Addiction To Social Media and Attachment Styles: A Systematic Literature Review

International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2019) 17:1094–1118
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00082-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Addiction to Social Media and Attachment Styles:

A Systematic Literature Review
Maria Chiara D’Arienzo 1 & Valentina Boursier 1 & Mark D. Griffiths 2
Published online: 18 April 2019

# The Author(s) 2019
Abstract
Web-based communication via social networking sites (SNSs) is growing fast among adoles-
cents and adults and some research suggests that excessive SNS use can become an addiction
among a small minority of individuals. There is a growing body of research that has examined
the impact of attachment styles and its influence on internet addiction (more generally) and
social media addiction (more specifically). Consequently, the present study systematically
reviewed the evidence concerning internet/social media addiction and attachment style. A total
of 32 papers published between 2000 and 2018 met the inclusion criteria following searches in
the following databases: Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, and Google Scholar.
Findings demonstrated a significant positive association between insecure attachment (anxious
and avoidant) and a more intensive and dysfunctional use of the internet and social media.
Findings demonstrate that those with insecure attachment appear to use the social media sites
as a way of replacing and compensating affection that is missing from those around the
individual (e.g., family and peers). The findings suggest that the gratification model provides a
useful framework to understand the effects of parental attachment on social media addiction.
Limitations and future research are also discussed.
Keywords Attachment style . Anxious attachment . Social media addiction . Facebook use .
Internet addiction
* Mark D. Griffiths
[email protected]
Maria Chiara D’Arienzo
[email protected]
Valentina Boursier
[email protected]
1
Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
2
Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham NG1
4FQ, UK
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2019) 17:1094–1118 1095
The use of the internet is now almost ubiquitous in many countries, particularly among
adolescents and young adults (Kuss et al. 2014). The internet and the activities that can be
done on it help people in different ways, such as connecting people with each other or
providing easy access to different types of information. New forms of social interaction have
recently emerged and some scholars have claimed that it is easier for individuals to be engaged
in unhealthy and dysfunctional behavior (Soh et al. 2014) including potential addiction to
social media (Kuss and Griffiths 2017). As stated long ago by Griffiths (2000), these online
activities can become excessive, leading to deleterious behaviors in a minority of individuals.
As of 2017, there were 2.78 billion active social media users worldwide and daily social media
use had a higher rate than the year before. At present, the average daily use of social media is
estimated to be 135 min per day, an increase of 9% from the previous year (126 min per day)
(Statista 2017).
Compared to other traditional forms of addiction, the internet is not a substance, and has
therefore been conceptualized as a behavioral addiction (Griffiths 2005). Its consumption when
excessive may result in negative outcomes and become addictive (Griffiths et al. 2016)
especially among a minority of adolescents and young adults (World Health Organization
2011). Such technological addictions (Griffiths 1996a), as noted by Soper and Miller (1983),
are Blike any other behavioural addiction, and consisted of a compulsive behavioural involve-
ment, a lack of interest in other activities and physical and mental symptoms when attempting to
stop the behaviour^ (p. 40). In order to define and identify which types of behaviors may be
considered as an addiction, Brown (1993) used six criteria, later extended by Griffiths (1996b,
2005). More specifically, in relation to social media use, these are:
& Salience: This refers social media use being the single most important thing in the
individual’s life both cognitively and behaviorally.
& Mood modification: This refers to social media use being used to consistently and reliably
change an individual’s mood state.
& Tolerance: This refers to the amount of social media use building up over time so that
longer periods spent engaged in social media use are needed to get the desired mood
modifying effects.
& Withdrawal symptoms: This refers to both physiological and psychological effects that
occur when reducing or discontinuing use of social media.
& Conflict: This refers to social media use compromising and damaging interpersonal
relationships, negatively impacting on occupational and/or educational activities, and
creating intrapsychic conflicts (e.g., subjective loss of control).
& Relapse: This refers to the tendency to re-establish addictive social media behaviors after a
period of abstinence.
The Present Research in Context
Scientific interest in behavioral addictions has previously examined a variety of factors related
to such behavior. A lot of the empirical literature on behavioral addiction has focused on
personality traits. Although the results across studies are not always in agreement, extraver-
sion, shyness, and self-esteem are three factors often examined. Extraversion, in particular in
the case of adults, is positively related to both SNS use and to addictive tendencies (Kuss and
1096 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2019) 17:1094–1118
Griffiths 2011; Ho et al. 2017). These results suggest that extraverts need a higher level of
stimulation that can be obtained by social media use (Wilson et al. 2010). Similar results have
been found in undergraduate students high in shyness who prefer spending time online than
offline (Orr et al. 2009). Online interactions can be very appealing for those individuals with
social anxiety (Boute et al. 2009) and depression symptoms (Andreassen et al. 2016).
A study by Tang et al. (2016) adopted Saucier’s (1994) Mini-Markers Scale to assess the
Big Five personality traits. They showed that neuroticism was associated with internet
addiction. Such individuals usually have anxiety about social relationships and online social
media gives them the opportunity to be in touch with others (Blackwell et al. 2017) and to be
reassured (Kandell 1998). Narcissism is another factor largely studied in relation to social
networking activities and an association between narcissism and social media addiction has
been demonstrated (Andreassen et al. 2017; La Barbera et al. 2009). Here, individuals seek a
large audience in which they are visible and collect Blikes.^ A recent study by Longstreet and
Brooks (2017) investigated the contribution of life satisfaction. Results indicated that life
satisfaction was inversely related to social media addiction. When the satisfaction level rises,
social media addiction decreases. These results suggest that social media is often used as a
surrogate for happiness.
There is a growing body of research that has examined the impact of attachment styles and
its influence on internet addiction (more generally) and social media addiction (more specif-
ically). The present paper systematically reviews the existing studies related to attachment
styles contributing to Internet and social media abuse. It was carried out to better understand
the relationship between attachment styles and addiction in general, and to examine the
relationships between attachment styles and Internet addiction (and more specifically social
media addiction). Based on previous literature examining attachment and addiction more
generally, attachment theory appears to be a good theory in explaining specific aspects of
social media engagement. For instance, attachment styles appear to influence time spent online
and they can be used as frameworks to understand the reasons that drive social media usage.
Risky behaviors have already been associated with attachment styles, and could represent a
risk and predictive factor for addictive behaviors (Flores 2004).
Attachment Theory
The first pioneering study on attachment theory was by Bowlby (1958). He defined
attachment as the first and most important relationship that children have with their
caregivers (often the mother but not necessarily). However, as noted by Cohen (1974),
the attachment figure is unique, and must provide specific relational and emotional
responses (Weinraub et al. 1977). Until the 1950s, it was believed that children repeatedly
sought their attachment figure merely for survival reasons. In contrast, and relying on
Harlow’s influential work (Harlow and Zimmermann 1959), Bowlby demonstrated that the
affectional tie that individuals develop between themselves and another specific person is
not solely based on food, safety, and other survival needs. As a result, human beings need
something more: love, affection, and acceptance (Obegi and Berant 2010). Thus, as social
animals (Weinraub et al. 1977), individuals are driven by a primary and instinctive
tendency to seek out relationships (Schaffer and Emerson 1964).
This finding created interest about the different ways in which attachment can develop
among individuals, and Ainsworth and Bell’s (1970; Ainsworth et al.1978), Ainsworth et al.
(2015) work on this matter is worth noting. They identified three main attachment styles (with
Main and Solomon 1990 later identifying a fourth). The first style is secure attachment, linked
to a sense of worthiness (Bartholomew and Horowitz 1991). The second style is insecure
avoidant, usually referred to children deeply independent from the attachment figure both
emotionally and physically (Behrens et al. 2007). The third style is insecure-ambivalent
(also called anxious). Here, children have untrustworthy expectations about the otherness
(Bartholomew and Horowitz 1991); they exhibit dependent and rejecting behaviors at the
same time (McLeod 2008). Finally, the disorganized and dismissing style is related to
those children who maintain a sense of independence from an attachment figure (Main and
Solomon 1990). Despite those four discrete styles, more recently, research has tended to
opt for a dimensional model of attachment (Brennan et al. 1998).
Although attachment styles play a fundamental role in childhood, they also provide the
script for future close relationships. Memories, cognitive scripts, and emotions associated with
a specific style and create an internal working model of self and others (Bowlby 1988). It can
be assumed that repeated contact with appropriate others at any time in their lifetime can lead
to the formation of an attachment, but it will be often influenced by the past relationships
(Bowlby 1979). Thus, these internal Bprogrammed^ patterns shape an individual’s way of
being in a relational environment (Obegi and Berant 2010). Consequently, in a way analogous
to physiological homeostasis, the attachment system can be thought as a mechanism able to
create a fixed distance-accessibility to others thanks to advanced methods of communication
(Bowlby 1969, 1973, 1982).
Addiction as an Attachment Disorder
In the domain of interpersonal relationships, attachment styles are adopted as a framework to

