be attributed to its low cost.
In Sentence 4, we think it would be fine to use this language. Can you

complete the sentence using information from your field? We offer an exam-
ple to get you started.
"The incorporation of ____ in _ _ _ _ has been

facilitated by _ _ __
The incorporation of corpus data in academic writing courses

has been facilitated by the availability of large corpora on the
internet.
It would not, however, be acceptable to take the otiginal sentences in their

entitety and use them in your own text-unless you placed quotation marks
around them. Copying sentences without quotation marks amounts to pass-
ing off someone else's work as your own.
You should also be aware that you should not borrow "famous" phrases
without at least putting them in quotation marks. Here, for example is a
famous quotation by Louis Pasteur, which was originally in French.
Chance favors the prepared mind.
If you wanted to use this phrase, you should recognize its special status. We
would encourage you to borrow standard phraseology of your field and
skeletal phrases when appropriate, but not special expressions such as the
Pasteur quote (unless these are placed in quotation marks).
Iff
TASK THREE
Here are some approaches to writing, beginning with a plagiarizing
approach and ending with an acceptable quoting technique. Where
does plagiarism stop? Draw a line between the last approach that
would be considered plagiarism and the first approach that would
produce acceptable original work.
1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any

acknowledgment.
2. Copying a paragraph making only small changes, such as
replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms.
3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using the sentences of the
original but leaving one or two out, or by putting one or two
sentences in a different order.
4. Composing a paragraph by taking short standard phrases from a
number of sources and putting them together with some words
of your own.
5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial changes
in language and organization, amount of detail, and examples.
6. Quoting a paragraph by placing it in block format with the
source cited.
University plagiarism policies are readily available on the internet. We

recommend that you find and read through the plagiarism policy of your
institution and become familiar with it, even if you do not agree with all of
it.
Let's now look more closely at the summary writing process by working
wi th a text from Mechanical Engineering.
TASK FOUR
Students in one of our writing courses were given a section of a
research paper on a driver support system and asked to respond to
this question: Is there a need for a shift in the focus of research on
car safety systems? With this question in mind, read the passage,
and then underline the information that you would include in your
response. Can you tell how the text is organized?
Design of a Haptic Gas Pedal for

Active Car·Foliowing Support
Mulder, M., Abbink, D. A.,
van Paassen, M. M., and Mulder, M. (2011).
IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 12, 268-279.
o The fact that the motor vehicle fatality rate per 100 million
vehicle miles has gone down from 5.1 to 1.4 [2] since the 1960s
is most certainly the result of improved driver safety regulations,
higher driver training standards, better road design, and advance-
ments in car-safety systems. 8 From the early seatbelts and anti-
crash bodies to airbags and side impact protection systems, car
manufacturers have come up with a broad range of passive safety
improvements that significantly reduce the severity of driver,
passenger, and pedestrian or cyclist injury when involved in a traf-
fic accident.
8 However, with the increased importance of the car as a
personal means of transportation, nondriving-related devices,
such as car stereos, mobile phones, and, more recently, navigation
systems, divert drivers' attention increaSingly more away from the
primary sources of information necessary for safe operation of
the vehicle: the road and other road users. e With traffic accident
statistics attributing driver inattention as one of the major causes
of traffic accidents [3-5], this increase of in-vehicle devices is
worrisome at least-if not dangerous.
0To bridge the gap between the gain in improved passive
safety and the increasing development and use of nondriving-
related in-vehicle devices, research on car safety systems is
directed more towards systems that actively support drivers in

their driving task. 0 Ultimately, active support systems aim to
prevent drivers from getting into accidents. e This is a radically
different approach compared with that of passive safety systems,
which help lessen the impact of driving accidents but do nothing
to contribute to preventing drivers from getting into an accident.
o The goal of this paper is to present the design of an active
haptic* support system for car-following. 0 The intended applica-
tion range of the proposed system is limited to speeds of approxi-
mately 80 km/h and higher (minimum highway speeds). 4D The
system is intended to provide continuous car-following support
within a wide range of car-following situations-not only in critical
situations. ED The intensity of the support is, therefore, continu-
ously adapted to the car-following situation.
If you recall, we said that it is important to read and take notes

on the text that you will summarize. To inform your understanding
and guide your choice of important information from the text, you
could use these questions.
Answer
Note that the questions are simply a starting point. You can
devise your own questions when you summarize parts of papers
from your own field.
"'having to do with the sense of touch.

