Chapter 3

Topic 3
Chapter 3.0 Research Methodology
3.1 The Research Design
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES

Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

i. Distinguish between quantitative, qualitative and mixed research designs.

ii. Describe the experimental methods of research
iii. Identify the various types of research designs.
iv. Describe the research designs

Introduction
What is a research design?

A research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. It is the blue print which determines whether the research will
involve: experiments, interviews, observations, content analysis, simulations, or a
combination of these. Are the methods of data collection highly structures? Are
interviews to be use? Should analysis be quantitative or qualitative? It is the plan
and structure of investigation that enables researchers answer research questions.
The plan is an overall scheme or programme of research. It includes an outline of
what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses to analysis of the data
collected. Therefore, the research design expresses both the structure and the
plan of investigation to be used to obtain empirical evidence on relations of the
problems (Cooper & Schindler, 2005. P.146). The research design can either be
Qualitative, Quantitative, experimental or Mixed design (Ref earlier discussion on
quantitative and qualitative designs)

Quantitative research – Research that relies primarily on the collection of

quantitative data based on precise measurement using structured and validated
data collection instruments
Qualitative research – Research that relies on the collection of qualitative data
e.g. in-depth interview, participant observation, field notes and open-ended
questions.

Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research

 The following table gives a summary of the differences between
quantitative and qualitative research paradigms:
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches

Quantitative Qualitative

The emphasis is on collecting Information can only be loosely

measurable information. measured: the main issues can be
identified but not specifically
measured.

Data can be analyzed statistically. Data cannot be statistically analyzed.

Data can be quickly collected so large Data collection is more time
samples can be used. consuming so uses smaller samples.
Data can be collected from a Data is usually collected face to face
distance so can be collected from so collecting data from a widely
widely dispersed members of the dispersed sample is time consuming
population. and expensive. Local samples tend to
used.
Data collection tools are highly Data collection tools are more loosely
structured and are time consuming to structured.
develop.
Once the tool is developed, data Data collection and data analysis are
collection is relatively quick and time consuming and comparatively
cheap to collect and analyses. expensive.
The main forms of data collection are: The main forms of data collection are
questionnaire surveys, highly individual interviews, focus groups and
structured observation schedules and less structured observation.
analysis of records.
3.2 Mixed research – Research that involves the mixing of quantitative and
qualitative methods

3.3 Experimental and Non-Experimental Research

The basic building blocks of quantitative research are variables. A variable is
something that takes on different values or categories. Variables are the opposite
of constants. A constant is something that cannot vary, such as a single value or
category of a variable.

Classification of Variables and their examples: Variables in a research study can

be classified as follows:
a) By Level of measurement

 Categorical variable: is a variable that is made up of different

types or categories of a phenomenon e.g., the variable gender is
made up of male and female

 Quantitative variable: is a variable that varies in degree or amount

of a phenomenon e.g., the variable annual income varies from
zero to a very high income level.

b) By Role taken by the variable - The other set of are the kinds of variables
we talk about when explaining how the world operates and when we
design a quantitative research study.

 Independent variable (Symbolized as IV): is a variable that is

presumed to cause changes to occur in another variable, also
known as causal variable e.g., the number of assignments given
in a semester (IV) affects the end of semester examination results
DV). Another example would be, smoking (IV) causes lung cancer
(DV).

 Dependent variable (Symbolized as DV): is a variable that

changes because of another variable, also known as the effect
or outcome variable e.g., Amount of studying by students in this
course (IV) affects the test results they would obtain at the end of
the semester (DV) and smoking (IV) causes lung cancer (DV).

 Moderator variable: is a variable that explains how a relationship

of interest changes under different conditions or circumstances
e.g., perhaps Flexible work schedule works better for females and
 while the regular schedule works better for males. In this case,
gender is the moderator variable.

 Control variables: These are factors that are controlled by the

researcher to cancel out or neutralize any effect they might have
on the observed phenomenon. Effects of control variables can be
neutralized by elimination, equating across groups or
randomization. Examples of such variables are: sex, age, IQ,
economic status, past experience etc. In an experiment the
researcher must decide which variables will be studied and which
will be controlled.

