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MATERIALS DATA HANDBOOK
Stainless Steel Type 301

(2nd Editioi~)
Revised by
R. F. Muraca
J . S . Whittick
April 1972
C R -123 780
Prepared for
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Marshall Space F l i g k Center, Alabama 35812
Contract No. NAS8-26644
WESTERN APPLIED RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, INC.
1403-07 Industrial Road San Carlos, California 94070

PREFACE
The revised edition of the Materials Data Handbook on stainless

steel Type 301 was prepared by Western Applied Research & Develop-
ment, Inc. under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall
t
Space Flight Center, Alabama. It i s a revised and updated version of
the Handbook originally prepared by the Department of Chemical Eng-
ineering and Metallurgy at Syracuse University, June 1966.
It is intended that this Handbook present, in the f o r m of a single

document, a summary of the m a t e r i a l s property i d o r m a t i o n presently
available on stainless steel Type 3 0 1 .
The Handbook i s divided into twelve (12) chapters. The scope of

the information presented includes physical and mechanical property
data a t cryogenic, ambient and elevated temperatures, supplemented with
useful information in such a r e a s a s m a t e r i z l procurement, metallurgy
of the alloy, corroston, environmental effects, fabrication and joining
techniques. Design data a r e presented, a s available, and these data a r e
complemented with information on the typical behavior of the alloy. The
major source used for the design data i s the Department of Defense
document, Military Handbook- 5A.
Information on the alloy i s given in the f o r m of tables and figures,

supp1emen';ed with descriptive text a s appropriate. Source references f o r
the information presented a r e listed a t the end of each chapter.
Throughout the text, tables, and figures, common engineering units

(with which measurements were made) a r e accompanied by conversions to
International (SI) Units, except in the instances where double units would
over-complicate data presentation, o r where SI units a r e impractical ( e . g .,
machine tools and machining). In these instances, conversion factors a r e
noted. A p r i m a r y exception to the use of SI units i s the conversion of 1000
pounds per square inch to kilograms p e r square rnillimzter r a t h e r than
newtons, in agreeinent with the ASTM that this unit i s of a m o r e practical
nature f o r worldwide use.
The second edition of "Materials Data Hmdboek: Staii~lessqteel
Type 301 was prepared by Western Applied R e s c a x h % Development,
Inc. under Contract No. NAS8-26644 for the George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center of the National Aeronautics and Space ad mini st ratio^.
The work was administered under the technical direction of the Astro-
nautics Laboratory, Materials Division of the George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center with Mr. Wayne R. Morgan acting as Project Manager.
Sincere appreciation is tendered to the many commercial organ-

izations and Government agencies who have assisted in the preparation
of this document.
TABLE O F CONTENTS
Page
i
ii
iii
iv
v
viii
Chapter 1 1
Chapter 2 3
Chapter 3 i
Chapter 4 17
Chapter 5 2i
Chapter 6 31
Chapter 7 37
Chapter 8 67
Chapter 9 77
Chapter 10 83
Chapter 1 1 89
I. Chapter 12 95
'f'
iii
TABULAR ABSTRACT
Stainless Steel Type 301
TYPE:
Austenitic stainless steel
NOMINAL COMPOSITION:
Fe-17Cr-7Ni
AVAILABILITY :
Full commercial ranges of sizes and proauct forms a r e available in
annealed, 114 hard, 112 hard, 314 hard, fvll hard, and extra full hard
conditions.
TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROFERTIES:

Density ......................... 7.91 g/cm3 at room temperature
Thermal Conductivity ------------ 0.039 cal/cm"/eec/"C/cm at 10o°C
.................... --
Av. Coeff. of Thermal Expansion
Specific Heat
16.9 x 1 0 - 6 p ~ m / ~ m(20-100QC)
/0~
0.12 ~ a l / ~ / '(c0 - 1 0 0 ~ ~ )
Electrical Resistivity ------------ - 72 microhm-cm a t 20°C
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

105 ksi (74 kg/mma)
125 ksi (88 kg/rnma
150 ksi (105 kg/mm ) 1
185 ksi (130 kglrnm" )
40 ksi (28 kg/mma)
75 ksi (53 kg/mmd)
110 ksi (77 kg/mrna)
140 ksi (96 kglmm")
55 percent
25 percent
18 percent
9 percent
31 x lo3 ksi ( 2 1 . 8 ~lo3 kg/mma)
FABRICATION CHARACTERISTICS:
Weldability -- --- ------ - ---- - - - --- methods) Excellent (fusion and resistance
Formability -- -- -- - - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - Good in annealed condition

Machinability - - - - -- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - Good if proper toole and lubri-
cants a r e employed
COMMENTS:
Alloy exhibits excellent carro sion and oxidation r e r i r t a m e and har
good creep strength a t elevated temperaturer. High rtrengthr a r e
developed by cold working.
SYMBOLS
One-half notch section dimension

Area of cross section; tlAtlbasis for mechanical
property values (MIL-HDBK-5A)
A Angstrom unit
AC Air cool
AMS Aerospace Material Specifications
Ann Annealed
ASTM American Society for Testing Methods
Av or Avg Average
I1Bt1basis for mechanical property values (MIL-
HDBK- 5A)
b Subscript llbendingll
bcc Body centered cubic
BHN Brine11 hardness number
br Subscript I 1 bearingv
Btu British thermal unit(s)
Degree(s) Celsius
Subscript Hcompres~ionlt
Cold drawn
Cold finished
Centimeter
Specific heat
Cold rolled
CW Cold worked
CVM Consumable vacuum melted
D or Dia Diameter
DPH Diamond pyramid hardnes s
Elongation in percent
Modulus of elasticity, tension
Modulus of elasticity, compree sion
Ratio of edge distance to hole diameter
Secant modulus
Tangent modulus
Electron volt(#)
Degr ee(s ) Fahrenheit

Subscript lIfatiguel1
Bearing ultimate strength
Bearing yield strength
fcc Face centered cubic
FC Furnace cool
Compres rive yield strength
Shear stress; shear strength
Ultimate tensile strength
0.270 tensile yield s t r ength (unlesr otherwise indicated)
Gram
Modulus of rigidity
HAZ Heat affected zone in weldments
hcp Hexagonal close pack
hr Hour (8 )
HT Heat treat
IAGS International annealed copper standard
in Inch
ipm Inches per minute
Degree(s) Kelvin
Stress intensity factor; thermal conductivity
Measure of fracture toughness (plane s t r e s r ) a t point of
crack growth instability
Kilogram
Plane strain fracture toughnes a value
Thouaandpounds per square inch
Theoretical elastic s tree s concentration factor
Longitudinal
Pound
Long transverse (same a s transverse)
M Bending moment
m Meter
M Subscript Itmean"
Max h&ucimum
ml Milliliter
A4IL Military
Min Minimum
mm Millimeter
N Cy . ' :r; to failure
NSR Not -.i: strength ratio
NTS Notch tensile strength
Oil quench
Part6 per million
Point; part
Radius
Reduction in area; Rockwell hardnerr A rcale
Rockwell hardnemr B wale
Rockwell hardness C scale
Revolutions per minute
Room temperature
SA Solution a r i e a l
sec Second
S- N S = etrere; N = number of cycles
v Spec Specificationr; specimen
ST Solution treat; short transverse
STA Solution trested and aged
T Transverse
t Thickness; time
Temp Temperature
tw Typical
Var Variable
VHN Vickers hardness number
Width
Water quench
vii
CONVERSION FACTORS
To Convert To Multiply By
angstrom units millimeters
~ t u / l b / 'F cal/gI0 c
~ t u / f t '/sec/O F-inch cal/g/cm'/sec/O~-cm
circular mil square centimeters
cubic feet cubic m e t e r s
cubic feetlminute liters/second
cubic inches cubic centimeters
feet meters
foot-pounds kilogram-meters
gallons (U. S. ) liters
inches millimeter s
ksi (thousand pounds kilograms/rquare millimeter
p e r square inch
microns millimeters
mils millimeters
ounces (avoir ) . grams
ounces (U.S. fluid) milliliter r
pounds (avoir. ) kilograms
pounds /foot kilograms /meter
pounds /cubic foot g r a m s /cubic centimeter
square feet (U.S.) square met e r r
square incher (U.S.) square centimeter6
-
Temperature in ' C = (OF 32) (519)
Temperature in O K = O C t 273.15
Chapter 1
GENERAL INFORMATION
Type 301 i s the lowest alloyed member of the 18-percent chromium,

8-percent nickel s e r i e s of steels, belonging to the l a r g e r family of
.
austenitic stainless steels The austenitic Fe- Cr- Ni alloys were
developed in the Krupp Laboratories (Germany) by Benno Strauss
and Edward Maurer during the y e a r s 1909-1912, ond led to the 18-8
.
s e r i e s of stainless steels which a r e widely used today (ref. 1 . 1 ;
The austenitic alloys were develo?ed a s corrosion-resistant alloys
for use in pyrometer tubes; however, they also possess excellent
resistance to oxidation a s well a s good c r e e p strength a t elevated
temperatures and good cold formability (ref. 1 . 2 ) .
1. 2 Of the a u ~ l e n i t i cstainless steels, Type 301 i s the one used most

frequently at high-strength levels in a i r c r a f t and missiles because
of its greater work-hardening characteristics ( r e f . 1 . 2 ) . Also, be-
cause of its high strength properties, Type 301 is used in the con-
struction of bus, truck, t r a i l e r , and railroad-car bodies. It i s used
for automobile wheel discs, architectural t r i m , flashing, and roof
drainage products (ref. 1 . 4 ) .
1.3 The alloy cannot be hardened by heat treatment, but it hardens rapidly
by cold working. It i s possible to r a i s e tensile strengths as high a s
275 ksi (192 kg/mnia) a t room temperature. Wrought Type 301 is
ordinarily used in either the annealed o r cold-rolled condition. In
the annealed condition, the mechanical properties a r e those of sub-
stantially s t r e s s - f r e e austenite. Generally, the tensile strength will
be between 85 and 110 ksi (60 and 77 k g / m m a ) with high ductility,
comparatively low yield strength, high resistance to impact, relative
insensitivity to notch effects, and low resistance to forming. Cold
working increases hardness, strength, and elastic properties, but
consequently reduces ductility and makes forming operations m o r e
difficult to a degree dependent upon the amount of cold work that h a s
been applicd (ref. 1.3).
1.4 Type 302 stainless steel has a slightly higher alloying compositior
than Type 301. b4any of the specifications for Type 302 have a c l o s ~
enough range of composition for chromium and nickel to include T! r
301 in its lower range. Their properties a r e only elightly different;
while 302 i s slightly inferior to 301 in strength, i t has a better r e -
sistance to corrosion (ref. 1 . 4 , 1.5).
1.5 General Precuations

1.51 Type 301 should not be used a t temperatures of 750' to 1650°F (399'
to 899'C) and should not be cooled slowly f r o m higher temperatures
through this range. Ekposure to 900°F (482OC) o r above reducer
strength because of recrystallization (ref. 1 . 2 , 1 . 5 )
Chapter 1 - References
United States Steel, I1Fabrication of USS Stainless Steele,tl ADUSS 03-
1478-03, reprinted April 1971.
Military Handbook-SA, ltMetallic Materials and Elements for Flight

Vehicle S t r u ~ t u r e s Department
,~~ of Defense, February 1966; latee t
change order January 1970.
The International Nickel Co., "Heat Treatment and Physical Properties

of the Chromium-Nickel Stainless steel^,^^ Nickel Alloy Steels, Section
7, Data Sheet A, 1947.
Republic Steel Corp., ''Republic Enduro Stainless Steel,It 1969.
Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., "Blue Sheet - Stainless Steel Type 301,"
1971.
Aerospace Structural MI tala Handbook, J. G. Sessler and V. Weiee,

E d s . , AFML- TR-68- 115, 19 i1 Edition.
Chapter 2
PROCUREhIENT INFORMATION
2.1 General. Type 301 i s available in a full range of commercial sizes

m e t , strip, plate, wire, bar, and rod (ref. 2.1).
a 2.2
+
Procurement S ecifications. AMS specifications that apply specif-
ically to Type 0 as o h a y 1971 and equivalent
specifications a r e listed in table 2 . 2 .
- Military and ASTM
b'
2.3 Compzrison of Specifications. The three AMS specifications and
ASTM A177-6'1 a r e specifically f o r Type 301 stainless steel. The
other ASTM specification A167-63, and all the Federal and Military
specifications a r e for a general classification of corrosion-resist-
ant steels, o r chromium-nickel steels, o r sometimes (more spec-
ifically) the classification of 18-8 steels. F o r sheet and strip, the
maximum mechanical properties for the various degrees of cold
working correspond with AMS, ASTM, and Military specifications .
2.4 Major Producers of the Alloy (U.S.). Practically all alloy and
stainless steel mills make this alloy under their own proprietary
name o r under AISI Type 301 specifications. Representative pro-
ducers are:
Allegheny Metal 17-7, Allegheny Ludlurn Steel Corp.