In answering the questions, you may have extracted this information,

which you could then use to discuss whether there is a need to change the
focus of vehicle safety research.
• The number of accidents and the severity of injuries have decreased
because of better safety.
• Drivers these days have a lot of technology that is accessible, but not
necessarily needed, to operate a vehicle.
• Technology distracts drivers.
• Distraction is a major cause of accidents.
• There is an interest in preventing accidents and not just in protecting
drivers.
• Accidents can be prevented if driver support systems are developed and
installed.
In the next step, these elements can be strung together to form the basis
of a response to the question. Of course, special care has to be taken to
ensure a logical flow of ideas. Here is a draft written by one of our students
in response to the question posed in Task Four.
o Since the 1960s the motor vehicle fatality rate per 100
million vehicle miles has gone down from 5.1 to 1.4 . • This
improvement is the result of improvements in driver safety
regulations, higher driver training standards, better road design,
and advancements in car-safety systems. 8 Important advances
in car safety include seatbelts, anticrash bodies, airbags, and side
impact protection systems (Mulder et aI., 2011). (;) All of these
are systems that have no influence on a driving situation until
an accident occurs. 0 Because they are idle until needed they are
known as passive safety systems.
0Passive systems are important, but may not be enough to
protect today's drivers, whose vehicles now contain nondriving-
related devices, such as car stereos, mobile phones, and, more
recently, navigation systems, that can divert their attention increas-
ingly more away from the primary sources of information neces-
sary for safe operation of the vehicle: the road and other road
e
users (Mulder et aI., 2011). Thus, to continue the improvement
in driving safety, there is a need for a shift in the focus of research
on car safety systems that take into account driver distraction.
fi) Rather than focusing on protecting drivers in an accident,

research should be directed more towards systems that actively
support drivers in their driving task so that they do not get into
accidents in the first place. 0 This is a radical change from the
focus on passive safety systems, which do nothing to help prevent
drivers from getting into an accident (Mulder et aI., 201 1).
This is perhaps a reasonable beginning. The writer has retained the

important parts of the text. However, this summary has some weaknesses.
1. For the most part, too much of the text is written in the words of the
original, although no whole sections were borrowed. It may very well
be an example of plagiarism-work copied from a source without
proper attribution. Notice, for instance, that much of Sentence 1 is
very dose to the beginning of the soutce and throughout several
stretches of language from the source have been copied.
2. The draft does not display a high level of understanding of the source
passage. While it does show that the writer can pull out important
information, it may not convince the reader that the summary writer
understands the issues and need for research.
Overall, although this response is a reasonable draft, it needs more work
before it would be fully acceptable as a written assignment. Now, let us con-
sider how the summary could be improved. One obvious approach would be
to paraphrase the sentences of the original.
Paraphrasing
A paraphrase is a restatement (in your own words) of the ideas in the origi-
nal. Good paraphrasing can demonstrate that you have understood the text
you have read and can avoid plagiarizing. The most common strategy used
to accomplish this involves replacing words in the source with synonyms
and perhaps changing the grammar. Look again at Sentence 3 from the text
on new car safety systems .
. . . nondriving-related devices, such as car stereos, mobile

phones, and, more recently, navigation systems, divert drivers'
attention increasingly more away from the primary sources of
information necessary for safe operation of the vehicle: the road
and other road users.
S: WRITING SUMMARIES 203
If you want to use this information but write it in your own words, you
could begin by identifYing the important information in the sentence and
the relationships between points. You then might think about language to
establish relationships, as demonstrated here.
Important points
• There are a lot of devices in cars that have nothing to do with operat-
ing a vehicle.
• These devices can distract drivers.
• Drivers are so distracted that they may not pay attention to the road
and other drivers.
Important relationships
• cause and effect
Linking phrases and expressions that can connect the two points
• because
• therefore
• as a result
Verbs that might establish other relationships
• is due to
• caused by
• can be attributed to
• leading to
Next you might consider possible synonyms for the source vocabulary and
changing the part of speech (nouns to verbs, for instance).
• such as -+ like, including
• more recently -+ lately?
• devices -+ technology
• divert -+ distract, sidetrack, take away, diversion
• non-driving ---+ ?
• primary sources ---+ main inputs?
• necessary -+ needed, required
• saft ---+ secure?
Other considerations
• Is this always true? Should the claim be softened?
Finally, you are ready to try your own paraphrase.
TASK FIVE
Re-write the excerpt at the bottom of page 202 using because and
lead to, changing the vocabulary and grammar as necessary. Here
are two examples using due to.
Example: due to
Safe driving practices may be compromised due to the

presence of technology in cars that is not directly related
to vehicle operation including cell phones, music players,
and GPS.
Drivers today may fail to concentrate on the road and other

drivers due to the presence of technology such as cell phones,
music players, GPS, and other technology that is unrelated to
driving.
1. Use because
2. Use lead to
3. Write two paraphrases of this short text. Before writing, break

the task into important points, relationships, linking phrases and
connectors, and synonyms.
Passive safety systems help lessen the impact of driving

accidents. They do nothing to contribute to preventing
drivers from getting into an accident.
Important points
Relationship between the points
Linking phrases or expressions to connect the points
Possible synonyms
Paraphrase 1
Paraphrase 2
As the task suggests, paraphrasing IS hard work, particularly when it

comes to vocabulary.
Careful Use of Synonyms

When using synonyms, you need to be careful about YOut choices. Not all
synonyms work equally well in all contexts. Take this example, for instance.
The system is intended to provide continuous car·following

support within a wide range of car-following situations-not
only in critical situations.
If you follow a simple synonym substitution process, you may produce

something like this.
In many kinds of car· following situations-not only in grave

situations-the system is planned to present persistent car-
following support.
The rearrangement of the ideas is good and is an important strategy for par-
aphrasing. However, grave and critical are not quite similar enough in this
context. Perhaps dangerous would be a better choice here. In addition, pres-
ent persistent car-following support does not work so well because the colloca-
tion (simply put, words that tend to go together) is awkward. Offir might be
a better choice.
If you need to check whether the words you want to use go together,
you can search the internet, ideally Google Scholar. To conduct your search,
place the expression of interest in quotation marks and, if you think it would
be helpful, use a wild card indicated by an asterisk (*) in the expression so
that you can capture variations of the expression. For instance, we did this
search on Google Scholar. To narrow hits to your field of study, include a
relevant term outside the quotation marks.
"the system is * to * support"
We found these interesting possibilities.
The system is designed to provide support