3.4 Experimental Research

The purpose of experimental research is to study cause and effect relationships.

Its defining characteristic is active manipulation of an independent variable (i.e.,

it is only in experimental research that “manipulation” is present). Also, random
assignment (which creates "equivalent" groups) is used in the strongest
experimental research designs.

treatment is assessed by comparing the two groups after treatment is given to the
experimental group.

3.5 Non-experimental Research

Remember that the defining characteristic of experimental research was

manipulation of the IV. Well, in non-experimental research there is no
manipulation of the independent variable. There is also no random assignment of
participants to groups. The relationships that may occur in this kind of research
cannot be presumed to be causative but could be a result of alternative reasons.

In the chapter, we make a distinction between two examples of non-

experimental research: causal-comparative research and Correlational
research.

In the "basic case" of causal-comparative research, there is one categorical IV

and one quantitative DV.
• Example: Gender (IV) and staff performance (DV).

• You would look for the relationship by comparing the male and female
average staff performance levels.
In the simple case of correlational research, there is one quantitative IV and one
quantitative DV.
• Example: Staff Motivation (IV) and customer satisfaction (DV).
• You would look for the relationship by calculating the correlation coefficient.

• The correlation coefficient is a number that varies between –1 and +1, and
0 stands for no relationship. The farther the number is from 0, the stronger
the relationship.

• If the sign of the correlation coefficient is positive (e.g., + 0.65) then you have
a positive correlation, which means the two variables move in the same
direction (as one variable increases, so does the other variable). Staff
education level and annual income are positively correlated (i.e., the
higher the level of education, the higher annual income).

• If the sign of the correlation coefficient is negative (e.g., - 0.71) then you
have a negative correlation, which means the two variables move in
opposite directions (as one variable increases, the other decreases).
Smoking and life expectancy are negatively correlated (i.e., the higher the
smoking, the lower the life expectancy).

3.6 Qualitative Research Design

A qualitative research may be generally defined as a study, which is conducted

in a natural setting where the researcher uses an instrument of data collection,
gathers words or pictures, analyses them inductively, focuses on the meaning of
participants, and describes a process that is both expressive and persuasive in
language.

Creswell (1998) defines qualitative study as:

“Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on

distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human
problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyses words,
report detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural
setting.”

Qualitative research should not be viewed as an easy substitute for a “statistical”

or quantitative study. It demands a commitment to an extensive time in the field,
engagement in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis, writing of
long passages, and participation in a form of social and human science research
that does not have firm guidelines or specific procedures and is evolving and
changing constantly

3.6.1 Reasons for Conducting Qualitative Research

To engage in qualitative enquiry, there is a need to first determine whether a

strong rationale exists for choosing a qualitative approach. The following reasons
could call for a qualitative inquiry:

I. Topics that need to be explored: This is a situation where variables cannot

be easily identified, theories are not available to explain behavior of
participants or their population of study;
II. Need to present a detailed view of the topic: This is the case where the
distant panoramic view is not enough to present answers to the problem;
III. Need to study individuals in their natural setting: This is the case where, if
participants are removed from their natural setting, it leads to forced
findings that are out of context;
IV. Need to write in a literary style: This is where the writer engages a story telling
form of narration and the personal pronoun “I” is used;
V. Where there is sufficient time and resources to spend on extensive data
collection in the field and detailed data analysis of “text” information;
VI. The nature of research question: In a qualitative study, the research
questions often starts with a how or a what; and
VII. Audiences are receptive to qualitative research.
3.6.2 Designing a Qualitative Study

Generally, the format for the design of this study follows the traditional research
approach of presenting a problem, asking a question, collecting data to answer
the question, analyzing the data, and answering the question.
The following format can serve as a guide for planning a study:

 Introduction
i. Statement of the Problem
ii. Purpose of the Study
iii. The Grand Tour Question and Sub Questions
iv. Definitions
v. Delimitations and Limitations
vi. Significance of the Study
 Procedure
i. Assumptions and Rationale for a Qualitative Design
ii. The Type of Design Used
iii. The Role of the Researcher
iv. Data Collection Procedures
v. Methods for Verification
o Outcomes of the Study and Its Relation to Theory and Literature
 Appendixes