Type 301 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Carpenter Stainless Carpenter Technology Corp.
No. 301 Reading, Pennsylvania
Crucible 301 Stainless Crucible Steel Lo. of America
Steel Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Jessop Type 301 J e s sop Steel Company
Washington, Pennsylvania
Enduro Type 301 Republic Steel Cqrporation
C!zve?aiid, Ghio
USS 17-7, Type 301 United States Steel Corp.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvmia
Stainless Steel Tvype 301 Universal-Cyclops Steel Corp.
Bridgeville, P e n ~ s y l v a n i a
4
2.5 Available F o r m s , Sizes, and Conditions. Type 301 is available

in the full c o r n m e r m range of s i z e s and f o r m s in annealed,
114 hard, 1 /2 hard, 314 hard, full hard, and extra-full hard
conditions.
TABLE 2 . 2 . - P r o c u r e m e n t Specifications (a)
Source Refs. 2.2, 2 . 3 , 2 . 4
Alloy Type 301
Product Condition I AMS I ASTM
Plate, sheet, and

strip
Annealed - A1 67-63
Sheet and s t r i p (b) CR-125 ksi, 1I 4 H 55173 A177-67

Sheet and s t r i p CR-150 ksi, 112 H 5518D Al'i7-67
Sheet and s t r i p CR-175 ksi, 314 H - A1 77-67
Sheet and s t r i p CR-185 ksi, F H 5519F A177-67
(a) As of May 1971.

(b) 1 k s i = 0.70307 kg/mma
Chapter 2 - Reference8
2.1
A,
.All0 9 i est, I1AISIType 301," (Filing Code SS-54), Engineering
April 1957.
2.2 SAE Aerospace Material Sp~cifications,Society of Automotive

Engineers, Inc., latest Index, May 1971.
2.3 ASTM Standards, P a r t 3, "Wrought Iron Bar and Sheet, Metallic

Coated product^,^^ 1968.
2.4 Index of Specifications and Standards, Dept. of Defense, P a r t I,

Alphabetical Listing, P a r t 11, Numerical Listing, July 1970,
Supplement May 1971.
P R ~ ~ I NPAGE
G BLANK NOT FIZMK
Chapter 3
METALLURGY
3.1 Chemical Corn. losition
3.11 The nominal chemical composition of Type 301 is:

Cr 1770
Ki 770
Fe Balance
3.12 There are some differences in the chemical composition ranges a s

listed by AM: and the steel producers, The chemical composition
limits a s specified by AMS and 41SI a.re shown in table 3 . 1 .
3.13 The principal alloying elements a r e chromium and nickel. Figure

3.1 i l l u s t r a t ~ sthe iron-chromium-nickel diagram a t 18% chromium
content. Ftgure 3.2 shows the iron-chromium-nickel diagram at
8% nickei content. The iron-chromium-~ickel isothermal diagram
a t 1200' F (649' C) i s presented in figure 3.3.
The chromium content gives the steel i t s passivity and resistance

to oxidizing effects. The nickel content supplements the chromium
in its resistance tn oxidation to provide passivity where the chrom-
ium alone w o d d not be sidficient for some corrodents. An increase
in the chromium-nickel content improves the corrosion-resistance
prcpertics of the steel ( r e f . 3.4).
The mechanical properties of cold-worked Type 301 a r e influenced

by its chemical composition. Not only do the individual percentages
have an effect upon the mechanical properties, but also the ratios
in which the elements a r e present in the steel influence its response
to cold working. As the nickel content i s increased, the steel be-
comes more stable and the r a t e of strengthening by cold working
d e c r e a s e s . The effect of the chromium depends on the nickel and
carbon contents. When the nickel is present in amounts greater
than 970, an increase of chromium will increase the r a t e of work
hardening. However, ~f the nickel content is i e s s than 7% an in-
c r e a s e in chromium f r o m 17% to 20% decreases the r a t e of work
hardening.
Manganese and carbcn a130 promote the stability of austenite. C a r -

bon i s very effective in this respect, while manganese is much Icasr;
effect;-re than nickel (ref. 3 . 5 ) .
3.2 Strengthening Mechanisms
3.21 General. Austenitic chromium-nickel etainlees steels cannot be

L
- by heat treatment. Heat treatments a r e used, however,
for purpc ;ea other than hardening. Full annealing maintains in
the steel a fu1l.y austenitic structure (see figure 3.4); ill thia condition,
the steel will be a t its softest and most malleable state. Lower heat-
treating temperatures may be employed to provide e t r ess-relieving
treatments o r to improve yield strengths. Heat treatment may also be
used to control carbide precipitation ( r e f . 3.5).
The austenite in Type 301 i s not thermodynamically stable at room

temperature. When the alloy i s deformed plastically a t o r below room
temperature, the metae table austenite undergoes a partial transform-
ation to martensite (ref. 3.5).
Light sections of the alloy may be annealed a t 1950' to

to 1120° C ) for 3 to 5 hours p e r 0.1 inch (2.54 m m ) of
thickness, followed by rapid cooling in a i r . Thicker sections a r e water
quenched (ref. 3.6).
S t r e s s Relief. To improve the elastic properties of cold-worked mat-

erial, heat to 650' to 850'F (343' to 454'C) for 112 to 2 hours, and
air cool (ref. 3.13). In o r d e r to minimize s t r e s s cracking in corrosive
media (especially containing halogen compounds), full anneal after
forming.
Surface oxide scale formed during thermal treatment must be removed

f r o m all material which has to s e r v e in a corrosive environment (see
Chapter 11, Surface Treatment).
Cold Working. The strength of sheet obtained by cold rolling depends

-upon the chemical composition, particularly the nickel and
carbon contents. Figure 3.5 shows the effect of rolling reduction and
composition on tensile properties of the alloy.
Critical Temperatures. The melting ratlge of the alloy i s 2550' to

E' (1399" to 14543C). Carbon precipitation will take place when
the alloy i s exposed for a period of-time-to temperatures the range
of about 800' F to about 1650' F (427' to 899' C). The precipitation
occurs during slow cooling, heating through this range, o r while hold-
ing a t temperatures within the range. The amount of carbide that will
precipitate will depend upon the carbon content, time and tempera-
ture, and $0 s o m e extent upon the chromium and nickel content. The
carbides that precipitate in the grain boundaries a r e chromium-rich,
reducing the chromium content in the graine adjacent to the boundaries.
Due to this depletion of chromium, the alloy becomes susceptible to
corrosion. Heating the alloy to the annealing temperature will put the
carbides into solution and rapid cooling through the critical range will
keep the carbides in solution. Thus, various fabricated p a r t s o r welded
pieces that a r e subject to local heating, which may result in the pre-
cipitation of carbides, will require reannealing in o r d e r to prevent
subsequent corrosion (ref. 3.5).
The effect of carbon on the constitution of stainless s t e e l containing

18% chromium and 8% nickel is shown in figure 3.6.
3.4 Crystal Structure. The fully annealed alloy i s face-centered-cubic,
with a lattice constant of 3.56 x 10" m m (ref. 3.8).
3.5 Microstructure. The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of a fully austenitic steel

(18-8) i s shown in figure 3.7. In m a t e r i a l s plastically deformed
a t temperatures of 10' C and -188' C, the pe-rcentage ;,f marten-
s i t e obtained i s shown to be related to thc degree of working and
to the temperature ( r e f . 3.10).
3.6 Metallographic Procedures. The s p e c i m e : . ~used for optical m i c r o -

scopy must be carefully poiished, properly - - etched, and observed
accurately a t required &agnifications. ?he c h o i c e of polishing
methods, whether mechanical o r electrclytic, depends upon the
experience of the metallographer. WhiJ e some metallog rapher s
have produced excellent results by mechanical polishing, it i s
believed by others that the polishing c r e a t e s distortions causing
slight changes in the properties of the surface. Also, chips ( a s
well a s abrasive particles) tend to collect on the surface and
f o r m m a t e r i a l loosely adherent to the surface.
Electrolytic polishing eliminates these difficulties and, in general,

i s excellent f o r homogeneous alloys. However, where massive
particles of microconstituent exist, this method leads to unsatis-
factory relief effects. Mechanical polishing i s ordinarily done wet
on turn tables covered with a polishing cloth of velvet o r silk
sprinkled with a polishing abrasive such a s the aluminum o r mag-
nesium oxides of 500- to 600-mesh grade o r diamond dust. Elec-
trolytic polishing i s accomplished by using the ground specimen
a s an anode of a DC cell, using a proper cathode and an appro-
priate electrolytic solution. Conditions a r e best when a change in
applied voltage produces no appreciable effect upon c u r r e n t density
(ref. 3.11). Electropolishing information f o r austenitic stainless
s t e e l i s given in table 3 . 2 .
Etching i s performed on specimens in o r d e r to isolate the con-

stituents of the metal. Various etching agents a r e used to bring
aut the particular phase a l d e r examination. Etching may be
accomplished by immersion, swabbing, o r clectrolytic techniques.
Table 3 . 3 gives etching agent and use for austcnitic stainless
steels.
TABLE 3.1. - Chemical Composition Range
Alloy Type 301
.
Source AMS (ref. 3.1) 1 AISI ( r e f . 3.2)
Constituent
Carbon
Chromium
Percent
Min 1 Max
I + -
Percent
16.00
0.15
18.00
Copper - -
Manganese - 2.00
Molybdenum - -
Nickel 6.00 8.00
Phosphorus - 0.04
Silicon -- 1.00
Sulfur 0.03
Iron Balance
TABLE 3.2. - Electropo hing of Austenitic Stainless Stcel
k o u r ce I Ref. 3.11
Alloy 1 Type 301
Electrolyte I Cathode
Current density
volts
Perchloric acid 30 ml Iron o r I

55
Acetic anhydride 60 ml aluminum
Nitric acid 30 rnl
Alcohol (methyl) 60 ml
Any metal not
Perchloric acid 5 ml
attacked by
Glacial acetic acid I Or?d
electrolyte
Water 7 rnl
Orthophosphoric 37 m l 720
Glyc e r 01 56 rnl
* Externally applied. (a)1 amp/fli2 = 10.7 amp/ma

.
TABLE 3.3. - Etching Agents and Uses
Source 1 Ref. 3.11
Allov I Type 301
Electrolytic Etching Agent II m m e r s i o n Etching Agent ( Uses
I I
HCl (conc. )
Alcohol (ethyl)
6V, 0 . 7 5 a m p . , 30 s e c
I
10 ml FeC13
90 m l HC1 (conc )
H2O
. 50 m l
100 m l
Grain structure
Glacial a c e t i c acid 20 ml Aqua Regia:

HN03 (conc ) . 40 rnl HNO:, (conc . ) 40 ml
1 a m p . , 10 s e c plus HCl (sonc. ) 120 ml
Oxalic acid 10 g HN03 (conc. ) 40 m l
Ha 0 100 m l HCI (conc . ) 120 m l
1 a m p . . 10-15 s e c Glycerin 160 m l
HC104 (70-7270 acid) 10 ml Alcoholic:
H2° 90 nd Orthonitrophenol 20 m l
1 a m p . , 2 min HC1 (5070) 40 ml
(NH,)2S0,(150J~) 40ml
Cr03 10 g
Ha0 100 rril
1 amp. , 1 min
CrO, 10 g Murakami1s (dilute): Sigma phase and
Hd' 100 nd K3F-e(CNh 30 g carbide
6V, 0.75 a m p . , 1 m i n KOH 30 g precipitation
H2O 100 ml
Murakamil s (conc ): . I
K3Fe (CN), 30 g
KOH 30 g
HPO 60 rnl
Vilellal s :
HN0, (conc . ) 15 m l
HCl (conc. ) 30 m l
Glycerin 45 ml
NaOH
KMnO,
H2 0
j4 g
!3
100 m l
1
P i c r i c acid 5g
HC1 5 ml
NaCN 10 g
Alcohol (methyl) 90 m l
Carbide
-
Ha0 100 ml precipitation
1 a m p . , 5-10 s e c
I
NaCN 10 !3 S i g m a phase
Ha0 100 ml
1 a m . , 15 sec-2 min
Oxalic acid 1 0 Z! Sigma phase, then
Ha 0 100 ml carbide
6V-0.75 amt,. precipitation
800
FIGURE 3 . l ,- Iron-chromium-
nickel equilibrium diagram at
constant chromium content of
400 18 lercent. (Ref. 3 . 3 )
Nickel, percent
O c
Chromium, percent
FIGURE 3 . 2 . -
Iron-chromium-nickel equilibrium diagram
at constant nickel content of 8 percent.
(Ref. 3 . 3 )
0 10 20 30 40 50
Nickel, percent
FIGURE 3 . 3 . Iron-chromium-nickel equ'libriwn
-
diagram at l200OF ( 6 4 9 ' ~ ) .
(Ref. 3.2)
Chromium, percent
FIGURE 3 . 4 .- Effect of vorirtions in chromium and nickel
in quenched-annealed Type 301 conbining 0.10C.
O.4OMa. and 0.30Si. (Ref. 3.7)
FIGURE 3 . 5 . -
Effect of rolling reduction and comporition
on tensile properties of 300 eerier steelr.
(Ref. 3 . 1 2 )
Carbon, per cent
FIGURE 3 . 6 .- Effect of carbon on the constitution of
stainless steel containing 18 percent chromium
and 8 percent nickel.
(Ref. 3 . 3 )
FIGURE 3 . 7 . -
Structure of 18 percent chromium,
8 percent nickel steel, water -quenched from
1 0 5 0 ~ ~mag.,
; 100X.
(Ref. 3 . 9 )
SAE Acrospace Material S c.ifications, Society of Automotive Eng.,

f n c . , 551(E, 5518D, and m - 5 - 1 5 - 7 1 .
American Iron and Steel Institute, llStainless and Heat Resisting

Steels," Steel Product Manual, June 1957.
United States Steel Company, J . M. Camp and C . R. F r a n c i s , "The

Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel," 6th Edition, 1951.
The International Nickel Co., I1Corrosion Resisting P r o p e r t i e s of
the Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels," Nickel Alloy Steels, Sec.
7, Data Sheet A, 1947.
The International Nickel Co., Inc., "Heat Treatment and Physical

Properties of the Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels," Nickel Alloy
Steels, Sec. 7, Data Sheet A, 1947.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, "Heat Treating, Cleaning, and Finishing,"

Am. Soc. Metals, Novelty P a r k , Ohio, 1964.
D. K. Bullens, Steel ana I t s Heat Treatment, Vol. 111, 5th Edition,

John Wilcy & Sons, 1949.
-
The Reactcr Handbook, C. R. Tipton, E d . ,
Interscience Publishers, New York, 1960.
Vol. 1, "Materials,"
F. H. Keating, Chromium-Nickel Austenitic Steels, Butterworths

Scientific ~ubli-cations, 1956.
T. Angel, ltFormation of Martensite in Austenitic Stainless steel^,^^

-
J . Iron & Steel Institute, 177, 165 (1954).
J . P. Vidosic, "Study of the P h a s e Identifications in Steel and Alum-

inum Alloys," Georgia Institute of ? echnology, Final Report, P r o j e c t
No. A641 f o r NASA, September 1963.
Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., "High Strength Cold-Rolled Stainless

Steels," Data Sheet, 1958.
-
Metals Handbock, Vol. 1, I1Properties and Selection of Metals,"
Am. Soc. f o r Metals, Novelty P a r k , Ohio, 1961.
Chapter 4
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
4.1 General. All austenitic stainless steels a r e produced by melting

m r e l e c t r i c - a r c o r high-frequency induction furnaces. In
each case, a cold charge i s used. The uecessity to maintain a
low carbon content i s aggravated by the high af3nity for carbon
and oxygen of the l a r g e quantity of chrcmium present in this c l a s s
of steel. This i s a special problem in the production of stainless
s t e e l s . The composition of the charge, in normal steel production,
L
h a s an excess of carbon, silicon, and manganese. The melt is then
refined by controlling the oxidation of the carbon, silicon, and
manganese by reaction with oxygen that comes f r o m the furnace
gases and f r o m the oxides of iron f r o m the added iron o r e o r mill-
scale. During the refining operation the oxides (iron, silicon,
and manganese) a r e removed in the slag and carbon monoxide
escapes in the tlboil.w The removal of dissolved o r entrained
oxides in the melt is c a r r i e d out by the addition of deoxidants of
silicon and manganese in the appropriate quantities to a s s u r e the
required excess of these elements. Any additional alloy elements
a r e added a t this stage. The bath is then heated to tapping temperature.
The production of austenitic stainless s t e e l by the arc-furnace

method is basically the s a m e a s for carbon s t e e l s . The high-
frequency induction furnace employs a d i r e c t melt p r o c e s s . The
arc-furnace method has a relatively new modification of d i r e c t
application of oxygen into the melt in place of iron oxide ( r e f . 4 . 1 ).
4.11 The Arc Furnace P r o c e s s . Normally, austenitic ~ t a i v 1 . es t~e ~ el

i s produced in this method by a two-slag process. The f i r s t charge
consists of plain s t e e l scrap-and slag-making m a t e r i a l . The m e l t
i s p r o d u c d rapidly, oxidizing additions a r e made, and the carbon
is restored to the desired low level. After the tlboilt'and removal
of the f i r s t slag, a second slag i s s t a r t e d by the addition of the
alloy steel s c r a p . After melting, the bath composition i s checked
and alloy additions a r e made to the d e s i r e d composition (ref. 4 . 1 ) .
Chromium is usually added to the bath after the steel has been
deoxidized; it i s added as ferrochrortlium containing 68% chromium,
6" carbon, and the balance i r o r .
4.12 The Hi h Fre2uency Induction P r o c e s s . This process is basically
b b s s only. There is no significant oxidation, no oxid-
izing additions and-no slag production. The charge i s austenitic
s t e e l s c r a p which i s rapidly melted; suitable alloy additions a r e
made to adjust to the proper composition and the bath i s tapped.
This process uses 100% s c r a p f c r the charge, permits savings in
melting time, and close control of composition and quality may be
maintained. The higher capital cost of the equipment prevents this
method f r o m m o r e universal adoption (ref. 4 . 1 ) .
4.13 Oxygen Lancing Modification. This method modifies the arc-furnace

process by the injection of oxygen directly into the molten bath. The
method rapidly oxidizes the carbon without excessive oxidation of the
chromium. It provides g r e a t e r speed and control in the refining stage.
The addition of oxygen in this way increases the temperature of the
bath by 360°F (18z°C). At this higher temperature, the stability of
carbon monoxide i s increased while the stability ur' the oxides of chro-
mium, manganese, silicon, and iron a r e decreased. The attack on
the furnace refractories a t the higher temperatures and the cost of
the oxygen a r e the disadvantages to this modification in the a r c furnace
process ( r e f . 4 . 1 ) .
4.14 Vacuum Melting. Induction and consumable electrode vacuum melts

and remelts a r e available, but all o r almoef a l l Type 301 produced
is produced by a i r melt methods. Comparisons of air-melted and
vacuum-melted Type 302 tensile and notched tensile properties a t
cryogenic temperatures have been made. The results indicate higher
tensile and yield strength, but greater notch sensitivity for the vacuum-
melted heat a s compared to the air-melted heat. F o r 70-percent cold
reduction, the martensite present for the vacuum-melted heat was
91 percent, compared to 52 percent for the air-melted heat. Based
on data available f r o m this study, together with 140 similar tests
performed on another austenitic stainless steel, i t appears that the
austenite i s l e s s stable for the vacuum-melted than for the air-melted
material (ref. 4.3).
4.15 Casting In*.

----.-- The bath of finished steel is cast into ingots f o r further
processfcg to a particular form o r product. Clean dry ladles a r e r e -
q u i r e d and extremely clean ingot m o l d ~a r e necessary. Care must
bz taken to reduce to a minimum splashing in casting ingots. Splcseh-
ing will increase oxidation and damage ingot surfaces. Badly dam-
aged surfaces due to splashing will seriously increase manufacturing
costs because of the necessity of heavy grinding required before def-
ormation processes can be undertaken. Speed of casting i s of great
importance in o r d e r to minimize oxidation of the liquid steel. Hi.gh
chromium steels lose fluidity very rapidly if significant oxidation
occurs (ref. 4.1).
4.2 Hot Working. The equipment that is used to heat and roll austenitic
stainless steel ingots i s the same as that used f o r carbon steel ingots.
The austenitic stainless steels a r e generally stronger than f e r r i t i c
sleels a t rolling temperatures and equire m o r e power for deform-
ations. The steel i s susceptible to grain growth and overheating should
be avoided. During the heating, special precautions should be taken
to keep the sulfur content of the furnace or soaking pit atmospheres
a t a minimum because this steel after being heated in such atmos-
pheres tends to tear and crack during rolling. The initial forging
temperature range f o r Type 301 i s 2100' to 2300'F ( 1 1 4 9 ~to
1 2 6 0 ' ~ )( r e f . 4 . 2 ) .
The ingots a r e rolled to blooms and slabs. The surfaces of bloom

products a r e usually completely milled o r planed to remove imper-
fections (conditioned). For slabs that a r e difficult to roll, there
may be required an interruption in the process between ingot and
slab for conditioning. The blooms used for the production of billet
a r e also completely conditioned prior to heating for rolling (ref. 4 . 2 ) .
Slabs a r e again conditioned prior to being rolled to plates. Ordin-

arily, the slabs a r e conditioned completely. Occasionally, the
surface is satisfactory enough to condition only those a r e a s s u r -
rounding defects. While the equipment for heating and rolling
austenitic stainless steel plate i s the same a s for carbon steel
plate, austenitic stainless steels require m o r e power f o r rolling
a t elevated temperatures. Thus, the amount of reduction per pass
i s smaller for auctmilic grades and the steel spreads l e s s . After
rolling, the plates a r e annealed and descaled by pickling ( r e f . 4 . 2 )
B a r s a r e rolled f r o m conditioned billets.
Sheet and s t r i p a r e usually rolled by the continuous method. Hot

rolled coil i s passed through a reversing mill to be cold rolled to
sheet and s t r i p and, depending on the finished thickness desired,
an intermediate anneal and pickling may be used. A final anneal
and pickling is performed (ref. 4.2).
4.3 -
Cold Working. Of the austcnitic stainless steels, the Type 301
compos itian is best suited for the production of high strength
steeis by work hardening (see the discussion on cold working in
Chapter 3).
Chapter 4 - Referenccs
4.1 F.H. Keating, Chromium-Nickel Austenitic Steels, Rutterworths
Scientific P,iblication, London, 1956.
4.2 J . M. Camp and C. B . Francis, "The Making, Shaping, and Treating

of Steel," 6th Edition, United States Steel C o . , 1 9 5 1 .
4.3 3. Christian and A . Hurlich, I t Mechanical Properties of Air Melted

and Consutrode Melted Type 302 Stainless Steel at R o o m and Cry-
ogenic Temperatnre~,"General Dynamics/Astronautics, MRG-307,
April 4, 1962.
Chapter 5
MANUFACTURING PRACTICES
5.1 General. The various manufacturing processes of forming, cutting,

and machining vary from that in plain carbon steel due to the special
properties of austenitic stainles s steels. With proper equipment and
tools, the various manufacturing processes f o r Type 301 a r e not
difficult to perform. Austenitic stainless steels in the annealed con-
dition a r e tough rather than hard. They will tend to seize and gall
in machining and require increased power in forming. The fund-
amental fact controlling the manufacturing processes of Type 301 i s
the instability of the austenite phase and its tendency to break down
to hard martensite under cold work. As the material i s drawn, rolled,
machined, or cut, work hardening will take place, making it in-
creasingly more difficult to c a r r y on the process. Often a slower
rate of working i s desirable and annealing between operations may
be m o r e frequently required than for other metals.
Approximately 40-percent cold rolling produces the full hard temper

which i s used f o r high strength-to-weight ratio applications. The
extra-hard temper i s produced by a 50- to 60-percent cold reduction.
Of course, when heavily cold worked, the formability i s very limited.
However, if the radii a r e reasonably generous, the p a r t s can be
formed.
5.2 Forming. The alloy may be formed by drawing, spinning, rolling,