is configured to deliver
is built
is intended
is expected
is developed
is able
is
We even found many instances of useful modification and split infinitives.
The system is designed to fully support

is configured to directly
is built to unobtrusively
is intended to optionally
is expected
is developed
is able
is placed
So, we can write something like this.
The system is configured to provide ongoing car-following

support in many types of situations, not only those that are
identified as dangerous.
Note that the language has been substantially changed, although the sense of
the original is fully maintained. A paraphrase approach to summarizing can
be somewhat successful, but if you do this sentence by sentence for a longer
stretch of text, you run the risk of not demonstrating your full understand-
ing of the passage. You might miss an opportunity to highlight key points.
Another possible danger is that the resulting summaty may not be original
enough and could be considered plagiarism by some.
If you (understandably) feel that your paraphrasing ability is not strong,
you can copy some material and place it in quotation marks; however, a bet-
ter but more difficult strategy would be to carefully consider the elements
you have identified as important, put the original away, and write what you
have understood. This may allow you to condense the ideas in the source
even further.
To sum up, when you write a formal summary of someone else's ideas,
you should keep in mind the following guidelines.
1. Always try to use your own words.
2. Include enough support and detail so that your message is clear.
3. Do not try to paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms.
4. Make sure the summary reads smoothly. Focus on old-to-new infor-
mation flow; use transition devices where necessary; and provide sup-
porting detail. You do not want a collection of sentences that does not
flow.
5. If it is impossible to use your own words, then quote the material.
Remember, however, that too much quoting will not likely result in a
successful paper. Information ftom sources should support, but not
replace, your own ideas, interpretations, and explanations.
TASK SIX
Here is a second draft of the response to whether there is a need for
a shift in the focus of research on car safery systems. Read it and
answer the questions on page 209.
o Over the past five decades there has been a dramatic

improvement in the risks associated with driving. 0 During this
time, deaths reSUlting from driving accidents have decreased
nearly fourfold (Mulder et aI., 2011).0 Much of this improvement
has to do with appropriate safety regulations and equipment in
vehicles designed to protect drivers and their passengers (e.g.,
safety belts, air bags, and other passive safety mechanisms) (Mul-
der et aI., 2011). 0 This improvement, however, may begin to
diminish as drivers face new risks related to the availability of tech-
nology that is not needed for vehicle operation, but does reduce
drivers' attention to their task. 0 This, of course, includes a variety
of devices such as music systems, mobile phones, and even GPS,
all of which, but particularly mobile phones, have been shown to

have an impact on safe driving.
(it While previous safety measures were targeted at protection and

have been highly successful, it seems now that driver distraction
needs to be addressed if the gains in safety are to be maintained
or enhanced, f) Thus, there is a need to shift the focus of safety
research to help drivers themselves be more aware of their
surroundings during the operation of their vehicles. til For instance,
drivers may not be aware that they are following a car too closely
and be unable to stop safely. 01f a car-following alert system
(Mulder et aI., 20 II) could be devised to warn drivers of the poten-
tial danger, accidents could be prevented.
1. Does the response answer the question?

2. Does the response capture good supportive information from the
source? Does the source information serve as support or does it
seem to be the focus?
3. To what extent has the author of the draft used his/her own
words?
4. How well has the draft author revealed his/her understanding of

the problem and solution?
5. Can you identify any instances of evaluation and where the
author has incorporated some ideas not found in the source? Are
these appropriate?
6. If you were to revise the draft, what would you do?
7. Write your own response to the question using the source text.
wrmm
Since many of the summaries you write will be woven into your own origi-
nal text, it is very important to identify at least the source author, depending
on your field of study.
Note that when your citation style requires the use of author names, you
need to provide the family name. First names only are not used in in-text
citations since this makes it difficult for your reader to know to whom you
might be referring. One of our students chose to identify the source of the
vehicle safety text in this way.
According to Mark and his co-authors, car safety research

should be directed at preventing accidents.
This is obviously a first attempt because a reader unfamiliar with the

source will reasonably assume that Mark is the family name and may then
look in the reference list to find the article. Mark happens to be the first
name of the first author of the car safety article and the in-text citation
would be confusing. Also, since there is more than one author in Qur exam-
ple, this needs to be acknowledged. We propose the following revision.
According to Mulder et al. (2011), car safety research should

be directed at preventing accidents.
Generally, family names alone are sufficient, but occasionally, you may see
citations that include both first and last names of a single author. One rea-
son to do this is to distinguish two authors with the same family name.
Another reason has to do with requirements of certain styles such as MLA
that may prescribe the use of an author's full name the first time that author
is cited. Finally, another reason, for which we can offer only anecdotal evi-
dence, is to acknowledge an author's status in the field. Well-known figutes
in certain fields are frequently teferred to by both first and last names. Take,
for example, these sentences.
Physics
These relations arise from the energy conservation considera·
tion originally proposed by Albert Einstein.
Economics
According to John Maynard Keynes, "There is, clearly, no
absolute standard of 'liqUidity.'"
Anthropology
Other possible models include those of the Kibbutz as
explained by Bettleheim (1969) and Kaffman (1972) or the
Samoan Village as described by Margaret Mead (1961).
,---.-
Language Focus: Identifying the Source
Most summaries will have a sentence near the beginning that contains two
elements: the source and a main idea. Notice the use of the present tense in
many of the examples.
According to Fairchild (2011), _ _ __