3.6.3 Characteristics of a “Good” Qualitative Research

The following short list of characteristics of a “good” qualitative research is

presented by Creswell (1998):
i. It entails Rigorous data collection: The researcher collects multiple forms of
data, summarizes them adequately and spends adequate time in the field.
ii. The study is framed within the assumptions and characteristics of the
qualitative approach to research.
iii. The researcher identifies studies and employs one or more traditions of
inquiry.
iv. The researcher starts with a single idea or problem that s/he seeks to
understand, not a causal relationship of variables.
v. The study involves detailed methods, a rigorous approach to data
collection, data analysis, and report writing.
vi. The writing is so persuasive that the reader experiences “being there.”
vii. Data is analyzed using multiple levels of abstraction. That is, the
researcher’s work is presented in a way that moves from particulars to
general levels of abstraction.
viii. The writing is clear, engaging, and full of unexpected ideas. The story and
findings become believable and realistic, accurately reflecting all the
complexities that exist in real situation.

3.6.4 Types of Qualitative Research

Case Study

Creswell (1998) defines a case study as an empirical enquiry that investigates a

contemporary phenomenon within its real life context; when the boundaries
between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly evident and in which
multiple evidence are used (Amin 2005).

A case study can also be defined as a detailed examination of one setting or a

single subject, a single depository of documents or one particular event. an
exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through
detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in
context. Some consider “the case” as an object of study (e.g., Stake, 1995) while
others consider it a methodology (e.g., Merriam, 1998).
Types of Case Studies
Historical organizational Case Studies

This type of case study concentrates on a particular organization over time,

tracing the organization’s development over a period. For example, one can
choose a group of hotels e.g. Sarova Hotels Kenya and trace the
development/growth in the last xxx years.
Observational Case study

In this type of case study, the study focuses on a particular organization and uses
observation as a major method of collecting data.
Case studies of life History

For this study the researcher conducts extensive interviews with one person for the
purpose of getting a firsthand narrative. The emphasis is put on different issues e.g.
crucial events and experiences of the narrator and how the events relate to other
factors in the organization e.g. staff
Document Case Study
 This study focuses on documents or materials that are used as supplementary
information. Documents can be divided into three groups:

 Personal documents or narratives (letters, diaries, private visual recordings)

 Official documents (newsletters, files, reports)
 Popular culture documents (TV programmes, video recordings, news
reports)

NOTE: Case study can be used in both qualitative and quantitative

research but is more useful in qualitative research.
3.6.5 Procedures Involved in Conducting a Case Study:

i. The researcher needs to locate the case in a context or setting. The setting
may be a physical, social, historical, and/or economic.
ii. The researcher needs to identify the focus of the study. It could be either on
the case (intrinsic study), because of its uniqueness, or it may be on an issue or
issues (instrumental study), with the case used instrumentally to illustrate the
issue. A case study could involve more than one case (collective case study).
iii. In choosing what case to study, a researcher may choose a case because it
shows different perspectives on the problem, process, or event of interest, or it
may be just an ordinary case, accessible, or unusual.
iv. The data collection is extensive, drawing on multiple sources of information
such as observations, interviews, documents, and audio-visual materials.
v. The data analysis can be either a holistic analysis of the entire case or an
embedded analysis of a specific aspect of the case.
vi. From the data collection, a detailed description of the case is done. Themes
or issues are formulated and then the researcher makes an interpretation or
assertions about the case.
vii. When multiple cases are chosen, a typical format is to provide a detailed
description of each case and themes within the case (called within-case
analysis), followed by a thematic analysis across the cases (called a cross-case
analysis), as well as assertions or an interpretation of the meaning of the case.
viii. In the final stage, the researcher reports the “lessons learned” from the case
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
 Advantages of Case Studies
Advantages of Case Study Research

i. A case study is useful when handling causal relationships of a complex

social phenomena e.g. ‘studying the prevalence of drug abuse among
hotel workers in the coastal region of Kenya’ This is complex because the
findings may be used to come up with intervention measures.
ii. Provides a fairly accurate comprehensive picture of individuality of a social
unit
iii. Probes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain
the present phenomena
iv. Can be applied to real life situation
v. Results are easily accessible in form of reports (case study reports)
vi. Disadvantages