describe infant-caregiver interactions. These interactions, as noted above, also represent the
script for future close relationships. Furthermore, attachment theory claims that individuals are
unable to regulate their affective state alone (see Flores 2004). This need, identified as Bself-
object need,^ can be satisfied (or not) by external figures (Kohut 1971). According to addiction
treatment specialists, there is an inverse relationship between addiction and healthy attachment
styles. Consequently, Flores (2004) interpreted addiction as an attachment disorder, as a
non-adaptive and late transition in young adulthood (Höfler and Kooyman 1996). Addic-
tion is usually considered as a disorder in self-regulation, and addicted individuals are
characterized by unsuccessful attempts at self-repair (Flores 2004). For instance, many
authors studying substance abuse state there is a strong relationship between attachment
and drug consumption among adolescents (Becoña et al. 2014). Consequently, the family
is rightly identified as a protective factor in improving the abilities for dealing life’s
stressors (Mikulincer and Shaver 2007).
Experiences of primary deprivation leave individuals looking for something in the outside
world that can replace a missing part Binside^ of themselves. It appears that drug use can fulfill
deficiency in intimacy (Flores 2004), giving an unrealistic feeling of having a secure base
(Höfler and Kooyman 1996). However, as stated by many authors, the same goes for non-
substance-related addictions (Estévez et al. 2017). The Bself-object needs^ (Kohut 1971) are
therefore replaced in different ways: with a drug, an activity (e.g., social media use), an object,
or any distraction that can help overcome the feeling of emptiness (Flores 2004). A higher risk
for addictive behaviors, in substance and in non-substance abuse, is present in cases of
avoidant and ambivalent attachment styles (Valizadeh et al. 2017). Consequently, it is not
difficult to imagine how dysfunctional behaviors and negative emotions (e.g., maladaptive
coping strategies and low social skills) can increase the risk of substance and/or non-substance
abuse (Dozier et al. 1998). Consequently, the present paper attempted to systematically review
all research to date that has examined the role of attachment style on addiction to the internet
and/or social media.
Methods
A systematic review was conducted using the following databases: Scopus, Web of
Science, PubMed, ProQuest, and Google Scholar for papers published from 2000 to
2018. Even though most studies concerning this topic were published in the past decade,
a longer period was chosen because social networking sites (SNSs) date back to 1997. In
order to shape the search, the advanced searches combined the following keywords:
social media addict* or social media and attachment, or attachment styles or attachment
theory, in addition social network* or social networking addiction and attachment styles
or attachment theory. As for the simple searches, the keywords were social media, social
networking addiction, Internet or Facebook use, attachment, attachment style, and attach-
ment theory. Papers in three different languages were collected: Italian, English, and
Spanish (those languages in which the authors were proficient). The databases were
searched between March and May 2018. A total of 378 records were identified. The
papers not meeting the inclusion criteria and duplicates were excluded. Because adoles-
cents and adults are more likely to incuraddiction (WHO 2011), only those papers where
the age ranges were over 13 years were included in the review. Dissertations and confer-
ence proceedings were also excluded from the review.
Results
A total of 32 papers were retrieved for the systematic review that met the initial inclusion
criteria (see Table 1 for a complete list as well as all the main findings and methodological
issues). Apart from a few studies that examined SNS usage via statements or questionnaire
rather than using a psychometric scale (e.g., Longua Peterson et al. 2017), the majority of the
studies utilized original, revised, or translated versions of validated online use scales. The
present review examined internet use, social media use, and SNS use, but they are not the
same. Studies examining internet use were only considered for inclusion in the present review
if the use was linked to social communication (consequently, studies relating to online gaming
and online gambling were excluded).
The main diagnostic assessment instruments for assessing the different types of internet
abuse in the evaluated studies were the Internet addiction Test (IAT; Young 1998),
Problematic Internet Use Scale (PIUS; Ceyhan et al. 2007), Adolescent Pathological
Internet Use Scale (APIUS; Lei and Yang 2007), and the Bergen Social Media Addiction
Scale (BSMAS; Andreassen et al. 2012). The main instruments used to assess attachment
styles in the evaluated studies were the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR;
Brennan et al. 1998), Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ; Feeney et al. 1994), and
Relationship Scale Questionnaire (RSQ; Griffin and Bartholomew 1994).
Table 1 Summary of the 32 studies on social media/internet addiction and attachment style reviewed on attachment and internet use
Author, year Number of Country/ Instrument to assess technological Instrument to assess Main findings Methodological issues
participants ethnicity addiction attachment style
Oldmeadow et al. 617 (aged UK Range of questions about usage Experiences in Close Positive relationship between SNS activity may be motivated by
(2013) 18–- and experience with Facebook Relationships Scale anxious attachment and time a negative mood and not by
64 years) (ECR; Brennan et al. spent on Facebook (p < .001) attachment needs
1998)
Hart et al. (2015) 583 (aged USA Five-item subscale assessing The 36-item Experi- Attachment anxiety positively The use of self-report methods
18–- feedback sensitivity, feedback ences in Close Rela- predicted feedback sensitivity leaves one the question of
73 years) seeking, attention received, tionships Scale (p < .001), feedback seeking whether participant who are
general activity, and privacy (Brennan et al. 1998) (p < .001), general activity on more anxiously attached really
Facebook (p < .001), and do post more frequent status
attention received (p < .001). It updates, etc., or whether they
also negatively predicted simply perceive themselves as
privacy (p < .05), while doing so
avoidant attachment positively
correlated with it (p < .01)
Rom and Alfasi 190 (aged Israel Facebook’s Global Orientation Experience in Close Attachment anxiety towards Authors were not able to establish
(2014) 18–- Scale, Facebook Intensity Scale Relationship Scale Facebook network was a clear link between attachment
37 years) (Ellison et al. 2007), Facebook (Brennan et al. 1998) positively associated with both insecurity and Facebook actual
and Twitter use Scale (Hughes romantic attachment avoidance usage patterns because of the
et al. 2012), Facebook Ques- (p < .01) and anxiety (p < .01). measurement method used
tionnaire (Ross et al. 2009) Attachment insecurity played a (self-report questionnaires)
role in predicting usage
intensity on Facebook
Yaakobi and 354 (aged Israel Five-item Social Communication Experience in Close Positive relationship between In Study 3, a self-report measure
Goldenberg 19–- Questionnaire Relationship Scale anxious attachment and the was used. In Study 2, the re-
(2014) 53 years) (ECR; Brennan et al. amount of time spent in search assistant had the same
1998) bonding in online systems age as the participants
(p < .01). Secure attachment
positively related to
individual’s number of social
ties and willingness to start
online relationships
USA
1099
Table 1 (continued)
1100
Longua Peterson 115 (average Every day for 14 days, Experiences in Close Women were more likely to report The measure used was not able to
et al. (2017) age participants were emailed a link Relationship Scale an insecure attachment and provide insight into the severity
18.65 years) to a secure website to access (ECR; Brennan et al. they posted more status updates of conflicts experienced during
the daily diary survey where 1998) on Facebook during the the day. Moreover, because the
they recorded the previous 14 days of the study period. methodology relied on
night’s Facebook use and the Nightly Facebook use was also retrospective reporting, it is
amount of time spent with related to anxious attachment possible that participants may
others, the day’s conflict, and (p < .01) and nightly status have had difficulties in
the day’s self-esteem updates (p < .01) remembering exactly how
much time they spent on
Facebook. There is also the
possibility that other
unassessed variables influenced
the reports
Shin et al. (2011) 141 (adult) Korea Korean version (Song 2000) of Korean version (Hwang Problematic Internet use The sample was small, only
Internet Addiction Scale 2001) of Experiences correlated with both avoidant included males, and the age
(Young 1998) in Close Relation- (p < .001) and anxious range was not specified. The
ship scale (Brennan attachment (p < .001) study used self-report that may
et al. 1998) have reduced reliability
Liu et al. (2013) 322 (average China Intensity of social network site use Adapted version of the The interaction between The sample did not necessarily
age assessed using the 11-item Experiences in Close attachment anxiety and represent all students at the
19.9 years) scale developed by Ellison Relationship Scale intensity of SNS use was university because participants
et al. (2007) (Brennan et al. 1998) statistically significant (p < .01) were chosen randomly from
library users
Blackwell et al. 207 (aged USA Bergen Social Media Addiction Revised version of the Younger individuals were more Participants were more likely
(2017) 17–- Scale (Andreassen et al. 2012) Experience in Close likely to be addicted to social white, college-age, and
49 years) Social Media Engagement Scale Relationship Scale media. Both anxious (p < .01) women; thus, the study cannot
(Przybylski et al. 2013) (Brennan et al. 1998) and avoidant attachment be generalized to different
The Fear of Missing (p < .05) were predictors of sociodemographic groups.
Out Scale (Przybylski social media addiction. FOMO Collected data were limited by
et al. 2013) had a positive relationship with the use of self-report measures,
social media use and predicted so the validity is contingent on
Table 1 (continued)
social media use and addiction the accuracy of the