(main idea)
Ho and Neidell's 2009 paper on fluoridation discusses _ _ __

(main idea)
Bernstein (2004) states that _ _ __

claims (main idea)
argues
maintains
Barinaga (2004) suggests that _ _ __

asserts (main idea)
hypothesizes
states
concludes
Lamport [1] proposed _ _ __

demonstrated
found
identified
_ _ _ _ was first reported in [13].

proposed
identified
given
You may cite your source material following APA (American Psychologi-
cal Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or another style, depending on your
field of study. The APA and MLA systems refer to a source similarly, by
author and date. The following citations are in APA style.
Reissig et al. (2009) questioned whether energy drinks are

safe.
The safety of energy drinks has not yet been established
(Reissig et aI., 2009).
In their study of energy drinks, Reissig et al. (2009) sug-
gested that energy drinks may not be entirely safe. They
also indicated that more research is needed.
How does the citation in the second sentence differ from those in the other
two sentences?
For a thorough discussion of APA and MLA styles, see Publication Man-
ual of the American Psychological Association and MLA Handbook for Writers
of Research Papers. In Engineering and some other fields, it may be more
common to use reference numbers.
Photorefractive crystals may be useful in the development of

high-speed electrical signals.'
Always check the style guides in your discipline to learn more abour
proper documentation. Members of a field expect writers to be familiar with
their disciplinary practices.
There is a range of reporting verbs that you may use when referring to
your source material. In fact, a srudy by Ken Hyland (1999) identified more
than 400 different reporting verbs; however, nearly 50 percent of these were
used only one time in his corpus of 80 research articles. A much smaller
number of verbs tend to predominate. In Table 15 we show the most fre-
quently used reporting verbs from a variety of disciplines, with the most fre-
quent on the left and the sixth most frequent on the far right. As you can
see, there are some disciplinary differences.
TABLE 15. High-Frequency Reporting Verbs

Verbs and Frequency
Discipline Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6
Harder Sciences
Biology describe find report show suggest observe
Physics develop report study find expand
Electrical Engineering propose use describe show publish develop
Mechanical Engineering describe show report discuss give develop
Epidemiology find describe suggest report examine show
Nursing find suggest report identify indicate show
Medicine show report demonstrate observe find suggest
Softer Sciences
Marketing suggest argue find demonstrate propose show
Applied linguistics suggest argue show explain find point out
Psychology find show suggest report demonstrate focus
Sociology argue suggest describe note analyze discuss
Education find suggest note report demonstrate provide
Philosophy say suggest argue claim point out think
Data for Biology, Physics, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Applied Linguistics, and Soci-
ology from Hyland, K. Academic attribution: Citation and the construction of disciplinary knowledge,
Applied Linguistics 20 (1999): 341-367. Other data thanks to Carson Maynard.
t i,a
TASK SEVEN
If you have not done so already, find at least five, but preferably
more, well-written published research papers that are typical of
papers in your area of study. It does not matter whether these are
seminal papers or where the research was conducted. We simply
want you to have a small data set (a corpus) that you can analyze to
gain some insights into the important characteristics of published
work in your discipline. Choose 2 to 5 papers from your collection
(or more) and underline all the reporting verbs. If your field is rep-
resented in Table 15, do your results match with those in the table?
If your field is not represented, is there one field that is close to
-
yours in its use of reporting verbs?
_am] i lU% ; d,. J

A variety of reporting verbs can be used in summary writing to reveal

your personal stance toward the source material. Notice how the reporting
verbs in the following examples could allow the writer of the summary to
convey his or her attitude.
Campbell (2010) presumes that the findings will be representative

of the whole population ....
The authors speculate that people who scrap their old cars will
immediately buy another, new(er) car.
Notice also how the addition of an adverb (in mid-position, of course)

can even more clearly reveal your stance, which you may want to do when
writing to critique.
The authors incorrectlv assume that patients will always take

the medicine that has been prescribed.
TASK EIGHT
Some reporting verbs are less objective than others. Can you identifY
which verbs in the table seem to be objective and which verbs have
the potential to be evaluative? The first one has been done for you.
Objective Evaluative
describe x
recommend
claim
assume
contend
propose
theorize
support
examine
Ens H Wi?P :
1
%
5: WRITING SUMMARIES 215 "I
!
In formal academic English, many reporting verbs are followed by a that

clause conraining both a subject and a verb. Can you identifY the verbs in
the table that are not followed by that? List rhem.
That clauses have a variety of functions. In the following sentence, the

that clause is the direct object of the verb state.
Benfield and Howard (2000) state that many medical journals

are now published in English because of a desire to attract
greater readership and to attract better, more international
manuscripts.
In spoken English, that in clauses that function as direct objects is often

omitted, as in the next example. Notice also that in the spoken English alter-
native, the choice of the verb said is less formal.
Benfield and Howard (2000) said a lot of medical journals are