Disadvantages

i. Generalization using case study reports can hardly be applicable to the

general population
ii. Case studies can present sampling challenges as the researcher needs to
identify his/her case among a host of possible candidates.
iii. The researcher needs to decide whether to study a single case or multiple
cases. The motivation for considering many cases is the issue of
generalizability, which is not so much of a pressing issue in qualitative inquiry.
Studying more than one case runs the risk of a diluted study, lacking the
“depth” compared to a single case. “How many” cases become a challenge
then.
iv. Getting enough information to get a good depth for the case is a challenge.
v. Deciding on the boundaries in terms of time, events and processes may be
challenging. Some cases have no clean beginning and ending points.

Mixed Research Methods

Mixed research is a general type of research (it’s one of the three paradigms) in
which quantitative and qualitative methods, techniques, or other paradigm
characteristics are mixed in one overall study. There are two major types of mixed
research which are distinguished as mixed method versus mixed model research.
Mixed method research – This research in which the researcher uses the
qualitative research paradigm for one phase of a research study and the
quantitative research paradigm for another phase of the study. For example, a
researcher might conduct an experiment (quantitative) and after the experiment
conduct an interview study with the participants (qualitative) to see how they
viewed the experiment and to see if they agreed with the results. Mixed method
research is like conducting two mini-studies within one overall research study.

Mixed model research – is research in which the researcher mixes both qualitative
and quantitative research approaches within a stage of the study or across two
of the stages of the research process. For example, a researcher might conduct
a survey and use a questionnaire that is composed of multiple closed-ended or
quantitative type items as well as several open-ended or qualitative type items.
For another example, a researcher might collect qualitative data but then try to
quantify the data.

The Advantages of Mixed Research

First of all, we advocate the use of mixed research when it is feasible. We are
excited about this new movement in research and believe it will help qualitative
and quantitative researchers to get along better and, more importantly; it will
promote the conduct of excellent research.

i. Perhaps the major goal for researcher who design and conduct mixed
research is to follow the fundamental principle of mixed research.
According to this principle, the researcher should mix quantitative and
qualitative research methods, procedures, and paradigm characteristics in
a way that the resulting mixture or combination has complementary
strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses. The examples just listed for
mixed method and mixed model research can be viewed as following this
principle.

ii. Here is a metaphor for thinking about mixed research: Construct one fish
net out of several fish nets that have holes in them by laying them on top of
one another. The "new" net will not have any holes in it. The use of multiple
methods or approaches to research works the same way.

iii. When different approaches are used to focus on the same phenomenon
and they provide the same result, you have "corroboration" which means
you have superior evidence for the result. Other important reasons for doing
 mixed research are to complement one set of results with another, to
expand a set of results, or to discover something that would have been
missed if only a quantitative or a qualitative approach had been used.

iv. Some researchers like to conduct mixed research in a single study, and this
is what is truly called mixed research. However, it is interesting to note that
virtually all research literatures would be mixed at the aggregate level,
even if no single researcher uses mixed research. That's because there will
usually be some quantitative and some qualitative research studies in a
research literature.

Exploratory Designs
Exploratory research can take many forms depending on the nature of the main
study, the purpose of the research, study object, knowledge in the area of
investigation and specifically on the purpose of exploration. There are four main
forms of exploratory research:

Review of literature
This involves secondary review and analysis of available information
already published. The purpose is to link earlier research in the area with
the current study. It can also be for the purpose of exploring theory or
methods and techniques most appropriate for the current study

Expert surveys
This involves interviews with experts who may be more experienced and have
substantial knowledge in the area of research relevant to the current study.