(p < .01) above and beyond participants’ reports
attachment style
Jenkins-Guarnieri 463 (aged USA Facebook Intensity Scale (Ellison Experiences in Close Facebook use was negatively A significant group of participants
et al. (2012) 17–- et al. 2007) Relationship related to competence with closed their web browser window
24 years) Scale-Revised initiating interpersonal before finishing all the survey
(Fraley et al. 2000) relationship (p < .05), which is items and it may have biased the
in turn was related to insecure results. A more representative
attachment sample is needed. The study only
used self-report instruments,
which may have caused biases.
Authors used a conservative
Bonferroni adjustment to their
overall alpha level to control
for potential type 1 errors, which
impacted their results. There
were six missing items from the
ICS scale that may have limited
their findings
Şenormancı et al. 30 (aged over Turkey Internet Addiction Test (Young Experiences in Close Internet addiction was related to Only male participants were
(2014) 20 years) 1998) Relationship anxious attachment included because no women
Scale-Revised met the study’s criteria. They
(Fraley et al. 2000) also used self-report scales that
could have biased the data
Morey et al. 280 (aged USA Questionnaire of the frequency of Experiences in Close Avoidant individuals preferred The study only examined four
(2013) 18–- use of five types of Relationships mediated forms of types of communication in
27 years) communication (telephone, Scale-Revised communication, such as email detail,
electronic mail, social (Brennan et al. 1998; (p < .05), and less phone use yet some participants relied on
networking sites, and text Fraley et al. 2000) (p < .01) and texting (p < .05). other technologies to talk with
messaging) No significant relationship was their partners. There was no
found between anxious information collected on
specific
1101
Table 1 (continued)
1102
attachment and SNS use activities that SNSs were used