published in English now because they want to attract greater
readership and to attract better, more international manu-
scripts.
You may have wondered why we have not said anything about the verb
mention to refer to your source, If you were to llse mention instead of one of
the other verbs suggested, you would greatly change the importance of the
information that follows.
Benfield and Howard (2000) mention that many medical jour-

nals are now published in English because of a desire to
attract greater readership and to attract better, more interna-
tional manuscripts.
Mention is used for information that was most likely given without detail or
support. The example sentence using mention makes it seem as if the reason
journals are now published in English is a minor point in the article. We
suggest that you avoid using mention in summaries, unless the point is truly
a minor one. A better choice here would be note.
TASK NINE
Here are some citation statements that students wrote in a
discussion of the benefits of caffeinated energy drinks using the
passage in Task One of this unit. Which, if any, would you prefer
to have written? Why? Edit the weaker sentences.
1. Author Chad Reissig and colleagues state that how caffeine

content in energy drinks may be hazardous to our health.
2. "Caffeinated Energy Drinks-A Growing Problem" by Reissig

et al. claims that the caffeine and other components in energy
drinks consumed may be a health hazard.
3. According to "Caffeinated Energy Drinks-A Growing Prob-

lem," Chad Reissig and colleagues suggest that research is
needed to understand the effect of caffeine and other compo-
nents in energy drinks.
4. Reissig et al. mention that energy drink consumprion is growing

rapidly.
5. Reissig and colleagues said in their article energy drinks might

be harmful.
Language Focus: Summary Reminder Phrases
In a longer summary, you may want to remind your reader that you are
summanzmg:
The author goes on to say that ... .

The article further states that ... .
[Authors' surnames here] also state/maintain/argue that ....
[Authors' surnames here] also believe that ... .
[Authors' surnames here] conclude that ... .
In the second half of the paper, [author's surname here]
presents ....
In fact, if your summary is quite long, you may want to mention the
source author's name at different points in your summary-the beginning,
the middle, and/or the end. When you mention the authot in the middle Ot
end of the summary, be sure to use the surname only.
Reissig et al. go on to describe ... .

The author further argues that ... .
Some of the following sentence connectors may be useful in introducing

additional information.
additionally also forther
in addition to forthermore moreover
TASK TEN
Look back at the student text in Task Six on pages 208-209. Would
you insert a reminder phrase? If so, where? Now read these sum-
mary reminder sentences written by our students. Which, if any, of
these would you prefer to have written? Try to improve the weaker
sentences.
I. Reissig et al. (2009) finally say that we need more research.
2. In addition, the article also discusses the caffeine levels.
3. In Reissig et a!.'s (2009) article, they also point out that no

one knows the long-term effects of caffeine and the other
components.
4. Reissig and colleagues (2009) conclude that current research is

insufficient.
5. Reissig and others (2009) conclude about the current risks that
exist.
Sometimes you may want to capture only the main idea{s) of a soutce. In
this case, you might choose some specific information or you may recast the
source material so that it is more general than in its original form.
21b
TASK ELEVEN
Read "Improving the Environment in Urban Areas" and try to
determine the text-type. Then read the texts that follow. Decide
which you think is most successful at supporting the point that
urban planners can have a positive effect on the environment. Write
one or two sentences after each text, explaining what you like Of
dislike. Then discuss each with a partuer.
Improving the Environment in Urban Areas:

The Role of Urban Planners
o Recently, increasingly significant problems regarding urban

sprawl, greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles, and the loss
of open, green areas have become the focus of urban planners.
8 To address some of these concerns, many countries, especially
developed countries, have devised technology to control harmful
vehicle emissions. 0 However, as these countries already have
an abundance of vehicles that continues to grow in number, the
efficacy of these measures is diminished. "Since cars and other
vehicles create more air pollution than any other human activity,
the most effective means to reduce pollution is to shift the reliance
on automobiles towards other modes of transportation. 0 One way
to achieve this goal is for urban planners to focus on transit ori'
ented development (TOO). 0 TOO generally refers to higher·density
urban development that places pedestrians in the center so that
they have easy access to environmentally friendly travel modes
such as light rail. e TOO land use strategies, for instance, encour·
age construction of public transit stations and stops in convenient
locations near homes and entertainment that will promote their
use. 01n addition to a reduction in vehicle use, TOO can have
other energy and environmental benefits in terms of housing devel·
opment and workplace efficiency improvements. 0 TOO requires
less land than does standard development, which can lead to
preservation of farmland and green areas as well as lower energy
use. CD Specifically, suburban TOO dwelling units and offices may

be more energy efficient because they are smaller than those in
standard suburban spaces. CD TOO dwellings also have shared walls
as in the case of townhouses and may consist of multi·family build·
ings and multi·story offices. e Because they have fewer exposed
surfaces and therefore less exterior heat loss, such structures are
typically more energy efficient than individual single·family
dwellings or one-story buildings.
Yasufumi Iseki, some editing
1. According to Yasufumi Iseki, TOD is a form of urban planning