wiper forming, stretch forming, and p r e s s forming. Low yield
strength and high ductility, which are-characteristic of austenitic
stainless steels in the annealed temper, permit successful forming
of complex parts (ref. 5.10). As can be seen in table 5.1, this alloy
i s very formable in the annealed condition. Typc 301 lends itself well
to deep drawing. Reductions in one draw of 40 percent, producing a
4-inch deep cut (10.16 c m ) f r o m a 10-inch blank (25.4 cm), can be
performed. Reduction as high as 50 percent i s possible in one oper-
ation. Where multiple-s tep drawing is necessary, each individual
draw should not be more than 34 to 40 percent. Intermediate anneal-
ing may be necessary between drawing steps. In all severe reduc-
tions, i t i s essential that strains be relieved immediately by anneal-
ing o r the piece will crack within a few hours. Cracking may also
occur following draws a s a result of insufficient die clearance o r
improper lubrication (refs. 5.1,5.2). Almost double the power used
for equal drawing of ordinary carbon steels i s required for this
alloy. A s p e d of approximately one-half that used in regular draw
work is appropriate. Clearance between punch and drawn die should
be twice that used on carbon steels and a good lubricant must be
applied uniformly over the surface to reduce friction (ref. 5.3).
F o r deep drawing, heavy-bodied 1,ubricants and pigment- type lub-

ricants must be used. F o r mild drawing, soluble oils o r thinned
pigment-type lubricants a r e satisfactory. The mill finish of the
steel can greatly a s s i s t in retaining lubricants in deep drawing. Duller
finishes a s s u r e better lubricant adhesion and thus minimize die wear
and result in better finish of end products. Annealed and plckled fin-
ish i s the appropriate mill finish for best results (ref. 5 . 1 ) .
Proper die material i s important in the successful drawing of stain-

l e s s steel. Solid dies made f r o m alloy tool steels of the nondeforming
-
type (high carbon high chromium) a r e most satisfactcry for long
wear. Cast iron dies may be used, but because of rapid wear a r e
suitable only for short runs. Alloy cast iron, containing chromium
and nickel, may also be used with good results (ref. 5 . 2 ) .
While other austenitic stainless steels (such a s Type 305) a r e pre-

f e r r e d for epinforming, because of their slower rates of work hard-
ening, Type 301 can be spun. In general, roller type tools a r e used
and greater power and sturdier equipment i s required f o r this oper-
ation (ref. 5.3). The lubricants recommended f o r drawing and spin..
ning operations are:
1. Lithopane and boiled linseed oil in equal parts by
volume and thinned with kerosene a s necessary.
Powdei . d sulfur o r talc may be added for difficult
work.
2. White lead thinned with linseed oil to about the
consistency of 600 W oil.
3. Castor oil and emulsified soap.
4. Lithopane mixed with water and applied in an x e n
coat of moderate thickness. This should be allowed
to dry before beginning operations, although i t may
be difficult to remove during cleaning operations.
5. Corn oil of the highest quality.
6. Powdered graphite mixed to a thin paste with water.
This i s to be spread evenly over the work and allowed
to d r y before u s e . Thorough cleaning of the drawn
p a r t s is absolutely necessarv before subsequent
heating o r annealing operations (ref. 5.2).
Roll o r drawbench forming can be performed on Type 301 in the annealed

condition up to full hard temper for bending and straight flange forming
(ref. 5.4). Figure 5.1 shows recommended minimum bend radii for
301 stainless for the various tempers. (The smallest bend radius which
can be formed without cracking i s called the "minimum bend radius .")
The radius increases in proportion to the sheet thickness and temper.
High carbon o r alloy steel a r e satisfactory roll materials. Dilute sol-
utions of water soluble oils make adequate lubricants. Soap solutione
and extreme p r e s s u r e oils give g r e a t e r roll protection and produce
a finer finish. However, they a r e m o r e difficult to remove (ref. 5.1 ).
Wipe o r compression forming is used for forming contours of changing

radii i r a~ single plane. F o r m blocks of steel and cast iron a r e generally
used. F o r m block surfaces must be highly polished to prevent
marking the surface (ref. 5.1).
Small springback and the absence of wrinkling in s tretch-forming

make it a n excellent method for forming Type 301. F o r m blocks
m a y be made of wood, masonite, zinc, aluminum alloy, o r el, ,
depending on the quantity of p a r t s to be produced. A heavy 1 ~r i -.

cant should be used a t the ends of the die; light lubricants may be
used in the center. Mechanical o r hydraulic equipment i s used to
apply stretching tension. The ends must be tightly gripped to
prevent slipping and it i s recommended that g r i p s with knurled s u r -
faces be used (ref. 5.1).
Rocket motor c a s e s have been stretch-formed a t cryogenic temp-

e r a t u r e s , yielding v e r y high strength. Stretching to about 20 percent
a t - 3 2 0 ~ ~ ( - 1 9 6 ~ ~ produced
)has strengths of 275 ksi (193 k g / m m a )
f r i Type 301. Further strengthening of the m a t e r i a l can be accomp-
lished by age hardening a t 800°F (427OC) for 20 hours, producing
t:trengths of 300 ksi (211 k g / m m 2 ) ( r e f . 5.5).
P r e s s o r brake forming procedures that a r e used f o r carbon s t e e l

a r e applicable to Type 301. Because of the high strength of Type
301, heavier tools a r c needed. A good r u l e for the press-forming
procedure i s to use the s a m e forming procedure that would be used
for hot rolled carbon steel four gages heavier than Type 301. The
tool stroke should be a s s h o r t a s possible on bending a part to avoid
fouling o r scoring of the tool. Clearance between die and punch
should be a l m ~ s 10 t percent m o r e than meta.1 thickness to reduce
the tendency f o r ironing. Dies should be well polished and f r e e f r o m
a l l surface blemishes. A lubricant s i m i l a r to that used in drawing
o r rolling can be applied to reduce friction and metal adhesion to
the die. F o r bending of annealed Type 301, a minimum radius of 112
the metal thickness is possible. Mechanical p r e s s forming may be
used for f o r m p a r t s with contoured flanges with t e m p e r s up to and
including 114 hard (ref. 5.1 ).
5.3 Cutting. The methods used for mechanical cutting of carbon s t e e l s

can be used for Type 301. However, g r e a t e r power and slower cut-
ting speed must be employed. Such mechanical methods a s shearing,
blanking and punching, perforating, abrasive cutting, and friction
sawing a r e availablc for cutting stainless steel. Flame cutting, a s
practiced on carbon steel, i s not suitable for stainless steel. How-
e v e r , modifications in the method have been developed to make
flame cutting of stainless steel possible.
Shearing of Type 301 requires 30 to 50 percent m o r e power than i s

needed to shear carbon steel of the s a m e gage. The s h e a r knives
should be made of high speed s t e e l o r suitable tool s t e e l and ground
with a lip rake of about 2'. The blades should be shar;? and main-
tain a very close adjustment to prevent dragging of the metal. Type
301 does not snap o r break during shearing operation a s do m o s t
metals. Thqy must be cut a l l the way throvgh. Clearances should
be 1/20 of the metal thickness with a maximum of 0.003 inches (0.076
mm). It is better to make a long continuous cut rather than to chop
off the metal. Hand snipping requires the same precautions a s shear-
ing. Blades must be kept s h a r p and closely adjusted to prevent drag-
ging of the metal (ref. 5.1).
The best grade of tool steel should be used f o r blanking and punching
dies. They should be kept sharp, rigidly backed, and clearance should
be close. Suggested clearances a r e a s for shearing, 1/20 of the metal
thickness with a maximum of 0.003 inches (0.076 m m ) . The power
for blanking or punching m u s t be 50 perccnt higher and speed 213 of
that for carbon steels (ref. 5.1).
Perforation of stainless steel can be done with little difficulty. Twice

the power and half the speed that would be used for carbon steel i s
required. Top grade tool steels with sharp cutting edges and close
clearances a r e necessary. The same clearances a r e required a s for
punching and blanking. Hole diameters twice the thickness of the mat-
e r i a l o r m o r e a r e recommended. F o r best results, a thin drawing o r
cutting lubricant should be used for punching minimum diameter holes
(ref. 5.1 ). Abrasive wheel cutting speeds of 1 / 4 in2 per second for
d r y cutting and l j 8 in2 per second for wet cutting a r e obtainable. The
recommended wheel speeds a r e 10,000 s f m for 12-inch diameter
wheels and 16,000 sfm for 10-inch diameter wheels. Cutting with rub-
ber -banded wheels i s recommended to reduce heat- tinting o r burning
( r e f . 5.1). [l ina = 6.45 c m a ; 1 in = 2.54 c m ]
Recommendations for friction sawing a r e given in table 5.2. The best

feeds and speeds for a n actual job should be determined by t r i a l and
e r r o r , using the table values on the f i r s t t r i a l . The finish produced
by friction sawing should be smooth and even with a 1132-inch to 1116-
inch burr on the underside of the cut. The saw width is from 3/16 inch
to 1 inch, depending upon the contour of the cut. In general, saws
should be a s wide as possible for the radius of the cut. Saw set ranges
f r o m 0.042 inch to 0.057 inch (depending on the saw width (ref. 5. i ).
Flame cutting procedures used for carbon steels will produce r e f r a c -

tory oxides s o resistant to the heat of the torch that they will not burn
away quickly. In this way, flame cutting becomes a melting process
which i s too inaccurate to be practiced. Two methods have been devcl-
oped a s a modification of the usual oxy-acetylene equipment that makes
flame cutting of stainless steel possible. In the powder cutting method,
metallic iron i s introduced into the cutting zone. This oxidizes rapidly,
liberating a great deal of local heat which ia high enough to melt the
refractory oxides rapidly; the oxides a r e then floated away a s elag.
In flux injection cutting, a flux i s introduced to the cutting zone which
combines with the refractory oxides chemically to produce a lower
melting compound that is easily flushed away (ref. 5.1).
5.4 Machinin .
Because of the work hardening characteristics of Type
d a i n precautions and modifications of machining xnedhods used
for mild carbon steels must be employed. However, Type 301 will
machine with little trouble a e long a s the proper tools and l u t r i -
cants a r e selected. Rigidity ie a necessary factor to prevent
chatter and springing and consequently hard epote in the metal.
Oversize motors a r e recommended for all equipment because they
will permit heavy cuts without chattering. Precautions should be
I
taken to prevent the tool f r o m riding on o r glazing the work. Tools
should be kept eharp to prevent the surface f r o m hardening due to
rubbing action. Proper selection of the cutting tool may also be the
deciding factor for successful machining. Table 5.3 shows recom-
mended cutting speeds and feed speeds for various tool materials
and machining operations. The procedures listed h e r e can only a c t
a s a guide. Most production men who machine stainless steel will
e s t a r t with the average speeds recommended and feel their way to
the proper cutting speeds and feed epeeds for their own particular
tools, equipment, and applications (refs. 5 . 1 , 5 . 6 ) .
In drilling Type 301, a s short a drill a s the job permits should be

used. This will reduce whipping. When marking for drilling, a prick
punch should not be used since this will work harden thc metal and
make starting of the drill difficult. A square o r triangular punch
should be used. The drill should not be allowed to ride in the hole.
This will glaze the bottom, forming a hardened ourface and make
continued drilling m o r e difficult. Drills should be kept sharp to
reduce glazing. Backup plates of an easily machined metal should
be used to reduce burring. To prevent chip packing, the d r i l l should
be backcd out periodically. The depth of the f i r s t drill may be the
drill diameter, then back out. Drill in successive bites, two diam-
e t e r s and one diameter. Where drill size permits, a chip breaker
should be ground parallel to the cutting edge. Water soluble oils a r e
generally satisfactory for cooling the drill. Sometimes it may he
necessary to use sulfurized, chlorinated, mineral o r fatty oils. Tap
clearance should be ' 6 to go, point angle 13S0 to 140'. A high hook
angle with two flute, gun-type taps a r e preferred. Hole tapping i s
relatively easy, particularly if the thread length i s short. Hook
angles f r o m 15' to 20' a r e recommended. Spiral pointed taps will
work well in open holes up to 3 / 8 inch (9.54 mm). Spiral fluted taps, with
flutes having the opposite hand a s the threads, is preferred in
l a r g e r holes. Blind holes a r e more difficult. Room must be allowed
for chips in deep holes. These chips a r e difficult to break when the
tap r e v e r s e s . Chamfer should be a s long a e possible and the cham-
f e r angle should be g r e a t e r than 9' with the tap &xis.
Flutes with a spiral of the same hand will help in chip removal. The
special angle should not be too large o r tearing and oversize threads
will result. Filling blind holes with heavy paste o r g r e a s e helps in
chip removal. Holes to be tapped must be properly sized. The tape
should be as large a s possible, especially when a fine pitched thread
i s used. Correct lubrication must be provided for successful tapping.
A mixture of su1.fv.r-chlorinated petroleum oils with active sulfur
i s recommended. The lubricants should be placed in the hole rather
than on the tap and should be continuoue i f poreible (ref. 5.1 ).
Self-opening dies a r e recommended for threading. Solid dies will cut
satisfactory threads, but a r e m o r e likely to tear them when they a r e
backed-off. The standard thread chasers a r e used with a slightly
modified grind. Die heat chasers f o r straight threads should be ground
with almost a 15' hook angle. Tangent and circular type c h a s e r s re-
quire a rake angle of 20' to 25'. External pipe thread c h a s e r s should
have a 10' hook angle, Tap chasers should have a 20' lip hook for
straight threads and a 15'. radial hole for tapered threads. A mix-
t u r e of sulfur base and paraffin base oils is recommended a s a proper
lubricant for successful threading ( r e f . 5.1).
Sharp tools a r e very important in the turning operation. They should