among romantic partners for. The study could not fully
address participants’
motivations
for selecting specific
technologies.
The researchers asked
participants
a forced choice question about
their most common reason for
using each channel
Soh et al. (2014) 1577 (aged Malaysia Internet Addiction Test adapted by Nine-item adapted Strong parental attachment This study was cross-sectional in
15–- Charlton and Danforth (2010) version of Vignoli fulfilled a child’s intimacy nature, so the associations identi-
17 years) and Mallet’s (2004) needs, and was related to lesser fied may be difficult to interpret
14-item Scale for motivation to use the Internet
Parental Attachment for the purpose of escape
(p < .01), eroticism (p < .01),
and entertainment (p < .05)
Estévez et al. 472 (aged Spain Internet-related Experience Inventory of Parent and Poor mother and father attachment The sample was a non-clinical
(2017) 13–- Questionnaire (Beranuy et al. Peer Attachment styles predicted group. A clinical sample is
21 years) 2009) (Armsden and non-substance-related needed to show if results can be
Greenberg 1987) addictions, replicated. Furthermore, the
such as problematic Internet use study relied on self-reported
(p < .01). Adolescents might use measures
Internet more excessively due to
insufficient attachment to their
parent figures
Eichenberg et al. 245 (aged Austria Online Addiction Scale (Wölfling Bielefelder Partnership Those with a tendency for Internet No details were provided about
(2017) 16–- et al. 2010) Expectations addiction (n = 24) were the country that participants
61 years) Questionnaire categorized as insecurely were from
(Höger and attached, and only a few were Lack of participants classified as
Buschkämper 2002) securely attached (n = 6) Baddicted^
Table 1 (continued)
Monacis et al. 712 (aged Italy Italian version (Fioravanti and Italian version (Fossati Secure attachment orientation The participants were samples on
(2017a) 16–19 years Casale 2015) of the Internet et al. 2003) of the negatively predicted online the basis of a self-selected
and over 20) Addiction Test (Young 1998) Attachment Style addictive behaviors (p < .001). convenience sampling strategy.
Italian version of the Bergen Questionnaire Individuals with anxious style The use of a self-report question-
Social Media Addiction Scale (Feeney et al. 1994) showed a positive correlation naire is associated with biases
(Andreassen et al. 2016) with social media addiction
(p < .001), as did avoidant
(p < .001)
Schimmenti et al. 310 (aged Italy Internet Addiction Test (Young Attachment Style Students with a high risk for PIU This study relied on self-reported
(2014) 18–- 1998) Questionnaire were more likely to be males measures. The cross-sectional
19 years) (Feeney et al. 1994) than females. Students in the design of this study did not al-
PIU group were more likely to low the exclusion the effects of
have experienced physical and other different and unexplored
sexual abuse (during their factors (e.g., genetic factors)
childhood) and had greater
attachment insecurity
Lin (2016) 938 (aged Taiwan Time spent on Facebook was Statements examining The model showed that only the Attachment style was assessed in
18–- assessed by two questions. attachment style anxious attachment style had a statements rather than on a full
51 years) Participants also rated the provided by Hazan significant and positive scale
frequency with which they and Shaver (1987), association with Facebook time
interacted with their different and operationalized (p < .001). Secure attachment
types of friends on Facebook by Reis et al. (2000) had a positive but
non-significant association
with time spent on Facebook.
The avoidant attachment style
had no association with time
spent on Facebook
Monacis et al. 734 (aged Italy Italian translation of Bergen Italian version Fossati Individuals characterized by high Participant sample was
(2017b) 16–- Social Media Addiction Scale et al. 2003) of self-esteem, enjoyment in self-reported and self-selected.
40 years) (Andreassen et al. 2016). Attachment Style intimate relationships, and in Cross-sectional design of the
Italian version (Monacis et al. Questionnaire sharing feelings with others study did not allow control of
2016) of the Internet Gaming (Feeney et al. 1994) may be lower at risk of the effects of external variables
1103
Table 1 (continued)
1104
Disorder Scale-Short Form becoming addicted to social that could have affected the as-
(Pontes and Griffiths 2016) networking. Secure attachment sociations
is a protective factor against
SNS addiction (p < .001). In
contrast to some findings, the
results yielded a positive
relationship between avoidance
and SNS addiction (p < .001)
Andangsari et al. 169 Indonesia Social Networking Site Relationship Style Individuals with anxiety Reducing the number of RSQ
(2013) (undergradu- Engagement Scale (Andangsari Questionnaire attachment were more active items may have affected
ate students) et al. 2013) translated into Facebook users. The more time reliability and validity values to
Indonesian context spent using Facebook, the more some extent. Age range was
(Griffin and responses received from others. not specified
Bartholomew 1994) This could change their
perception of themselves
gradually and that they are
worthy of love
Fujimori et al. 284 (aged Japan Own self-devised questionnaire Japanese translation Females with ambivalent The study did not use a scale to
(2015) 19–- for evaluating SNS addiction version of the attachment had significantly assess the multiple dimensions
29 years) and types of SNS Internal Working higher SNS addiction (p < .01) of SNS addiction
Model Scale (Toda and SNS utilization time scores
1988) (p < .05). Individuals having
conflict with others made more
use of SNSs as a solution to
their problems or to decrease
their anxiety about
communicating with others
Savci and Aysan 2440 (aged Turkey Young Internet Test-Short Form Relationship Scale Internet addiction correlated The sample was limited to
(2016) 14–- (YIAT-SF; Young 1998) Questionnaire (RSQ; positively with preoccupied adolescents attending school in
19 years) Griffin and attachment (r = 0.16), the city center.
Bartholomew 1994) dismissive attachment The study was conducted with
(r = 0.14), and fearful self-reporting type scales and
Table 1 (continued)
attachment (r = 0.06). It certain limitations on the use of