that can effectively protect the environment.
2. Iseki maintains that cars and other vehicles create more pollution
than any other activity; thus, decreasing the number of vehicles
is the most effective way to improve the environment in urban
areas. Another way to decrease pollution is to design smaller,
more environmentally friendly dwellings. These improvements
may be possible by implementing a form of strategic develop-
ment of public transit known as transit oriented development
(TOD).
3. Iseki states that the number of cars and other vehicles in urban
areas needs to be reduced to improve the urban environment.
This reduction could be achieved through transit oriented
development (TOD).
4. Iseki claims that urban planning can playa role in improving
urban environments by prompting a shift away from heavy
vehicle use. Although this will be difficult to achieve because
of the overabundance of vehicles in developed countries, it is
worth pursuing.
5. According to Iseki, transit oriented development (TOD) can
help solve environmental problems such as urban air pollution
by providing city dwellers transportation that is convenient and
by encouraging the design of smaller, more energy efficient
dwellings.
t: 2 iJ!J
TASK TWELVE
Think of a topic in which you have some interest and then find
an article on that topic. Create a yes-no question that could be
answered using the information from the article. If you need some
examples, review the yes-no questions in Task One on page 193.
Syntheses of More than One Source

Writing tasks that require you to deal with more than one source are com-
mon in many graduate courses, They can be assignments on their own, part
of a longer paper, or a response to an examination question. Such summaries
can be more challenging to write than simple summaries because they
require you to analyze and use information from two or more sources that
may overlap, slightly differ, or contradict each other. When working with
multiple sources, you often need to infer and make explicit the relationships
among them. In doing so, you can reveal your understanding of a line of
inquiry in your field together with the accepted knowledge and the debates.
TASK THIRTEEN
The following are questions from the fields of Neurobiology,
Economics, and Epidemiology. How would you approach each
of these tasks? What do you think are the instructor's expectations?
1. What do A1kon and Farley believe the role of serotonin to be in

memory? In what ways do they fundamentally differ? How are
they similar? Is one perspective more comprehensive than the
other?
2. How do Winder & Gori and Agran view the political implica-
tions of recent evidence regarding occupational cancers?
3. Relate Kohl and Jaworski's recent article "Market Orientation:
The Construct, Research Propositions, and Managerial Implica-
tions" to product and service qualiry. Consider the perspectives
of Juran, Feigenbaum, Deming, and Crosby. What common
themes emerge, and how do they differ?
4. Recent studies have examined the suitability of vatious agricul-

turally derived fuel oils as alternatives to petroleum products.
Straight Vegetable Oil (SYO) studies in particulat have generated
interest because of the potential benefits of SYO as a possible
replacement for Diesel #2 in some engines. One common
problem is that most SYO has a much higher viscosity than
diesel. Discuss the nature of this problem and the current
approaches to dealing with it. Is there one approach that looks
more promising than the others?
5. Construct a similar task for your own field of study, based on
the question you created in Task Twelve. How would you plan
to answer it? Be prepared to explain your task and plan in class.
TASK FOURTEEN
Students in an Acoustics course were asked to write a paper on
unpleasant sounds, one section of which was required to discuss
why certain sounds ate considered highly unpleasant. This, of
course, required the use of previous studies. Read this first drafi of
the section and mark the instructor comments on pages 222-223 as
reasonable (R) or unreasonable (U). If you ate uusure, indicate this
with a question mark (?).
1. 0 In 1986 Halpern, Blake, and Hillenbrand investigated how

people respond to different terrible sounds. 81n one experi-
ment, listeners rated the unpleasantness of different sounds.
8 Participants generally agreed that the worst sound was
that of a garden tool scraped on a piece of slate shaped into a
roofing tile, which sounds similar to fingernails scraped on
a traditional blackboard. 0 The researchers found that the
negative reaction to the sound could mainly be found in a
band of 2-4 kHz.
o Also in 1986, Blake did a study of a scraping noise,
comparing its sound wave with that of monkey warning cries.
o The waveforms of the two were quite similar. 8 Because of
this similarity, Blake concluded that humans react negatively
to scraping noises because they still have some innate reaction
mechanism from their ancient ancestors. 8 In other words,

humans still have the same response mechanism as monkeys
who hear a warning cry.
CD McDermott and Hauser in 2004 explored reactions of
humans and a type of monkey known as a tamarin to scraping
sounds and screeching, respectively. They also examined their
reactions to some white noise. G) The humans clearly preferred
white noise to scraping, while the tamarins reacted to this noise
as negatively as they did to screeching.
4D In 2008 Cox conducted an experiment of scraping sounds
in which participants had both audio and visual inputs. G) The
goal was to determine whether the sound and visualizing how
it feels to make the sound were in some way related. Cox
found that the sound of scraping fingernails on a blackboard
was perceived as much worse when participants were shown
a picture of a hand on a blackboard. 4D He concluded that
visualizing the making of the sound, a process that is unpleas-
ant, is a significant factor in the perception of unpleasantness.
Instructor Comments
I think <'!ou Mve '" e00cL st",rt he,e, rut
I thCnk <,!OU am do more
to e.x),ain where the current thinking is 1M the issu£.
1. You Mve discussed th,ee studies om<'!. A,e the,e othe,s

tMt <,!OU =lei irtdudc?
2. The discussion d.eals with the studies in ch,onoLoeical

o,der. I don't jind thCs to he '" .P"'rt£cu["'r0:J useJui
stmtw h=se <,!OU don't nwke amnecti<MS "'mane
the studies.
3. Ove,alL, I ",m not sure wMt <'!OU, 'point is. You seem to
be discussing the 'piLSt wo,k om<,! bemuse <'!OU know <,!OU
Me suyyosed to talk MOiht WMt othe,s Mve done. But
discussing wMt others Mve done shouLd not st",nd in
yLace if '" yoint. 'Do <'!OU Mve '" 'point to nwke?
4-. I "m l'Wt (jetting " sef1Se tMt (tou understmui whae
the field st"nds to witt certain sounds "re
considered real0J u¥MScent. can (tou revise to refLect
(tour uJWLerst"ndine?
5. WMt £s the '1J'shot qf cMCDermott cend H"",sd s stuf;?