Case studies
This involves analysis of case study reports for exploratory purposes

Pilot studies
Exploratory research can take the form of a pilot study that essentially is the
preliminary trial of a research measures and techniques needed for the
development of a research plan. In a pilot study the entire research is
conducted following the actual procedure of the main study with the
purpose of eliminating errors, appraisal of instruments, minimize wastage of
resources, utilize feedback from respondents to make the research
procedures better.
 Reference
Ranjit Kumar (2014). Research Methodology. A step by step guide for beginners
3rd Edition. SAGE publicatios
Armin M. E (2005). Social Science Research: Conception, methodology and
Analysis. Makerere University Printery

Topic 7: POPULATION AND SAMPLING

Objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner should
a) Understand and distinguish between population and sampling
b) Explain the sampling techniques and design
c) Develop a sample design for a proposal

POPULATION AND SAMPLING

When we conduct a research, we collect data from our objects of inquiry in order
to solve the problem concerned.
A crucial element in data collection is the research design that we use.
A research design is a plan according to which we obtain research participants
(subjects) and collect information from them.
In a research design we specify:
i) The number of groups that should be used (this is necessary to decide
which statistical technique to use).
ii) Whether the groups are to be drawn randomly from the population
involved and whether they should be assigned randomly to groups.
iii) What exactly should be done with them in the case of experimental
research.
Population and Sample
The population is the study object and consists of individuals, groups,
organisations, human products and events, or the conditions to which they are
exposed. Population encompasses the total collection of all units of analysis
about which the researcher wishes to make specific conclusions e.g. all
universities, all banks and so forth.
 A population is the full set of cases from which a sample is taken.
 The size of the population is indicated by N.
 A sample represents a part of the population and is denoted by n.
 To calculate an appropriate sample, you can use the formula: Where N is
the population and is the level of precision.
Sampling
Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to
study. It is a process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a
population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the
characterisitics found in the entire group ( Ordho and Kobmo, 2002). A sample is
a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole. When dealing with people, it can be defined as a
set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of
a survey. Research conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the
sample they are based on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total
number that could be studied.