correlated negatively with such scales have been reported
secure attachment (r = − 0.13), in the literature
security, closeness, and positive
affection
Mazaheri 180 (aged Iran Internet Addiction Questionnaire Attachment Style Results indicated that attachment The roles of social and cultural
Nejadfard and 18–- (Young 1998) Questionnaire styles mediate the relationship elements on the intended
Hosseinsabet 28 years) (Collins and Read between sensation seeking and variables were not considered.
(2017) 1990) Internet addiction and that they The study used convenience
have a direct relationship with sampling which minimized the
internet addiction. Individuals generalization of the research
with secure attachment style findings
established more intimate ties
and have fewer addictive
behaviors such as internet
addiction
Eroglu (2015) 322 (aged Turkey Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale Relationship Scale Facebook addiction was Cross-sectional design was used
18–- (Andreassen et al. 2012) Questionnaire negatively predicted by the in the study, and findings
33 years) (Griffin and secure (p < .01) and dismissing related to causality could not be
Bartholomew 1994) attachment styles (p < .01) and obtained. The measurement
positively predicted by the tools used self-report
preoccupied attachment style
(p < .01). Fearful attachment
style was not related with
Facebook addiction
Bashir et al. 383 (aged Pakistan Facebook Usage Questionnaire Adult Attachment Scale Positive relationship between Attachment patterns and
(2017) 18–- (Ross et al. 2009) (Collins and Read neuroticism and Facebook personality traits were only
27 years) 1990) usage (intensity) for individuals assessed with self-report mea-
with low secure attachment sures
Lin (2015) 890 (aged Taiwan Time spent on Facebook was Attachment style was Anxious-ambivalent attached had The questionnaire items were
18–- assessed by asking participants assessed using need disadvantages in their social restricted because the national
39 years) how many days they used relationships and they found survey did not employ full
1105
Table 1 (continued)
1106
Facebook in a week and asking for connectedness compensation spending more scales, but consisted of basic
them to estimate the average statements time on Facebook. Facebook media questions
time they spent per day of use use may provide a venue for
those individuals to adjust their
social skills and achieve greater
levels of perceived online and
offline social capital
Rao and Madan 95 (aged India Questions assessing if Facebook Inventory of Parent and 72% of the insecurely attached The sample mainly came from an
(2012) 14–- use was more than 7–8 h a day Peer Attachment adolescents were found to be upper socio-economic or upper
17 years) (Armsden and high users of Facebook and middle socio-economic back-
Greenberg 1987) 44% of the securely attached ground and reduces the gener-
adolescents were heavy users alizability of the study. The
of Facebook. Facebook served study was conducted on ado-
as a basic tool to fill in a void lescents only
that adolescents found in their
real lives
Kozan et al. 481 (university Turkey The Problematic Internet Use Relationships Scale Study demonstrated the Age range not specified
(2016) students) Scale (Ceyhan et al. 2007) Questionnaire association between attachment
(Griffin and styles and problematic internet
Bartholomew 1994) use. There was a positive
relationship between
preoccupied and dismissive
attachment style and
problematic internet use
Odacı and 380 (aged Turkey The Problematic Internet Use Relationship Scales A positive significant correlation The study group consisted solely
Çıkrıkçı (2014) 17–- Scale (Ceyhan et al. 2007) Questionnaire was found between of university students and the
23 years) (Griffin and problematic internet use and findings were obtained by
Bartholomew 1994) the dismissive (p < .001) and means of self-report scales and
preoccupied attachment styles not supported by data collec-
(p < .05). No significant tion techniques such as obser-
correlations were found vation and interview
between problematic internet
Table 1 (continued)
use and secure or fearful

attachment styles. Males had a
higher mean problematic
internet use scores than females
Reiner et al. 2410 (aged Germany Scale for the Assessment of Inventory of Parent and There was a significant impact of The study’s assessment only
(2017) 12–- Internet and Computer Game Peer Attachment insecure peer attachment on comprised self-report question-
18 years) Addiction (Muller K. et al. (Armsden and problematic internet use naires
2013) Greenberg 1987)
Scale for the Assessment of
Internet and Computer Game
Usage (Reiner et al. 2017)
Assunção et al. 761 (aged Portugal Adapted version of the Father and Mother When adolescents had secure The sample did not include the
(2017) 14–- Generalized Problematic Attachment relationship with their parents, whole age range of
18 years) Internet Use Scale 2 Questionnaire they were less alienated in their adolescence. The study only
(Hambleton et al. 2005) (Matos and Costa relationship with peers, and, in used self-report instruments
2001) turn, used Facebook in a less which are susceptible to re-
Portuguese version problematic way. The sponse and social desirability
(Ferreira and Costa relationship between separation biases
1998) of the Inven- anxiety and PIU was
tory of Parent and significant (p < 0.001)

Peer Attachment
(Armsden and
Greenberg 1987)
Lei and Wu 712 (aged China Adolescent PIU Scale (Lei and Inventory of Parent and Father-adolescent alienation The sample was from Beijing
(2007) 11–- Yang 2007) Peer Attachment contributed significantly to PIU only, limiting both power and
19 years) (Armsden and directly (p < .01) and also generalizability. There was a
Greenberg 1987) indirectly, suggesting that lack of data regarding fathers
children’s security in their
relationship with their father
was central to their Internet use
and that a father’s rejection
1107
Table 1 (continued)
1108
may threaten healthy Internet