WMt {s the imylimtion?
6. 'Does the stud(t Iy Cox maL11 th"t the freque:nc(t qf "

sound is l'Wt "factor? Om (JOU comment on this?
Now read this second draft and discuss with a partner how it differs
from the previous one. Has the author positioned herself as knowl-
edgeable and capable? Explain your conclusion.
2. 0 The acoustic environment contains many sounds that are

considered extremely unpleasant. @To understand why these
sounds are characterized in this way a small number of studies
have been carried out. 8 Interestingly, all of these have investi-
gated scraping sounds and within this category the sound of
fingernails scraped on a blackboard has been of considerable
interest (Halpern, Blake, and Hillenbrand, 1986; Blake, 1986;
McDermott and Hauser, 2004; Cox, 2008). e Studies of scraping
sounds have shown that the negative reaction to the sound
could mainly be found in a band of 2-4 kHz (Halpern, Blake and
Hillenbrand, 1986; Kumar et aI., 2008).411 This differs from very
early research suggesting that high frequencies create the
unpleasant quality of this and other scraping sounds (Boyd,
1959; Ely, 1975).0 Other research has looked beyond fre-
quency, seeking to understand whether there might be some
vestigial reasons for the perceived unpleasantness and using
data collected from monkeys (Blake, 1986; McDermott and
Hauser, 2004). e For instance, Blake (1986) compared scraping
sound waves with those of monkey warning cries and found
that the waveforms of the two were quite similar. 0 Because
of this similarity, Blake concluded that humans react negatively
to scraping noises because they still have some innate reaction
mechanism from their ancient ancestors. 41) In other words,

humans still have the same response mechanism as monkeys
who hear a warning cry. 19 In related research, McDermott and
Hauser (2004) explored reactions of humans and a type of
monkey known as a tamarin to blackboard scraping sounds and
screeching, respectively, as well as their reactions to some white
noise. CD Both humans and tamarins had similar reactions to the
unpleasant sounds. CD However, they differed considerably in
their perceptions of white noise. 4» While humans clearly pre-
ferred white noise to blackboard scraping, the tamarins reacted
to this noise as negatively as they did to screeching. E9These
findings call into question Blake's theory that primates, both
human and non-human, have the same underlying mechanism
for reacting to sounds.
19 Unlike studies exploring a biological basis for perceptions
of sound, Cox proposed that humans may find certain sounds
highly unpleasant when they can visualize creating those
sounds. 19 Cox found that the sound of fingernails scraping on
a blackboard was perceived as much worse when participants
were shown a picture of a hand on a blackboard. GI He con-
cluded that the visualization of and possible tactile association
with making a sound, particularly one that is unpleasant, are
significant factors in the perception of the degree of unpleasant-
ness. Thus, the frequency of a sound may be somewhat less
important than previously thought. 19 Given the small number
of studies, however, it remains unclear why certain sounds,
particularly scraping sounds, are almost universally perceived as
extremely unpleasant, suggesting the need for more research.
ill ill ill
As you noticed, the first text in Task Fourteen, while accurate in terms of
content, fails to highlight the similarities and/or differences among the dif-
ferent studies. As such, it is difficult to see what point is being developed.
The author has missed the opportunity to reveal a broader understanding,
causing the reader more work to find the important information on his Of
her own. In the second text, the writer has revealed an ability to see connec-
tions, overlapping views, and important differences in the research. This is

accomplished because the author has organized the discussion in tetms of
I
the topics addressed, rather than according to the studies at hand. It is diffi-
cult enough deciding what information to include in a summary of one arti-
cle, but when working with two or mote sources, clearly your job becomes
even more complicated.
If you are writing a comparative summary Of a discussion of two or more
texts, to begin you may want to set up a chart, table, diagram, or even
spreadsheet that includes your articles and the key points they address. Once
you have all of your key information before you, you may have an easier
time "eyeballing" the literature, making connections, and, most importantly,
finding enough common threads. In short, you may be able to "see things
that have not quite been seen before" and display this understanding to your
reader (Feak and Swales, 2009).
When working with multiple sources you may find it useful to incorpo-
rate some common language of comparison and contrast.
Language Focus: Showing Similarities and Differences
To Show Similarity
Similarly, According to Macey (2011), the average four-
year-old in the U.S. watches approximately
four hours ofTY each day. Similarly, those in
Australia view about 3.5 hours ofTY daily
(Smuda, 2010).
Similar to Similar to Kim (2008), Macey (2011) found
that the average four-year-old in the U.S.
watches four houts of TV each day (Smuda,
2010).
Likewise, ... Macey (2011) found that the average four-year-
old in the U.S. watches fout hours ofTY each
day. Likewise, in Australia fout-year-olds watch
several houts ofTY daily.
As inX in Y . .. As in Australia, the average four-year-old in the
U.S. watches more than three hours ofTY each
day (Macey, 2011).
LikeX Y ... Like in the U.S., the average four-year-old in