be a s large a s possible in o r d e r to dissipate heat away f r o m the cut-
ting a r e a . Front and side clearance angles should be no m o r e than 10'.
Top rake should be 5' to l o 0 with slight nose radius. Chip breakers
o r c u r l e r s should be used where possible. Chip c u r l e r s a r e partic-
ularly important f c r making heavy cuts. The flat blade o r c i r c d a r part-
ing tools may be used. They should provide 7' to 10' top rake and a t
least 3' side clearance. If parting is deep, a degree o r two additional
clearance may be necessary (ref. 5.1).
Milling cutters should have a positive rake a s great a s , o r g r e a t e r

than, that used for carbon steels. This should be from 13" to 20' pos-
itive. The axial rake angle should be high to provide for smooth cutting.
Saws and slotting cutters require a rake f r o m 0' to 15', and end and
plain mills should have axial rake to 15' to 50' positive. The relief
angle may vary f r o m 5' to 10' ; the l a r g e r the cutter, the smaller the
angle. A lubricant must be used in milling (ref. 5.1 ).
Type 301 can be broached. The broach must be without nicks on the
cutting edge. The back-off angle on internal broaches should range f r o m
2' to 5'. Larger angles will shorten the life of the broach. The recom-
mended lubricant for broaching i s a sulfur-base paraffin-base oil mix-
t u r e (ref. 5.1).
In reaming, enough metal should be allowed such that the tool can take
a definite cut. A high speed spiral fluted r e a m e r with a 30' to 35' cham-
f e r angle and 2 7' helix is suggested. Taper reaming may be performed
on Type 301 and an ordinary finish can be obtained in this way. For
precision work, a taper reaming attachment should be used. All ream-
ing must be well lubricated with sulfurized oil (ref. 5.1).
TABLE 5.1.- - Relative Formability of Annealed Austenitic Stainless 4
,/ Steels in Order of Decreasing Formability
Ref. 5.11
J
! 180° Bend,
0.010 inch Min Str :ch Forming
Radius o r 1070
Stretch 1c)
20 - -
30°/o 30 35'70b)
f
i 301 301
. ,'- 201 201
I 302 302
202 202
305 305
304 -
3 16 -
321 -
347 -
-- -
-
310
(a) Pos sible buckling (c) 0.010 inch = 0.254 rr.m

(b) No bucklinn
. Grades a r e l i s t e d in the o r d e r of decreasing ability to f o r m p a r t s
having the indicated severity without intermediate annealing.
TABLE 5.2. - Friction Sawing Recommendations - -
Source
- -- - - - -
I -
Ref. 5.1
- - -- - -
Alloy Type 301

Metal thickness, Saw pitch, I Saw speed, I Cutting rate,
k c h e . (a) -
1/16 18 3,000-6,300
1/8 14 3,000-6,000
114 10 6,000-9,000
112 10 9,000-12,000
3 /4 10 12,000-15, GOO
1 1 10 12,000- 15,000
(a) 1 inch = 2.54 cm.

TABLE 5.3. - Machining Recommendations for Type 301 Stainleas Steel
1 1 1
Source 1 Ref. 5.12
Condition ~ i r z hSpeed Tool I Ca ,bide Tool
Operation Cutting Conditions speed ~ ; e d Tool Speed Feed
Hardness- BHN fpm ipr rnat11 &
Turning, Annealed 135- 185 0.150 in, depth of cut 80 0.015 T5,T15 5;;f 0.015
Single point 0.025 in, depth of cut 100 0.OC7 T5, T15 135 0.007
box Cold Drawn 225-275 0.150 insdepth of cut 0.015
0.025 in, depth of cut 0.007
Turning, Annealed 135- 185 0. SOOin, f o r m tool width 0.005
F o r m tool 0.750 in, f o r m tool widtl 0.004
1.000 in, form tool widti 0.004
1.500 in, form tool widtl 0.0035
2.000 in, form tool widtI 0.0035
Cold Drawn 225-275 0.500 in, form tool width 0.005
0.750 in, form tool widtl 0.004
1.000 in, f o r m tool widtl 0.004
1.500 in, f o r m tool widtl 0.0035
Boring Annealed
2.000 in, form tool widtl
135-185 0.010 in, depth of cut
-
0.0035
0.005
Cold Drawn 225-275 0.010 in, depth of cut 0.005
0.050 in, depth of c ~ t 0.007
0.100 in. depth cf cut 0.009
Face Milling Annealed 135-185 0.150 in, depth of cut 0.010
Cold Drawn 225-275 0.150 in, depth of cut 0.010
End Milling, Annealed 135- 185 114 in cutter diameter 90 0.001 M2, M6
Profiling (0.050 in, depth cut) 112 in cutter diameter 90 0.002 M2, M6
314 i n cutter diameter 90 0.002 M2, M6
1 t o 2 in cuttef diamete: 90 0.003 M2, M6
Cold Drawn 225-275 114 i n cutter diameter 70 0.001 M2, MI0
(0.050 in, depth cut) 112 i n cutter diameter 70 0.002 MZ, MI0
314 i n cutter diameter 70 0.002 M2, MI0
1 t o 2 in cutter diamete: 70 0.003 ML, MI0
Drilling 1/8 in nominal hale dian: 50 0.003 (a)
1/4 i n nominal hole diam I
1/2 in nominal hole d i m
1 i n nominal hole diam I
.035
0.010
I
0.016
I
r
Cold Drawn 225-279 X I 8 in nominal hole diam 45 0.002 (a)
41' i n nominal hole diam I 0.003
1/2 in nominal hole d i m 0.005
1 in nominal hole diam 0.01 1
2 in nominal hole diam 0.01 6
(a) M10, MI, M7 Noie: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.
-
centimeter a
FIGURE 5 . 1 . -Recommended minimum bend radii for Type 301

stainlees eteel for various tempers.
(1000 p ~ =i 0.70307 kglmma)
(Ref. 5.10)
5.1 Crucible Steel Co. of America, "The Fabricator's Handbookstt1955.
United States Steel , "Fabrication of USS Stainless Steels," ADUSS-03-

1
5.2
1475-03, reprinted 1971.
5.3 Republic Steel Corp. , I1Republic Enduro Stainless 3teel,It 1969.

5.4 .
The International Nickel Co. , Inc , "Heat Treatment and Physical
Properties of the Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels, Nickel Alloy
Steels," Sec. 7, Data Sheet A.
5.5 Arde-Portland, Inc., "High Performance P r e s s u r e Vessels Produced

by Cryogenic Sheet F ~ r r n i n g Report
,~~ D-30715E, May 15, 1964.
5.6 Crucible Steel Co. of America, "Data Sheet, Crucible 301 Stainless
Steel," September 1954.
-
E. Von Hambach, "Making of Stainless Steel," Metal P r o g r e s s , 57 (6),
781 (1950).
5.8 Crucible Steel Go. of America, "Data Sheet, Rezistal Stainless

Steels, Machinability Data," September 1954.
5.9 t t Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels," L l a t e r i a l s in Design Engin-

eering, Materials and P r o c e s s ~ a n u a l x o 224,
l October 1964.
5.10 International Nickel Go., Inc., tlForming of Austenitic Chromiurn-

Nickel Stainless Steels,It 2nd Edition, 1954.
5.11 Metals Handbook, Vol. 1, "Properties and Selection of Metals,"

American Society for Metals, Novelty Park, Ohio, 1961 .
5.12 Metcut Research Associates, Data Sheets, 1965.
Chapter 6
SPACE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS
6.1 General. The austenitic stainless steels a r e used eucccssfully in

m u c t u r a l and nonstructural applications for launch vehicles
and spacecraft. In general, these alloys a r e relatively insensitive
to degradation under typical space environment conditions. The
vapor presstires of stainless steels a r e sufficiently high (table 6.1).
s o that. the combined temperature-vacuum effects a r e negligible.
Nuc . ,r and space indigenous radiation-induced defects do not
.-
aplxa re; Y ignif icantly affect mechanical and physical properti ~ 3 ,
a t room ambient and elevated temperltures, belcw accumulated
doses of about 1 x 1019 neutrons/cma o r greater (ref. 6.2). At
these high doses, alight embrittlement takes place, resulting in
increases in hardness and in some physical properties and a de-
c r e a s e in creep rate. Fatigue properties do not appear to be
affected sipificantly. When irradiated at cryogenic temperatures,
the dose threshold may be lowered by one or two decades, but the
probabilities of encountering doses on this order of magnitude a r e
extremely remote except in the vicinity of nuclear reactors.
Elevated temperatures, hard vacuums, high energy radiations,

and micrometeoroids can individually and collectively influence
the surface characteristics of stainless steels by desorption pro-
ceeses and erosion. These phenomena a r e of importance if optical
properties, lubrication, certain electrical properties, etc. a r e
critical design parameters.
Sputtering of the surface by atomic o r moiecular particles can

deteriorate surface finishes in a relatively short period. The
sputtering process i s associated with a minimum threshold energy
value for s.tomic o r molecular particles striking a material surface.
Typical values which have been obtained for this threshold energy
a r e 6, 11, and 12 eV for 0, N2, and O2 particles, respectively,
to remove one o r more atoms f r o m the materials surface upon
which they impinge (ref. 6.1 1 ). Loss of metal by this mechanism
can vary over a wide range and the greatest l o s s may be expected
during solar storms (ref. 6.4). However, loss of metal by sput-
tering has little structural significance, although it may seriously
affect optical and emissive properties of the material surface.
Micrometeoroids can produce surface erosion similar to sputter-

ing but on a more macroscopic scale, and may also produce punctures
They vary widely in mass, composition, velocity, and flux; general-
izations about rates of erosion and penetration, therefore, must be
used with c a r e . The predicted frequency of impact a s a fvnction of
meteoroid m a s s i s given in figure 6 . 1. Data a r e given in figure
6.2 on the hit r a t e v e r s u s c r a t e r depth for s t e e l and aluminrxn.
The surface erosion of stainless s t e e l s due to corpuscular radiation

i s probably insignilicant, amounting to something of the o r d e r of 254
nm per year. Indigenous space radiation, however, will tend to
accelerate the removal of surface films on stainless s t e e l s . The
removal of such films might result in l o s s of lubricity and an in-
c r e a s e d propensity to "cold welds." The interaction of indigenous
radiation with desorption g a s e s might cause some spurious, tran-
sient electrical conditions if the alloy i s used for electrical
applications.
TABLE 6.1. - Evaporation Rates in Vacuum of Typical Elements
Used in A e r o s ~ a c eAllovs (a. b)
- - --
Source Ref. 6.14

Evaporation Rate, g/cma /sec
Element
Aluminum
Titanium
Iron
Nickel
Copper
Chromium
Vanadium
~an~aneee
Silicon
1 Magnesium
Zinc
(a) The actual evaporation rate of each element in combination with

others will be iower.
(b) The values may be in e r r o r by several orders of magnitude a s

they have been extrapolated from high-temperature data. The
rates at low tempeatures will be considerably l e s s than the
values given in the table.
- \
\
Y'McCRACKEN, ALEXANDER, OUBIN 1961
PEGASUS -VAN DE HULST 1948
N 1966
LOG M (gm)
-- - ... - . .
FIGURE 6.1. - Various estimates of meteoroid m a s s influx.