use at this age
Yang et al. (2016) 450 (aged China Revised Chinese Internet Inventory of Parent and A higher level of parental marital The study did not collect data
17–- Addiction Scale (Chen et al. Peer Attachment conflict led to poor parent-child from students’ parents and
23 years) 2003) (Armsden and attachment. Unhealthy peers. It also relied on
Greenberg 1989) father-child and mother-child self-report measures and used a
attachment led to poor peer cross-sectional design that im-
attachment, which in turn had peded analysis relating to the
negative impacts on college causality between the variables
students’ Internet addiction
The Role of the Attachment Theory in the Most Used Scales
In this systematic review, the ECR (Brennan et al. 1998) was used in seven studies to
assess attachment in the context of close adult relationships. Its revised version (ECR-R;
Fraley et al. 2000) was used in four additional studies (therefore, the ECR was the most
frequently used scale in the studies evaluated in the present review). The sample sizes
range from 30 (Şenormancı et al. 2014) to 617 participants (Oldmeadow et al. 2013). The
ECR/ECR-R assesses the two major dimensions of attachment (anxiety and avoidance;
i.e., anxiety about abandonment or being afraid of disapproval). Those two dimensions
were found to be related to different factors, such as Facebook intensity and experience, its
engagement, social media addiction, the intensity of SNS use, internet use, and internet
addiction.
In terms of usage, Oldmeadow et al. (2013) found a positive association between a higher
attachment anxiety and a more intensive use of Facebook. Liu et al.’s study (2013) also
reported a positive relationship between anxious attachment and high SNS use. Being anx-
iously attached was associated with decreased perceived interpersonal competency. Such
individuals were therefore more likely to initiate online relationships, which may explain their
high use of Facebook (Jenkins-Guarnieri et al. 2012) and addiction to it (Eroglu 2015).
Yaakobi and Goldenberg (2014) reported a high positive relationship between that attachment
style and the amount of time spent in bonding in such systems. The same study also found that
anxious attachment negatively predicted the number of friends.
Other studies have reported that anxious attachment is positively associated with high
nightly time on Facebook, nightly status update (Longua Peterson et al. 2017), and to
general activity on Facebook (Hart et al. 2015; Andangsari et al. 2013). A higher amount
of time spent online can lead to pathological behavior, as found in the study by
Şenormancı et al. (2014). Their Turkish sample of patients with internet addiction
reported daily Internet use of 7.5 h, and was related to anxious attachment.
Oldmeadow et al. (2013) also found significant associations with different aspects of
Facebook experience. For instance, anxious attachment was strongly related to Facebook
comfort seeking, and that drives Facebook use particularly when feeling negative
emotions. Similar results were reported by Hart et al. (2015) who reported a positive
correlation between attachment anxiety and feedback seeking, and a positive relationship
with attention received.
Attachment avoidance has been reported to have no significant relationship with Facebook
attachment (Oldmeadow et al. 2013; Andangsari et al. 2013) and Facebook addiction (Eroglu
2015; Lin 2016). Furthermore, participants high in attachment avoidance have been found to
be less likely to be happy about their Facebook profile (Oldmeadow et al. 2013). This
attachment style positively predicted privacy1 (Hart et al. 2015), and was negatively (but not
significantly) related to nightly status updates on Facebook (Longua Peterson et al. 2017), and
to online capital2 (Lin 2015). Avoidant individuals were less to likely to be a social hub
because they rarely initiated a social relationship or received a friend request by others
(Yaakobi and Goldenberg 2014).
1
Privacy is the tendency to protect personal information. In particular, an item that investigates this aspect in
online interactions is BI only send friend requests to people who I have met before in person.^
2
The term Bonline capital^ is based on Bsocial capital^ and is a form of cultural capital built on online social
networks. It includes the inclinations that arise from these networks to do thing for each other (cooperation, trust,
and reciprocity)
Contrary to these results, Monacis et al. (2017a) found that avoidant attachment
significantly predicted social media addiction, and Savcı and Aysan (2016) showed that
it also predicted Internet addiction. Problematic internet use has been correlated with both
being anxious (Assunção et al. 2017; Mazaheri Nejadfard and Hosseinsabet 2017; Reiner
et al. 2017; Savcı and Aysan 2016; Shin et al. 2011) and having avoidant attachment
(Kozan et al. 2016; Odacı and Çıkrıkçı 2014; Shin et al. 2011). Blackwell et al. (2017)
reported that both anxious and avoidant attachment were correlated with social media
addiction, and that was before they included Bfear of missing out^ (FOMO; Przybylski
et al. 2013) in their model. These results are in line with research showing an association
between insecure attachment style and internet addiction (Shin et al. 2011; Şenormancı
et al. 2014; Monacis et al. 2017a). Therefore, it is assumed that avoidant attachment is
associated with social media addiction only when individuals are also high in attachment
anxiety. Such individuals can use social media to feel connected to others but not actually
engage in social interaction (Blackwell et al. 2017).
Results from Morey et al.’s (2013) study confirmed that there was a different engage-
ment between anxious-avoidant attachment and forms of communication (such as in-
person communication, smartphone use, texting, email, and SNS usage). They demon-
strated that romantic partners with an anxious attachment preferred tools that allowed for
greater intimacy and immediate response. In contrast, avoidant individuals, as previous
studies have shown (Hart et al. 2015), were more likely to prefer mediated forms of
communication, such as email, and less likely to be associated with mobile phone use and
texting (Morey et al. 2013).
The Influences on Internet Engagement and Its Most Used Assessment Tools
Monacis et al. (2017a) noted that internet addiction may be considered as an umbrella
construct, which contains addictive online activities such as social media addiction.
Authors have reported that secure attachment orientation negatively predicts social media
addiction (Monacis et al. 2017a), and internet addiction (Eichenberg et al. 2017; Monacis
et al. 2017a). This is in line with the negative association found between secure attach-
ment, Facebook time, and Facebook addiction (Bashir et al. 2017; Eroglu 2015; Rao and
Madan 2012). Moreover, it has been assumed that stronger parental attachment is related
to lesser need to use the internet (Yang et al. 2016) for the purpose to escape (Soh et al.
2014), and studies have concluded that it may be considered a protector factor (Eichenberg
et al. 2017; Savcı and Aysan 2016; Mazaheri Nejadfard and Hosseinsabet 2017; Kozan
et al. 2016). Children’s security in their relationship with parents is central to their Internet
use (Assunção et al. 2017).
It is important there is a bond whether it is with the mother (Estévez et al. 2017 or the
father (Lei and Wu 2007) because any secure bond is better than no bond at all. A good
relationship with one parent is enough to lead to positive outcomes if it is based on trust,
security, and mutual understanding. Moreover, students experiencing pathological internet