Australia watches several hours of TV daily.
the same . .. According to Macey (2011), the average four-
year-old in the U.S. watches approximately four
hours ofTY each day. Four-year-olds in Aus-
tralia view about the same number hours ofTY
daily (Smuda, 2010).
as well Macey (2011) interviewed 250 parents of
young children. Kim (2010) interviewed a
similar number of parents as well.
To Show Contrast
In ... In contrast to Nigerians, 28% of whom have
internet access, Liberians have very limited
opportunities to connect to the internet.
UnlikeX Y ... Unlike Indonesians who have limited access to
the internet, the majority ofJapanese have easy
access.
In contrast to ... In contrast to the U.K. where internet access is
widespread, less than 10 percent of the popula-
tion in India can connect to the internet.
On the other hand, ... In developed countries internet access is viewed
as a necessity. In most African countries, on the
other hand, it is a luxury.
· . . ; however; . . . Overall, just over 30% of the world's popula-
· .. . However, ... tion has internet access; however, only 110/0
of Mricans have this same opportunity.
, but ... Nearly 45% of the Turkish population can eas-
ily access the internet, but in nearby Syria this is
possible for only 20% of the population.
Whereas . .. , .. . Whereas 16% of Argentinians have internet
· .. , whereas . . . access, only 8% of Columbians do.
While... , .. . While 87% of South Koreans consider
· .. ,while . . . themselves to be frequent internet users,
50% of Brazilians do so (Lee, 2011).
Other Expressions of Similarity and Contrast

To Show Similarity
to be similar to The conclusion that emerges from this study is
to resemble similar to that in Lee et a1. (2010).
to be comparable to
to correspond to
To Show Contrast
to differ from The conclusion in this study differs from that
to contrast with in Barber et a1. (2011).
to be different from
Take a look at the second discussion in Task Fourteen. Find the devices
used by the author to highlight similarity or difference.
TASK FIFTEEN
Review and respond to the task you created for yourself in Task
Thirteen (Item 5). Alternatively, come up with a yes-no question on
a topic in your field that you are interested in exploring. Find three
or four published journal articles that you can use to respond to
your question. Using the articles you have chosen, write up your
response to your question. Note that your response may in fact
resemble a brief literature review. For a more in-depth exploration
of writing literature reviews, you may want to consult Telling a
Research Story: Writing a Literature Review, which is published by
the University of Michigan Press (Feak and Swales, 2009).
diU
"

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Unit Five

Considerations before Writing a Summary

3. Read the text, highlighting important infotmation or taking notes.

Caffeinated Energy Drinks-A Growing Problem

o In 2006, annual worldwide energy drink consumption increased

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Table 1. Caffeine in Energy Drinks (United States)

Copyright Elsevier. Used with permission.

Underlying the three hypothetical scenarios in Task One are

Research by Packaged Facts (2007) has shown ...

To indicate that you are citing a citation, this would be appropriate.

Research conducted by Packaged Facts (as cited in Reissig et

1. In the U.S., 200 new energy drink brands were launched in

(47%). These drinks vary widely in both caffeine content

Some Notes on Plagiarism

Paris is the capital of France.

An increase in demand often leads to an increase in price.

The results from this experiment seem to suggest that ....

These results are statistically significant.

o The increasing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-

o The increasing popularity of Voice over Internet Protocol

In Sentence 4, we think it would be fine to use this language. Can you

"The incorporation of ____ in _ _ _ _ has been

The incorporation of corpus data in academic writing courses

It would not, however, be acceptable to take the otiginal sentences in their

Chance favors the prepared mind.

1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any

University plagiarism policies are readily available on the internet. We

Design of a Haptic Gas Pedal for

directed more towards systems that actively support drivers in

If you recall, we said that it is important to read and take notes

"'having to do with the sense of touch.

In answering the questions, you may have extracted this information,

fi) Rather than focusing on protecting drivers in an accident,

This is perhaps a reasonable beginning. The writer has retained the

. . . nondriving-related devices, such as car stereos, mobile

Finally, you are ready to try your own paraphrase.

Safe driving practices may be compromised due to the

Drivers today may fail to concentrate on the road and other

3. Write two paraphrases of this short text. Before writing, break

Passive safety systems help lessen the impact of driving

Relationship between the points

Linking phrases or expressions to connect the points

As the task suggests, paraphrasing IS hard work, particularly when it

Careful Use of Synonyms

The system is intended to provide continuous car·following

If you follow a simple synonym substitution process, you may produce

In many kinds of car· following situations-not only in grave

"the system is * to * support"

We found these interesting possibilities.

The system is designed to provide support

We even found many instances of useful modification and split infinitives.

The system is designed to fully support

So, we can write something like this.

The system is configured to provide ongoing car-following

o Over the past five decades there has been a dramatic

all of which, but particularly mobile phones, have been shown to

(it While previous safety measures were targeted at protection and

1. Does the response answer the question?