Sampling design
This is that part of the research plan that indicates how cases are to be selected
for observation.
1. It is divided into probability and non-probability samples.
2. Examples of probability samples include simple random samples, stratified
random samples, systematic samples and cluster samples.
3. Non-probability samples include accidental/incidental samples, quota
samples, purposive samples, snowball samples, self-selection samples and
convenience samples.
4. In the case of probability sampling, we can determine the probability that any
element or member of the population will be included in the sample. In non-
probability sampling by contrast, we cannot specify this probability.
5. Advantages of probability sampling is that it enables us to indicate the
probability with which sample results (e.g. sample means) deviate from the
corresponding population values (e.g. population means).
6. Unlike non-probability sampling, probability sampling enables us to estimate
sampling error. Nevertheless, non-probability sampling is frequently used for
reasons of convenience and economy.
12
The Sampling Frame
This is a list of units comprising a population from which a probability sample is
selected.
E.g., if a sample of students is selected from a student’s roster, the roster is the
sampling
frame. Likewise, if a sample is selected from a telephone directory, the telephone
directory is the sampling frame.
In order to compile an appropriate sampling frame, bear in mind the following
checklist:
o Are the cases listed in the sampling frame relevant to your research topic?
o Does the sampling frame include all cases i.e. is it complete?
o Does the sampling frame exclude irrelevant cases, in other words, is it precise?
o Can you establish and control exactly how the sample will be selected (for
purchased lists).
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
a. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample and each sample of a particular size has the same probability of being
chosen.
b. Steps to follow when drawing a random sample include:
i. Identify all the units of analysis in the sampling frame and give them
consecutive numbers e.g. 001, 002, 003, and so forth.
ii. The mechanism used to choose the unit of analysis should ensure that
each member has an equal chance of being selected. This can be done
by means of a table of random numbers.
2. Stratified Random Sampling
a. Strata are clearly recognizable, non-overlapping subpopulation that differs
from one another in terms of a specific variable. Each subpopulation is called a
stratum. E.g. male and female, private and public universities etc.
b. In order to draw a representative stratified random sample, the following two
aspects must be put in mind:
i. Identify the various strata according to one or more variables.
ii. Draw a random sample from each separate stratum.
c. Advantages of stratified random sample include:
i. In a random sample from a normal population that is stratified, e.g. in
terms of gender, the probability of a sample consisting of only one gender
is zero.
ii. Stratified random sampling requires smaller samples than simple random
sampling in order to obtain valid results.
3. Systematic Sampling
a. Suppose we need to obtain a sample of n members from a population of N
elements (units of analysis) that are numbered from 1 to N. In systematic sampling,
we include every element (where, is an integer i.e. a whole number).E.g. if one
wants to select 10 schools from a population of 100, draw the first element at
random and then select every 10th element. If the first element is 8, subsequently
select 18, 28, 38, and so on.
b. Systematic sampling is more practical because it requires less time and is
cheaper
than random sampling.
4. Cluster Sampling
a. In large-scale surveys, it is usually difficult, if not impossible to obtain lists of all
the
members (units of analysis) of the population.
b. In the case of cluster sampling, we first draw (stratify randomly) pre-existing
heterogeneous groups called clusters
c. Randomly select units of analysis from each cluster.
E.g. suppose we wish to conduct a survey on primary schools in Kenya. First draw
a sample from the 8 provinces. Then draw a number of districts from each
province. Next you draw a number of locations from the district. Finally select a
few schools within the location.
d. Its disadvantage is that it requires a great deal of time and money to reach
one or two individual units in a remote area. If the area is not remote, cluster
sampling saves time and money compared to simple random sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling
Advantage of non-probability sample is that they are less complicated and more
economical (in times of time and financial expenses) than probability samples.
Non-probability samples may be especially useful in pilot studies in which a
preliminary form of a questionaire has to be tested.
1. Accidental/incidental Sampling
 An accidental sample is the most convenient collection of members of the
population (units of analysis) that are real or readily available for research
purposes.
 E.g. people who happen to be at a certain shopping centre at a particular
time or organisations that are close to the researcher’s home.
2. Quota Sampling
 In this method, the researcher makes an effort to have the same
proportions of units of analysis in important strata such as gender, age, and
so on as are the population.
 Quota sampling yields quite satisfactory results under the following
circumstances:
One should know the important strata according to which the population is
composed and their respective proportions with a reasonable degree of
accuracy, or be able to estimate them.
One should include enough cases (at least 15, but preferably more than 25)
of each stratum in the sample.
3. Purposive Sampling
 Researchers rely on their own experience, ingenuity and/or previous
research
findings to deliberately obtain units of analysis in such a manner that the sample
they obtain may be regarded as being representative of the relevant population.
 The problem with this kind of sampling is that different researchers may
proceed in different ways to obtain a sample.
 It is impossible to evaluate the extent to which samples are representative
of the relevant population.
4. Snowball Sampling
 First approach a few individuals from the relevant population
 These individuals then act as informants and identify other members (e.g.
acquaintances or friends) from the same population for inclusion in the sample.
 The latter may, in turn, identify a further set of relevant individuals so that
the sample, like a rolling snowball, grows in size till saturated.
5. Self-Selection Sampling
 This occurs when we allow a case, usually an individual, to identify their
desire to take part in the research.
 The researcher will do the following:
i) Publicize the need for cases, either by advertising through
appropriate media or by asking them to take part.
ii) Collect data from those who respond.
 Cases that self-select often do so due to their feelings or opinions about
the research question(s) or stated objective(s).
6. Convenience Sampling
 Convenience or haphazard sampling involves selecting haphazardly those
cases that are easiest to obtain for the sample, such as, the person
interviewed at random in a shopping centre or airport or university.
 The sample selection process is continued until we reach the required
sample size.
 This technique is borne to bias and influences that are beyond control due
to the fact that the cases appear in the sample because they were easy
to obtain.
 Subsequent generalizations are likely to be flawed at best.
 Such samples serve best as pilot studies using more structural samples.
Determining sample size: how to make sure you get the correct sample size

How many is enough? Over the years, researchers have grappled with the
problem of finding the perfect sample size for statistically sound results. Here we
shed light on some methods and tools for sample size determination.