use are more likely to report childhood experiences of psychological and sexual abuse
(Schimmenti et al. 2014). The same paper also found that youth who are particularly
preoccupied with their offline relationships may use online environments as a virtual
retreat and as a way of protecting themselves from feelings of loneliness, and their fears
concerning offline interactions.
Discussion
The aim of the present paper was to review any associations between attachment and internet
addiction (and particularly social media addiction). The results suggest that social media
addiction may relate back to earlier stages in individuals’ lives. Research has demonstrated that
growing up in a well-functioning family helps individuals to form a mature healthy personality
(Şenormancı et al. 2014). In contrast, it appears that families’ inability to form emotional bonds
appear to contribute to addictive behavioral patterns (Şenormancı et al. 2014; Estévez et al.
2017). This suggests that addiction, and more specifically social media addiction, can stem from
issues that originate in infancy or childhood. Overall, the results of the studies evaluated provide
support for the association between social media addiction and two types of insecure attachment
(i.e., anxious and avoidant). The paper first evaluated the findings concerning the relationships
with Facebook, which is currently the most popular SNS used in the world. Depending on the
type of attachment, individuals experience social media in different ways (Oldmeadow et al.
2013). The present review provides evidence that individuals high in attachment anxiety appear
to use Facebook to alleviate their lack of attachment functioning.
The Impact of Facebook Addiction
Of the studies reviewed, it would appear that the majority of insecurely attached adolescents
use Facebook after being admonished by their parents (e.g., in Rao and Madan’s study [2012]
an adolescent claimed: BSometimes I try talking to my mother, but she always says she’s too
busy, so I end up logging onto Facebook and I talk to my friends instead^; p. 8). Consequently,
it appears that using Facebook fulfills the need for care and affection, and replaces and
compensates for missing affection from family members (Rao and Madan 2012). Using
Facebook becomes a means for social compensation (Eroglu 2015). However, individuals
have different ways to accomplish the innate need for relatedness, and attachment style can
influence its satisfaction (Lin 2016). For instance, high secure and anxious attached individuals
achieve such a need by spending more time on Facebook, while those avoidant attached do not
(Lin 2016).
Research indicates that individuals who are anxious about being alone and have a strong
need for reassurance spend more time on Facebook (Oldmeadow et al. 2013; Rom and Alfasi
2014). The more time they spend on Facebook, the more feedback and responses they receive
from others. This also provides the opportunity to change their perception about themselves,
and to be aware of being worthy of love (Andangsari et al. 2013). Those individuals who are
characterized by a high attachment anxiety engage in social media use when they experience
negative emotions. For example, when in doubt and in fear about a partner’s commitment,
individuals use reassurance seeking as a strategy to cope with their insecurities (Rom and
Alfasi 2014). However, the attention-seeking is core part of the anxious attached individuals’
hyper-activation strategy (Rom and Alfasi 2014). Thus, they use Facebook intensely (i) as a
means to develop and maintain their relationships (Andangsari et al. 2013; Assunção et al.
2017; Estévez et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2013; Longua Peterson et al. 2017; Rao and Madan 2012;
Rom and Alfasi 2014;), (ii) for facing the fear of abandonment (Yaakobi and Goldenberg
2014), (iii) to cope with rejection (Jenkins-Guarnieri et al. 2012), and (iv) to alleviate negative
views of themselves (Andangsari et al. 2013).
The studies also indicate that Facebook is used by individuals to alleviate their feelings of
being alone (Oldmeadow et al. 2013; Longua Peterson et al. 2017), and can be perceived as a
community to which they can belong (Rom and Alfasi 2014; Longua Peterson et al. 2017).
Using social media provides instant access to many individuals and it appeals to users high in
attachment anxiety (Oldmeadow et al. 2013; Monacis et al. 2017b). Such individuals perceive
Facebook as a safe haven (Rom and Alfasi 2014), a comfortable platform for seeking sense of
belonging, and/or for articulating their opinions (Rom and Alfasi 2014). Since these individ-
uals are sensitive to criticism (Hart et al. 2015), Facebook may also help them to avoid conflict,
excessive closeness with others (Liu et al. 2013), and increase their connection strategies
(Jenkins-Guarnieri et al. 2012). In this way, it appears that they may gain more real-world
social benefits from social media use (Hart et al. 2015). In addition, Facebook anonymity
makes it easier for individuals to initiate relationships (Jenkins-Guarnieri et al. 2012), thus
facilitating potentially addictive use in a small minority of individuals (Monacis et al. 2017b).
Unfortunately, research indicates that the relationship between having trouble in interper-
sonal relationships and having a high engagement online constitutes a vicious cycle for those
individuals, because they will be at high risk of social withdrawal (Shin et al. 2011).
Furthermore, it is also possible that Facebook only provides a short boost to well-being, and
that the positive effects dissipate once participants go offline (Hart et al. 2015). This may
partially explain why a social networking site may form a compulsive habit for a small
minority of individuals (Hart et al. 2015).
It also appears that individuals with anxious attachment are interested in how Facebook users
perceive them (Oldmeadow et al. 2013), and they are more likely to be associated with general
social media activity (time spent on Facebook, commenting, and liking behaviors), feedback
sensitivity (i.e., sensitivity concerning online feedback), and feedback seeking on the site (Hart
et al. 2015; Monacis et al. 2017b). They also spend a lot of time on Facebook because they feed
on others’ feedback (Hart et al. 2015). Facebook may also allow them to have a greater control
over their self-presentation online (Oldmeadow et al. 2013; Yaakobi and Goldenberg 2014). Via
the use of Facebook, it is possible to manipulate individuals to edit their self-portrayal and
profile online, in an attempt to show an always perfect image of themselves (Oldmeadow et al.
2013). When posting a photograph or a post, anxious attached Facebook users constantly check
if anyone has commented or liked them and is their way of Bfeeling alive.^
As for the avoidant attachment style, no significant relationships were found regarding
intensive Facebook usage (Hart et al. 2015; Lin 2015; Oldmeadow et al. 2013). Avoidant
individuals are more introverted (Hart et al. 2015) and they do not want to rely on others
because they do not trust others to be attached with (Andangsari et al. 2013). They do not seek
attention on Facebook because they feel independent, and because the interaction with others
may remind them of the way in which they were repeatedly neglected by their caregivers in the
past (Andangsari et al. 2013). In attachment theory, attachment avoidance is related to an
individual’s hesitance to become close with others (Jenkins-Guarnieri et al. 2012). Moreover, it
appears that Facebook does not have a significant impact on their attachment needs
(Andangsari et al. 2013). Individuals high in attachment avoidance do not spend a lot of time