(Ref. 6 . 3 )
Crater Depth, mm
104 lra 1oO 1oa
1oo6 10'" I 1oO 1oa

Crater Depth, inch
FIGURE 6 . 2 . - Hit rate vs crater depth in the earth neighborhood

but without earth shielding.
(Ref. 6 . 5 )
6.1 C.G. Goetzel, J. B. Rittenhouse, and J . B. Singletary, E d s . ,
Space Materials Handbook, Addison-Wesley P r e s s , Palo Alto,
California, 1965.
6.2 C. D. Miller, ' Meteoroid Hazard E v a l u a t ~ o nf o r Simple S t r u c t u r ~ s

with various orientations," NASA T N D-6056, October 1970.
6.3 SAMPE, The Effects of the Space Environmsnt on Materials,

Western Periodicals Co. , North Hollywood, California, 1967.
6.4 L. Reiffel, "Structural Damage and Other Effects of S o l a r Plasmas,"

-- -
ARS J . , 30(3), March 1960.
6.5 -
L. E. Kaechele and A. E. Olshaker, I1Meteoroids Implications f o r
May 1960.
-
the Design of Space S t r u c t u r e s , Aerospace ~ n ~ i n e e r i n19,
~,
6.6 F. L. Whipple, "On Meteoroids and Penetration," J . Geophys.

--
R e s . , 68, 4929 (1963).
6.7 H. C. van de Hulst, "Zodiacal Light in the Solar Corona," Astrophys.

-
J . , 1 0 5 , 471 (1947).
6.8 F.G. Watson, Between the Planets, Blakiston Co., 1941; r e v i s e d

H a r v a r d University P r e s s , c a m b r i d g e , Mass., 1956.
6.9 C. W. McCracken, e t al., "Direct M e a s u r e m e n t s of 1nterplanetai.y

-
Dust P a r t i c l e s in the Vicinity of the Earth," Nature, 192,441 (1961).
6.10 R. K. Soberman and C. 0. Hemenway, "Studies of Micrometeorites

Obtainzd f r o m a Recoverable Sounding Rocket," Astron. J . , 67,
256 (1962).
-
6.11 R. P. Stein, "Atomic and Molecular Sputtering," in 2. J. Clause,
E d . , Surface Effects on Spacecraft Materials, John Wiley & Sone,
New York, 1960.
6.12 J. R. Redus, Itsputtering of a Vehicle Surface i n a Space Environ-

ment," NASA T N D-1113, June 1962.
6.13 .
K. S Clifton and P. J. Naumann, f l P e g a e u s Satellite Measurements
of Meteoroid Penetration," NASA T M X-1316, 1966.
S. Dushman, Vacuum Techniques, John Wiley & Sone, New York,

2 949.
Chapter 7
STATIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Specified P r o p e r t i e s
NASA specified properties (none known)
AMS specified properties
AMS specified mechanical properties for sheet and s t r i p ,
table 7.121.
Military specified properties
F e d e r a l specified properties
ASTM specified properties
ASTM specified properties f o r plate, sheet, and s t r i p ,
table 7.151.
Elastic P r o p e r t i e s and Moduli

Pois&onlsratio
Young's modulup rlf elasticity, E.
Design v a l u ~ ;of E, Ec, and G, table 7.221.
Typical value of E: 28.0 x 10" k s i (19.7x103 kg/mma)(refs.7.5,7.6).
Modulus of elasticity of sheet and roc1 a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
figure 7.223.
Modulus of elasticity f o r 1 12-hard sheet a t r o o m and elevated
t e m p e r a t u r e s , figure 7.224.
Compression modulus, Ec.
Design value of Ec, s e e table 7.221.
Effect of temperature on tensile and compressive modulus of
1 /2-hard Type 301, figure 7.232.
Effect of temperature on tensile and compressive modulus of
full-hard Type 301, figure 7.233.
Modulus of rigidity ( s h e a r modulus), G.
Design value of G, s e e table 7.221.
Tangent modulus
Typical tangent-modulus c u r v e s f o r Type 301 sheet and plate in
tension (longitudinal) a t r o o m temperature, figure 7.251.
tension ( t r a n s v e r s e ) a t room temperature, figure 7.252.
Typical tangent..modulus c u r v e s f o r Type 301 sheet and plate in
compression (longitudinal) a t room temperature, f i g u r e 7.253.
compression ( t r a n s v e r s e ) a t room temperature, figure 7.254.
Secant modulus
Hardness
Effect of aging t e m p e r a t u r e on h a r d n e s s of 47 percent cold rolled
Type 301 sheet, f i g a r e 7.31.
Effect of hydrogen environment a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e ox. s u r f a c e
h a r d n e s s of half-hard Type 301 sheet, figure 7.32.
AISI typical hardness values, table 7.33.
7.4 airength P r o p e r t i e s
7.41 Tension
7.41 1 Design tensile properties
7.41 11 Design mechanical properties f o r plate, sheet, and s t r i p , table 7.41 11.
i
7.41 12 Effect of cold reduction on tensile properties of sheet, figure 7.41 12.
: 7.412 S t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m s (tension)
!
1
7.4121 S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for sheet and s t r i p cold-rolled to 114-hard and
!: 112-hard conditions, figure 7.4121.
I 7.4122 S t r e ~ s - s t r a i nc u r v e s for sheet and s t r i p cold-rolled to 314-hard and
;
I
full-hard conditions, figure 7.41 22.
7.4123 S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for sheet and s t r i p cold-rolled to extra-hard
temper, figure 7.4123.
7.4124 S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for sheet in e x t r a full h a r d condition a t low
temperatures, figure 7.4124.
7.4125 Typical tensile s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s a t room and eleveted t e m p e r a t u r e s
for full-hard Type 301 (longitudinal), f i g u r e 7.41 25.
7.4126 Typical tensile s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s ( t r a n s v e r s e ) a t r o o m and elevated
t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r full-hard Type 301, figure 7.4126.
7.41 3 Eifect of t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e on tensile p r o p e r t i e s
7.41 31 Effect of temperature on ultimate tensile strength of half-hard Type
301, figure 7.4131.
7.4132 Effect of temperature on tensile yield strength of half-hard Type 301,
figure 7.4132.
7.4133 Effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on ultimate tensile strength of full-hard Type
301, figure 7.4133.
7.41 34 Effect of t e m p e r a t w e on tensile yield strength of full-hard Type 301,
figure 7.41 34.
7.41 35 Tensile strength of sheet in various conditions a t low temperatures,
figure 7.4135.
7.41 36 Yield strength of sheet in various conditions a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
figure 7.41 36.
7.42 Compression
7.421 Design compression properties
7.421 1 Design compression properties for plate, sheet, and sti-ip, s e e
table 7.4111.
7.422 S t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m s (compression)
7.4221 S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s in compression f o r Type 301 annealed sheet a t
elevated temperatures, f i g u r t 7.4221.
7.4222 Typical compressive s t ~ e s s s-t r a i n c u r v e s a t r o o m and elevated temp-
e r a t u r e s f o r full-hard Type 301 (longitudisal), figure 7.4222.
7.4223 Typical compressive s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s a t r o o m and elevated temp-
e r a t u r e s for full-hard Type 30 1 [ t r a n s v e r s e ) , f i g u r e 7.4223.
7.423 Typical compression properti -ti
7.4231 Effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on c c m p r e s s vc ~ yield strength of half-hard Type
301, figure 7.4231.
7.4232 Effect of temperature on compressive yield strength of full-hard Type
301, figure '1.4232.
7.43 Bending
7.44 Shear and torsion
7.441 Design s h e a r prrjpe.-?.ls.s, s e e table 7.41 1I..
7.442 Effect of temnerafure .:n rhe ultimate s h e a r strength of half-hard Type
301, figure 7.442,
i 7.443 Effect of tcm,peraturc on t?m ultimate s h e a r strength of full-hard Type
! 301, figure 7.443
Bearing
Design bearing properties, s e e table 7 . 4 1 11.
Effect on temperature on the ultimate bearing strength of Type
301 (half-hard), figure 7.452.
Effect of temperature on the bearing yield strength of Type 301
(half-hard), figure 7.453.
Effect of temperature on the ultimate bearing strength of Type
301 (full-hard), figure 7.454.
Effect of temperature on the bearing yield strength of Type 301
(Iull-hard), figure 7.455.
Fracture
Notch strength
4611 Effect of test temperature and cxposure time on notch strength
of 60 percent cold-reduced sheet, figure 7.461 1.
4612 Effect of cold reduction and t e s t direction on sharp notch
strength of sheet, figure 7.4612.
7.4613 Effect of tevt temperature on net fracture s t r e s s of full-hard
sheet, figure 7.4613.
TABLE 7.121. - AMS Specified Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s f o r Sheet and S t r i p ( a )
Allcy Type 301
Source Ref. 7.1 Ref. 7.3, Ref. 7 . 3
Condition 1/ 4 H a r d 112 H a r d Full Hard
Thickness, i n c h ( b ) NmeGiven 50,015 >0.015 (0.015 >0.015
Ftu, k s i -min 125 ( c ) 150 150 185 185

-max 150 - - - -
Fty, k s i -min 75 110 110 140 140
-max - - - - -
e(2 in), 70 -min 25 15 18 8 9
(a) F o r widths 9 inches and over, t e n s i l e specimens s h a l l be taken with the
a x i s perpendicular to the direction of rolling.
F o r i-:dths l e s s than 9 inches, t e n s i l e s p e c i m e n s s h a l l be taken with the
a x i s p a r a l l e l to rolling direction.
(b) 0.015 in = 0.38 mm; 2 in = 50.8 m m .
( c ) 1 k s i = 0.70307 k g / m m 2
TABLE 7.151. - ASTM Specified P r o p e r t i e s f o r Plate, Sheet, and S t r i p
Source 1 Ref. 7 . 4
Type 301
Specification
Condition
1 Plate
*12;63
114 H a r d
I
I
Sheet z ~d S t r i b
I 112 Hard 1
I
A177-67
314 H a r d
I
1
I Full Harc
Ftu(rnin), k s i ( a ) ( 75.0
F min), k s i
tY(
1 30.0
e(2 in), m i n 70
-
(1).015in(b)
>0.015 in
40
40
1
Hardness, m a x
Brineil 202
I; B 94
(a) 1 k s i = 0.70307 kg / m m 2 (b) 0.015 in = 0.38 m m . 2 i n = 25.4 m m .
40
TABLE 7.221. - Design Values of E, Ec and G f o r Sheet and S t r i p (a)
Source 1 Ref. 7 . 9
Alloy Type 301
Condition Ann i 14 Hard 1 12 t l a r d 3 14 Hard Full Hard
E, 1 0 3 k s i -L 29.0 27.0 26.0 26.0 26.0

-T 29.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0
E,, 10"si -L 28.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0
-T 28.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0
G, l o 3 k s i (b) 12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0 11.0
(a)P r o p e r t i e s f o r annealed condition only a r e applicable to plate.

(b) 1 x lo3 ksi = 0.70307 x l o 3 kg/mma
TABLE 7.33. - AISI Typical H a r d n e s s Values

Ref. 7.14
I
Alloy Type 301
Form Condition H a r d n e s s Value ( a v )
Sheet, s t r i p Annealed 85 RB
114 h a r d 25 RC
112 h a r d 32 RC
3 14 h a r d 37 RC
Tull h a r d 41 RC
[Plate ( Annealed 1 165 BHN
1
TABLE 7.41 11. - D e e i m Mechanical Prowerties f o r Sheet and Platc
Sour c e I Ref. 7 . 9
Alloy AISI 301
- (i
Condition -A 114 h a r d 11 2 h a r d 314 h a r d I Full harc

Easis -
Ftu, k s l ( c !
-L
-T
Fty, k s i
-L
-T
Fcy, k s i
-L
-T
Fsu, ksi
Fbru, k s i
(e/D=l. 5)
(e/D=2.0)
Fbr -, k s i
(e/b=1.5)
(e/D=2.0)
-
5, percent
-
<O.c)15 in (c:
>O. 016 i n
40
-
3.016-0.030 45
>o. 030 50
(a) P r o p e r t i e s for annealed condition a l s o applicable to plate.