What is sample size?

Sample size is a frequently-used term in statistics and market research, and one
that inevitably comes up whenever you’re surveying a large population of
respondents. It relates to the way research is conducted on large populations.

So what is sampling, and why does sample size matter?

When you survey a large population of respondents, you’re interested in the

entire group, but it’s not realistically possible to get answers or results from
absolutely everyone. So you take a random sample of individuals which
represents the population as a whole.
The size of the sample is very important for getting accurate, statistically
significant results and running your study successfully.

If your sample is too small, you may include a disproportionate number of

individuals which are outliers and anomalies. These skew the results and you
don’t get a fair picture of the whole population.

If the sample is too big, the whole study becomes complex, expensive and time-
consuming to run, and although the results are more accurate, the benefits
don’t outweigh the costs.
If you want to start from scratch in determining the right sample size for your
market research, let us walk you through the steps.

Learn how to determine sample size

To choose the correct sample size, you need to consider a few different factors
that affect your research, and gain a basic understanding of the statistics
involved. You’ll then be able to use a sample size formula to bring everything
together and sample confidently, knowing that there is a high probability that
your survey is statistically accurate.

The steps that follow are suitable for finding a sample size for continuous data –
i.e. data that is counted numerically. It doesn’t apply to categorical data – i.e.
put into categories like green, blue, male, female etc.

Stage 1: Consider your sample size variables

Before you can calculate a sample size, you need to determine a few things
about the target population and the level of accuracy you need:

1. Population size

How many people are you talking about in total? To find this out, you need to
be clear about who does and doesn’t fit into your group. For example, if you
want to know about dog owners, you’ll include everyone who has at some
point owned at least one dog. (You may include or exclude those who owned a
dog in the past, depending on your research goals.) Don’t worry if you’re
unable to calculate the exact number. It’s common to have an unknown
number or an estimated range.
2. Margin of error (confidence interval)

Errors are inevitable-the question is how much error you’ll allow. The margin of
error, AKA confidence interval, is expressed in terms of mean numbers. You can
set how much difference you’ll allow between the mean number of your
sample and the mean number of your population. If you’ve ever seen a political
poll on the news, you’ve seen a confidence interval and how it’s expressed. It
will look something like this: “68% of voters said yes to Proposition Z, with a margin
of error of +/- 5%.”

3. Confidence level

This is a separate step to the similarly-named confidence interval in step 2. It

deals with how confident you want to be that the actual mean falls within your
margin of error. The most common confidence intervals are 90% confident, 95%
confident, and 99% confident.

4. Standard deviation

This step asks you to estimate how much the responses you receive will vary from
each other and from the mean number. A low standard deviation means that
all the values will be clustered around the mean number, whereas a high
standard deviation means they are spread out across a much wider range with
very small and very large outlying figures. Since you haven’t yet run your survey,
a safe choice is a standard deviation of .5 which will help make sure your
sample size is large enough.

Stage 2: Calculate sample size

Now that you’ve got answers for steps 1 – 4, you’re ready to calculate the
sample size you need. This can be done using an calculator or with paper and
pencil.
5. Find your Z-score
Next, you need to turn your confidence level into a Z-score. Here are the Z-
scores for the most common confidence levels:

 90% – Z Score = 1.645

 95% – Z Score = 1.96
 99% – Z Score = 2.576

6. Use the sample size formula

Plug in your Z-score, standard of deviation, and confidence interval use this
sample size formula to work it out yourself:

Necessary Sample Size = (Z-score)2 * StdDev*(1-StdDev) / (margin of error)2

This equation is for an unknown population size or a very large population size.

Here’s a worked example, assuming you chose a 95% confidence level, .5

standard deviation, and a margin of error (confidence interval) of +/- 5%.

((1.96)2 x .5(.5)) / (.05)2

(3.8416 x .25) / .0025

.9604 / .0025

384.16

385 respondents are needed.

Refernces
1. Creswell, J. W. .Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 4th
Ed.. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage., 2014.
2. Kothari, C.R.,2004, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern
Limited.
3. https://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/determine-sample-size/