on Facebook, and are less likely to hold a positive attitude about it. Interestingly, a significant
positive relationship was found between this attachment style and evaluation concern
(Oldmeadow et al. 2013). This means that although they have feelings of being self-sufficient,
they still have a level of concern about how others view them.
Regarding securely attached individuals, they are usually sociable, expressive, and use
Facebook in a positive way. Because they are characterized by high self-esteem and have good
social skills (and thus intimate relationships), they appear to be at lower risk of becoming
addicted to the internet generally and to social media specifically (Bashir et al. 2017; Eroglu
2015; Monacis et al. 2017a; Odacı and Çıkrıkçı 2014; Rao and Madan 2012). They also have a
stronger sense of control that gives them the opportunity to resist stressful conditions (Savcı and
Aysan 2016). When they need help, they ask for it, knowing that it is possible to rely on their
friends and family. Their secure relationships with parents give them the power to explore the
world without fear, and to feel worthy of love. This enables them to feel safe in sharing feelings
with others and to construct secure relationships (Assunção et al. 2017). These results suggest
that individuals who already have mature social skills gain greater and healthier functions via
Facebook usage (Lin 2015). Therefore, these individuals act using more functional coping
strategies (Bashir et al. 2017; Mazaheri Nejadfard and Hosseinsabet 2017; Savcı and Aysan
2016) and are more protected against addiction to social media (Monacis et al. 2017b).
The Influence of Internet Addiction
As for attachment styles and internet addiction more generally, findings indicate that a stronger
parental attachment is related to less motivation to use the internet to escape from everyday
problems (Soh et al. 2014). Attachment to parents fulfills children’s intimacy needs, giving
them what they are looking for, and not forcing them to seek escapism (Mazaheri Nejadfard
and Hosseinsabet 2017; Soh et al. 2014). Escapism appears to contribute to addictive behavior
online (Soh et al. 2014). More specifically, secure individuals accept their own emotional
needs (Estévez et al. 2017), while insecure individuals do not (e.g., anxious-avoidant). The
more they think they cannot rely on others’ support (Estévez et al. 2017), the more it leads to
the avoidance of interpersonal relationships and they search for compensation via online
engagement (Eichenberg et al. 2017; Estévez et al. 2017; Fujimori et al. 2015; Lei and Wu
2007; Savcı and Aysan 2016; Yang et al. 2016). This finding is in line with research suggesting
that childhood trauma (e.g., physical and sexual abuse) can be a risk factor for internet
addiction (Odacı and Çıkrıkçı 2014; Schimmenti et al. 2014).
It appears that those deeply preoccupied about relationships may use the Internet as a type
of self-therapy, a safe environment where they can find what they perceive as missing in the
their day-to-day lives, such as emotional support (Savcı and Aysan 2016; Schimmenti et al.
2014). On one hand, such Btherapeutic means^ (e.g., Facebook use) can optimistically lead
insecure individuals to the path of secure attachment (Andangsari et al. 2013). In this way,
insecurely attached individuals tend to withdraw from environment because they think that
their self-efficacy is threatened (Eroglu 2015).
While the results presented here offer new insights into one risk factor for social media
addiction, these studies have their limitations. One limitation is that the majority of the studies
utilized self-report measures rather than actual behaviors. These methods raise the question of
whether participants simply misperceive themselves. Thus, the accuracy of individual reports
cannot be always guaranteed because these methods are subject to well-known biases (e.g.,
response biases, memory recall biases, social desirability biases). Future research will need to
apply more sophisticated tools that are able to analyze personal profiles and features. In
addition, all studies recruited samples that relied on a self-selected convenience sampling
strategy (i.e., a biased sample with non-probability sampling).
Future research should focus on the relationship between avoidance and social media use
because several of the collected coefficients approached significance. It would also be
interesting to investigate what happens in the offline world after having gained more confi-
dence through online social media use. Using social media may facilitate the development of
social skills via the online medium. Consequently, using social media could lead to positive
outcomes such as improved mood for individuals with different attachment styles. Another
limitation is that the causal hypotheses and mediation models tested concerning attachment
styles and social media engagement could not be confirmed because all the studies were cross-
sectional. Future research should be carried out longitudinally and could examine the alterna-
tive causal models (e.g., that social media engagement causes attachment anxiety). Different
studies should also continue to examine FOMO as a significant variable to study in the
relationship between social media addiction and attachment styles. Finally, more research
should be conducted to determine the impact of other types of social media (other than
Facebook use), and to confirm if the results presented here can be generalized to populations
of different ages, such as older adults.
Despite all these limitations, the present review collated and evaluated important findings
explaining individuals’ reasons for using social media in relation to attachment. This knowl-
edge can be positively used to better understand how individuals attempt to cope with
problems and past feelings, and to help develop prevention programs and clinical interven-
tions. Online social networking sites, such as Facebook, serve a basic human need and
individuals use them to satisfy their attachment need. Thus, the findings presented here suggest
that a gratification model provides a useful framework in which to understand the effects of
parental attachment on internet and social media addiction (Soh et al. 2014). The actions (or
rather inactions) of parents appear to actively influence and contribute to children’s addiction
to social media, and can greatly influence their later lives.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance
with the ethical standards of University’s Research Ethics Board and with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro-
duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a
link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
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International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2019) 17:1094–1118

Addiction to Social Media and Attachment Styles:

Maria Chiara D’Arienzo 1 & Valentina Boursier 1 & Mark D. Griffiths 2

Published online: 18 April 2019

The Present Research in Context

Addiction as an Attachment Disorder

In the domain of interpersonal relationships, attachment styles are adopted as a framework to

social media use and addiction the accuracy of the

attachment and SNS use activities that SNSs were used

attachment (r = 0.06). It certain limitations on the use of

use and secure or fearful

tory of Parent and significant (p < 0.001)

may threaten healthy Internet

The Role of the Attachment Theory in the Most Used Scales

The Impact of Facebook Addiction

The Influence of Internet Addiction

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

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