(b) Ftu and Fty values l e s s than specification values.
(c) 1 inch = 25.4 m m ; 1 kbi = 0.70307 k g / m m 2 .
Note: Yield strength, particularly in compression may be r a i s e d
appreciably by t h e r m a l strese-relieving t r e a t m e n t i n the
range 500' to 800" F (260' to 427'C).
Test Temperature
FIGURE 7.223. - Modulub of elasticity of Type 301 sheet

and rod at low temperatures.
(Ref. 7 . 8 )
Temperature
FIGURE 7.224. - M o d ~ ~ ~ofu elasticity

s for Type 301 half-hard
shoei crt room and elevatecl temperatures.
(Ref. 7 . 7 )
0 200 400 600 803 1000 1200 OF
Temperature
FIGURE 7 . 2 3 2 . - Effect of temperature on the t e n s i l e
and c o m p r e s s i v e modulus of Type 301 (half-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 OF

Temperature
FIGURE 7 . 2 3 3 . - Effect of temperature on the t e n s i l e
. .
and c o m p r e s s i v e modulus of Type 301 (full hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
5 10 15 20 25 30
Tangent Modulus, 1 o3 k s i
- Typical tangent-modulus curves (longitudinal)
FIGURE 7 . 2 5 1 .
for Type 301 sheet and plate at room temperature.
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
5 10 15 20 25 30
Tangcnt Modulus, l o 3 k s i
- Typical tangent-modulus curves (transverse)
FIGURE 7 . 2 5 2 .
for Type 301 sheet and pl2.k at room temperature.
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
5 10 15 20 25 30
Tangent Modulus, 1 O3 k s i
FIGURE 7 . 2 5 3 .- Typical tangent-modulus curves (longitudinal)
for T v ~ e301 sheet and plate at room temperature.
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
1 O3 kg /mm2
. ' * ;
;h!..lL, I
I ' I .
.
I I ' j I ' I , , :
! P , !
.
!
. .
1 ' .
5 10 15 20 25 30
Tangent Modulus, l o 3 k s i
FIGURE 7 . 2 5 4 . -
Typical tangent-modulus curves (transverse)
for Type 301 sheet and plate at room temperature. 1
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1233'~'
Aging Temperature
FIGURE 7 . 3 1 . -
Effect of aging temperature o n h a r d n e s s
of 67-percent c o l d - r o l l e d Type 301 s h e e t .
(Ref. 7 . 1 1 )
1200 1600
Temperature
FIGURE 7 . 3 2 . -
Effect of hydrogen environment a t
elevated temperature o n s u r f a c e h a r d n e s s of
Type 301 half-hard sheet; thickness. 0 . 0 1 2
iich ( 0 . 305 mm).
(Ref. 7 . 1 2 )
.r
h
a-
--.. .
, , , m,. , ,,-. .. -, .
20 40 60
Reduction, percent
- Effect of cold reduction on tensile
FIGURE 7 . 4 1 12.
properties of Trpe 301 sheet.
(Ref. 7 . 1 3 )
p0.002 -q
Strain, lengi>.;iength
FIGURE 7.4121. - Stress-strain curves for Type 301 sheet
and strip co1.d rolled to 1/4 hard and half hard conditions.
(Ref. 7 . 1 0 )
*O ,002 4
Strain, length/length
-
FIETIRE 7 . 4 1 2 2 . Stress-strain curves for Type 301 sheet and
strip cold rolled to 3 / 4 hard and full hard conditions.
(Ref. 7 . 1 0 )
+$
-
REPROL K l B l L l T Y OF THE ORIGINAL 'OPY IS POOR.
- --,- .
,,
, ,
FIGURE 7.41 25. - Typical s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s (longitudinal) a t

room and eievated t e m p e r a t ~ r e sfor Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
I . .
0 2 4 6 8 10
Strain, 0.001 lengthllength
FIGURE 7.4126. - Typical s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s ( t r a n s v e r s e ) a t
r o o m and elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 200 600 1000 1400
Temperature
- Effect of temperature on the ultimate
FIGURE 7 . 4 1 3 1.
tensile strength of Type 301 (half-hard).
(Ref.7 . 9 )
Temperature
FIGURE 7.413 2 . - Effect of temperature on the tensile
yield strength of Type 301 (half-hard).
(Ref. 7.9)
FIGURE 7.41 3 3 . - Effect of temperature on the ultimate
tensile strength of Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7.9)
Temperature
FIGURE 7.41 3 4 . -
Effect of temperature on the tensile
yield strength of Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
Test Temperature
FIGURE 7.41 3 5 . --
Tensile strength of Type 301 sheet in
various conditions at low temperatures.
(Ref. 7 . 8 )
r - .-
'
C-.
-- Full Hard. id 0.016 in
(0.41 rnm) --
. . .
. .- . .
-400 - 300 -200 - 100 0 1OC

T e s t Temperature
FICURE 7.41 36. -
Yield strength of Type 301 rheet in
various condrtions at low temperatures.
(Ref. 7 . 8 )
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.10

Strain, lengthllength
-
FIGURE 1.4221. S t r e s s - r t r a i n curver in c o m p r e r r i o n
f o r Type 301 annealad sheet a t elevated temperatures;
thicknere, 0.063 Inch (1.60 mm).
(Ref. " . I S )
Strain, 0 . 0 0 1 lengthllength
FIGURE 7 . 4 2 2 2 .- Typical c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s
at r o o m and elevated temperatures for Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 2 4 6 8 10
Strain, 0 . 0 0 1 lengthllength
FIGURE 7 . 4 2 2 3 . -
Typical c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s
at r o o m and elevated temperatures for Type 301 (full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
. . , , , ,
Strength a t t e m p e r a t u r e I
Exposure up to 1 /2 h r
, ,
800 1000
Temperature
FIGURE 7.4231. - Effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on the com-
p r e s s i v e yield strength of ~~~e 301 (half-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
Temperature
' :LURE 7.4232. -
Effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on the
compressive yield strength of Type 301
(full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 200 600 1000 1200 O F
Temperature
FIGURE 7.442. -
Effect of temperature on the ultimate
shear strength of Type 301 (half-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
4 I Strength at temperature
+ -I Exposure ur, to 1 / 2 hr It
--
0 200 600 800

Temperature
FIGURE 7.443. -
Effect of temperature on the
ultimate shear strength of Type 301
(full-hard).
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
Percent FbrU at
Percent Fbry at Room Temperature
R o o m Temperature
C
N 6 OC, 0
0 0 0 0 0
F
0
0
W
0
0
V1
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
Temperature
FIGURE 7 . 4 5 4 . -
Effect of temperature on the
ultimate bearing strength of Type 301
(full-hard).
(Ref. 7.9)
200 600 800 'F

Temperature
-
FIGURE 7 . 4 5 5 . Effect of temperature on the
bearing yield strength of Type 301
(full-hard. )
(Ref. 7 . 9 )
0 2 00 400 600 800 1000'~
Test Temperature
FIGURE 7.4611. - Effect of test temperature an< exposure
time on notch strength of 60 percent cold reduced
Type 301 sheet; thickness, 0.050 inch(0.127 mm).
(Ref.7.16)
t-Test temperature -320°~(-196~~:;:!')&-/-/-[-
Each point average of 3 tests
0 20 40 60 80
Cold Reduction, percent
-
FIGURE 3 . 4 6 1 2 . Eifect or^cold reduction and teal; direction
on sharp notch strength of Type 301 sheet; thickness,
0.063 inch (1.60 mm).
(Ref. 7.17)
Test Temperature
FIGURE 7.4613. - Effect of test temperature on net fracture

s t r e s s of Type 301 full-hard sheet; thickness, 0 . 0 4 6 inch
(1.17 mm).
(Ref. 7 . 1 8 )
7.1 AMS 55173, Aerospace Material Specification, Society Auto-
motive Engineers, Inc., Index, May 15, 1971.
!
7.2 AMS 5518D, Aerospace Material Specification, Society Auto-

7.3 AMS 5519F, Aerospace Material Specification, Society Auto-

7.4 ASTM Standards, P a r t 3, "Steel Sheet, Strip, Bar, Rod, Wire,

.
Metallic Coated' product^,^^ Am. Soc Testing Materials, 1968.
7.5 Metals Handbook, Vol 1, "Properties and Selection of Metals, 'I

8th Edition, American Society for Metals, 1961.
7.6 Materials in Design Engineering, Materials Selector Issue,

Mid-October 1965.
7.7 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., "High Strength Cold- Rolled

Stainless Steels,It Data Sheet, 1958.
7.8 Martin Co. /Denver, "Cryogenic Materials Data Handbook,"

ML-TDR-64-280, August 1964.
7.9 Military Handbook-5A, "Metallic Materials and Elements f o r

.
Flight Vehicle Structures,It Dept of Defense, FSC 1500,
February 1966; latest change o r d e r January 1970.
7.10 M. Watter and R. A. Lincoln, "Strength of Stainless Steel Struc-

tural Members a s Function of Design," Allegheny Ludlum Steel
Corp., 1950.
7.11 B. R. Banerjee and J. J. Hauser, I1Research and Application

Engineering to Determine the Effect of Processing Variables on
Crack Propagation of High Strength Steels and T i t a n i d ' ASD-
TDR-62-1034, P a r t I, 1962.
7.12 -
H. Stier et a l . , "Material Aluminum, Columbium, Magnesium,
Nickel-Base, Stainless Steel and Titanium Alloys, -
Zffect of
Hydrogen Environments a t 400' to 2400' F," General Dynamics
Report No. 8926-010, January 1961.
7.13 United S t a t ~ sSteel, "USS 361, A Standard AISI Type Stairiless

Steel Cold Reduced to Higher Properties for Aircraft and missile^,^^
June 1959.
7.14 American Iron and Steel Institute, "Stainless and Heat Resisting
Steels," Steel Products Manual, June 1957.
7.15 D. E. Miller, "Petermination of Tensile, a m p r e s s i v e , and Bearing

P r o p e r t i e s of F e r r o u s and Nonferrous S r u c t u r a l Sheet Materials a t
1 Elevated 'lemperatures,:' AF-TX-6517, P a r t V, December 1957.
!
7.16 M. M. Lemcoe and A. T r evirn, Jr . , "Determination of the Effects

of ElevaLed Temperature Materials P r o p e r t i e s of Severs1 High
Tempel a i u r e Alloys," ASD-TDR-61-529, June 1962.
7.17 G. B. Esyey, e t a l . , "Effect of Cold Rolling and S t r e s s Relief on i:he

S h a r ~Edge Notch and Tensile Characteristics of Austenitic Stainless
--
Steel Sheet, Alloys," P r o c . ASTM, 59, 816 (1959).
7.18 J . D. Morrison and J . R. Kattus, "An Investigation of Methods f o r

Determining Crack Propagation Resistance of IIigh Strength A l l q J,
Southern Rnsearch Institute, January 1961 ..
7.19 *411oy Digest, "AISI Type 3Cl," (Filing Code SS-54), Engineering
Alloys Digest, I n c . , April 1957.
Chapter 8
DYNAMIC AND TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES
General. Type 301 has good dynamic and time dependent properties.
m n n e a l e d condition, the alloy exhibits good impact strength
down to cryogeni: temperatures. The alloy can be used a t moder-
ately elevated temperatures because of i t s excellent c r e e p and
rupture properties. It has good structural stability for long time
use a t temperatures up to 800' F (427' C). When held in the temp-
e r a t u r e range f r o m 800' to 1600' F (427' to 871°c), however,
carbides a r e precipitated which m a y lower the resistance of the
alloy to corrosion. Exposure of cold-reduced material to temper-
atures above 900'F (482'C) results in a reduction in room temp-
e r a t u r e properties (refs. 8.1,8.2,8.3).
Specified Properties
Impact
Izod impact strength of annealed sheet, 110 ft-lbs (15.2 kg-m)
( r e f . 8.4).
Effect of low temperature on impact strength of annealed plate,
figure 8.32.
Effect of room and low temperature on impact strength of annealed
and 112-hard bar, figure 8.33.
Creep
Creep and creep rupture curves for Type 301 half-hard sheet a t
elevated temperatures, figure 8.41 .
Creep rupture curves for Type 301 full-hard and s t r e s s relieved
sheet at elevated temperatures, figure 8.42.
Creep and creep rupture curves a t 800' F (427' C ) f o r Type 301
full-hard sheet, iigure S . 45.
Time-temperature parameters
Isochronous s t r e s s - s t r a i n diagrams
Stability
Effect of exposure a t low temperatures on room temperature tensile
properties of extra hard sheet, figure 8.51.
Effect of temperature and exposure time on tensile properties of
60-percent reduced sheet, figure 8.52.
Effect of cest temperature and exposure time on shear strength of
Type 301, s e e figure 7.442 and 7.443.
Effect of teniperalure and exposure on bearing properties of Type
301, see figures 7.452 and 7.453.
8.55 Effect of test temperature and exposure time on notch strength of 60-
percent cold reduced sheet, see figure 7.461 1 .
8.6 Fatigue
8.61 S - N curves in flexure for extra full hard sheet at low temperatures,
figure 8 . 6 1 .
8.62 Results of fatigue tests before and after exposure for 26,300 hours
at 288' C , table 8.62.
- - R e s u l t s of Fatigue T e s t s Before and After Exposure f o r 23,600 Hours at 2 8 8 ' ~ (550'1
-TABLE 8.62.
Source I Ref. 8.11
Alloy Type 301, 50 p e r c e n t cold rolled
Before Exposure M t e r Exposure
KT = 1 ( a ) KT = 4 (a) KT = 1 (a) KT = 4 ( a )
Smax Fatigue life, Smax Fatigue life, Smax Fatigue life, Sm, '
Fatigue life,
kilocycles kilocycle s kilocycles
kg/hsm2 k s i kg/mm2 k s i kg/rnm2 k s i k m a k s i kilocycles
98.4 14G 18 49.2 70 17 94.9 135 35 52.7
~ 18 37
I I 21 213 I
65 2~' 87.9 125 43 45.7
28 60
30 23 1
60 43 >lo, 000 42.2
52 >lo, 000
59 >lo, 000
>lo. 000
57 62 80.8 115 83 38.7
103 88
7,529 3.486
>:LO,000 77.3 110 196 35.2
>lo, 000 >lo, 000
>lo, 000 >lo, 000
55 94 66.8 95 16
108 23
27 1 52.7 75 397
425
50 2,018
lo6 7,904
I 176 >lo, 000
2 10
1,720
6,770
>lo, 000
' a ) KT = 1, unnotched s p e c i m e n s ' KT = 4, edge-notched specimens
- 300 -200 -100 0 100' F
Test T e m p e r a t u r e
FIGURE 8 . 3 2 . - Effect of low t e m p e r a t u r e on impact s t r e n g t h
of Type 301 annealed plate; thickness, 0.50 inch (12.7 m m ) .
(Ref. 8 . 5 )
> ~ ~ , : I , ; : ~ I ~ ~ ,:, ~, i I~,I~, ~ ' ~ !1 , ::I,

tl.i:..
0 1 9 5 0 ° ~ (066Oc),l 30 min,
WQ (166 BHN)
8 CD, 195 0' F, 3 0 min, WQ
+ 14% CD (281 BHN)
Half Hard
~~m~~li;Iif\~:iIiii\i~!:i[[/,7~~i~~flir/
...- ..
i... -1 - ..--.; .. .. . - I .--.-.-
-400 -200 0 200 OF

Test Temperature
FIGURE 8.33. -
Effect of r o o m and low
t e m p e r a t u r e on impact s t r e n g t h
of Type 301 annealed and half-
hard bar. (Ref. 8 . 1 )
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time, hour r
FIGURE 8 . 4 2 . -
Creep rupture curve8 for Type 301
full-hard and rtrerr-relieved rheet at elevated
temperaturer; thicknerr, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm).
(Ref. 8 . 7 )
Creep Rate, % hour
FIGURE 8 . 4 3 . - Creep and

c r e e p rupture curves at
40 % 8 0 0 ° F (427OC) for Type
2 301 full-hard sheet.
L
T (Ref. 8 . 1 )
Creep Rupture -
Creep Rate --
10 100 1000 10,000

Rupture Time, hr
I I
I I
I
I I ] I . !
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 101

Exposure Temperature
FIGURE 8 . 5 1 . - Effect of exposure at low temperature on
room temperature tensile prc~pertiesof Type 301
extra-hard cold rolled sheet; thickness, 0 . 0 6 0
inch ( 1 . 5 2 mm).
(Ref. 8 . 1 0 )
Test Temperature
-
FIGURE 8.52. Effect of test temperature and exposure time
on tensile properties of Type 301 60-percent cold reduced
sheet; thickness, 0.050 inch (1.27 mm).
(Ref. 8 . 9 )
10 1o4 10" 10" 1 o7 1 o8
Number of C y c l e s
FIGURE 8 . 6 1 . - S-N c u r v e s in flexure for Type 301 extra-fully-hard

s h e e t at l o w temperatures; thickness, 0 . 0 3 9 iilch ( 0 . 9 9 mm).
(Ref. 8 . 8 )
a = 0.187 - 0 . 1 8 8 in d i a (3 h o l e s )
b = 0.808 2 0.002 in
c = 0.378 f 0.002 in
d = 0.47 f00.002 in
e = 0.700 f 0.002 in
f = 1.400 0.002 in
g = 0.40
(Note: 1 i n = 2 5 . 4 mm)
:IAISI Type 39l1! (Filing Code SS-54), Engineering
April 1957.
Military Handbook- SAD llMetallic Materials and Elements for

Flight Vehicle structure^,^^ Dept. of Defense, FSC 1500,
FebYruaq- 1966; latest change ;rder January 1970.
Metals Handbook, Vol. I, "Properties and Selection of Metals,"

a t h Edition, American Society for Metals, 1961.
Materials in Design Engineering, Materials Selector Issue,

b i d - ~ c t o b e r1965.
.
V. N. Korvobok and R. D. Thomas, J r , I1Impact Tests of Welded
Austenitic Stainless Steels," Welding Journal, Research Suppl.,
September 1950.
J. Miller, et a l . , ITtilization of Low Alloy Materials for High

Temperature Service ApplicationsDUAF- TR-5929, June 1959.
Allegheny Ludlunn Steel Corp., "High - Strength

- Cold-Rolled
stainless- Steels," Data sheet, 1958.
R. J. Favor et al. , "Investigation of Fatigue Behavior of C e :tain

Alloys in the Temperature Range of Room Temperature to --423O~,l~
WADD-TR-60-123, June 1961.
M. M. Lemcoe and A. Trevirr,, J r . , lfDetermination of the Effects

of Elevated Temperature Materials Properties of Several High
Temperature Alloys," ASE-TDR-259, June 1962.
L. P. Rue, et al., "The Evaluation of the Effects of Very Low

Temperatures on the Properties of Aircraft and Missile Metals,"
WADD- TR-60-254, February 1960.
W. Illg and L. A. Imig, "Fatigue of Four Stainless Steels. . ..

before and after Exposure to Elevated Temperatures for up to
Three Years," NASA T N D-6145, April 1971.
Chapter 9
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
9.1 Densit at room temperature
9.11
d 0.292 lblin3 ( r e f s . 9.1.9.2)
Specificgravity, 7 . 8 6 - 7 . 9 4 ( r e f . 2)
9.2 Thermal Properties
. 9.21
9.22
9.23
Thermal conductivity (K), figure 9.21.
Thermal expansion (a),s e e figure 9.21.
Specific heat (cp), see figure 9.21.
9.24 Thermal diffusrvity, figure 9.24.
9.3 Electrical Properties

9.31 Electrical resistivity, figure 9.31.
9.4 Magnetic Properties. This alloy is nonmagnetic in the annealed

condition, but becomes increasingly magnetic when cold worked
(ref. 9.2).
9.41 Magnetic permeability (at 200 oersteds)
Annealed, 1.003
1070 cw, 1.10
6070 CW, 20.0 (approx).
9.5 Nuclear Properties. The effects of exposure to high intensity

nuclear radiation i s generally a s follows:
a) Magnetic susceptibility is increased, depending on
material condition and irradiation variables such
a s total flux and temperature.
b) Tensile strength, yield strength, and hardness of
annealed alloy a r e increased; elongation is usually
decreased.
c ) Austenitic stainless steels retain their high impact
strength after irradiation.
9.51 Effect of high intensity nuclear radiation on tensile properties

and hardness, table 9.51.
9.52 Effectof i r r a d i a t i o n b e l o w 1 0 0 ° ~ ( 2 1 2 0 ~ ) o n y i e l d s t r e n g t h ,
figure 9.52.
9.6 Other Physical Properties

9.61 Emissivity, f i g u r e 9 . 6 1
9.62 Damping capacity
TABLE 9 . 5 1 . - Eifect oi High Intensity Nuclear Radiation on
-Tensile P r o p e r t i e s and H a r d n e s s
Source
-
Alloy - Type 301
Condition Annealed I 60% C W
I r r a d i a t i o n temperatiurc
I r r a d i a t i o n exposure,
3.9 x 10' Control 2.0 x 1017 Control
n(m-" ?
'rest temperature -
lcsi ( k g / m m 2)
Ftu'
e, p e r c e n t
RA, p e r c e n t
Hardness, RB
-400 0 400 800 I200 1600 OF
Test Temperature
FIGURE 9 . 2 4 . - Effectof temperature on thermal diffusivity
of Type 301 (annealed).
(Ref. 9 . 5 )
Teat Temperature
FIGURE 9 . 3 1 . -
Effect of temperature on electrical
resistivity of Type 301.
(Refe. 9 . 7 , 9 . 8 )
FIGURE 9.52. - Effect of
i r r a d i a t i o n below 1 0 0 C~
(212 ' ~ )on yield strength
of Type 301 (annealed).
(Ref. 9 . 1 1 )
0 2 4 6 8
Integrated Neutron Flux (1 MeV), lo1' nvt
-400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 OF
Test Temperature
FIGURE 9.61. - Effect of t e m p e r a t u r e and s u r f a c e
t r e a t m e n t on e m i s s i v i t y of Type 301.
(Ref. 9 . 1 0 )
9.1 Military Handbook-5A, "Metallic M a t e r i a l s and E l e m e n t s f o r Flight

Vehicle S t r u c t u r e s , " Dept. of Defense, FSC 1500, F e b r u a r y 1966;
l a t e s t change o r d e r J a n u a r y 1970.
9.2 Allegheny Ludlum Steel, 'Blue Sheet, S t a i n l e s s S t e d Type 301,"

1971.
9.3 M a t e r i a l s in Desigil Engineering, M a t e r i a l s Selector Issue, Mid-

October 1965.
9.4 Metals Handbook, " P r o p e r t i e s and Selection of Metals, Eight Edition,

Vol. 1, A m e r i c a n Society f o r Metals, 1961.
9.5 C. F. Lucks and H. W. Deem, " T h e r m a l P r o p e r t i e s of T h i r t e e n

Metals," ASTM STP-227, F e b r u a r y 1958.
9.6 A. Goldsmith e t a l . , ''Therrnophysical P r o p e r t i e s of Solid M a t e r i a l s J t l

Vol. I1 - Alloys, WADC-TR-58-476, November 1960.
9.7 Allegheny Ludlum Steel C o r p . , "High St rength Cold-Rolled S t a i n l e s s

Steels," Data Sheet, 1958.
9.8 North A m e r i c a n Aviation, I n c . , "Stainless S t e e l - Type 301, It Data

Sheet AL-2604, 1957.
9.9 F. R . Shober, "The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on S t r u c t u r a l Metals,I1

DMIC Report No. 166, September 1961.
,!
9.10 W. D. Wood e t al., "The Emittance of S t a i n l e s s Steels," DMIC Memo-
r a n d u m 111, June 1961.
9.11 R e a c t o r Handbook, Vol. I, "Materials," 2nd Edition, C. R. Tipton,

, - Ed.,nterscience P u b l i s h e r s , New York, 1960.
9.12 M. Kangilaski, "Radiation Effects Design Handbook: S e c . 7, S t r u c -

t u r a l Alloys," NASA CR-1873, October 1971.
Chapter 10
CORROSION RESISTANCE AND PROTECTION
10.1 General. While the p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Type 301 that i s

essential to i t s applications in m i s s i l e s and a i r c r a f t i s that i t may
be work hardened to v e r y high strengths, this m a t e r i a l a l s o ex-
hibits good r e s i s t a n c e b c o r r o s i o n in a variety of media. However,
of a l l the s t e e l s in the 18-8 family of stainless s t e e l s , Type 301 is
the l e a s t r e s i s t a n t to corrosion. Type 302, with a c h e m i s t r y v e r y
close to Type 302 (except f o r the slight i n c r e a s e of chromium and
nickel), exhibits slightly b e t t e r c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e . Informztion
will be given for Type 302 in this chapter where the s a m e inform-
ation i s not known o r available f o r Type 301. f
The c o r r o ~ i o nr e s i s t a n c e of austenitic stainless steel i s due p r i m -

a r i l y to i t s passivity which i s due to an a i r - f o r m e d oxide f i l m on
the surface of the metal. The oxide f i l m i s mostly chromic oxide
which i s increased in contt nt by polishing. F i l m s f r o m highly pol-
ished specimens have ;--en Cound to contain a s much a s 90 percent
C r 2 0 3 ( r e f . 10.1).
i
An oxide film will f o r m on m o s t m e t a l s that a r e exposed to a i r . This
f i l m will be s o thin that i t is invisible unless i t is thickened by heat- !
ing o r chemical treatment. These oxides, which a r e insoluble in a - ,
corroding agent, a r e difficult to reduce electrochemically. They
a d h e r e well to the metal, do not c r a c k o r f o r m pores, and a r e effec-
tive b a r r i e r s against c o r r o s i o n . No oxide film i s actually f r e e f r o m
c r a c k s o r p o r e s arising f r o m s t r e s s e s which occur in the film; how- ,
e v e r , any exposed metal i s automatically sealed with f r e s h oxide
( r e f . 10.2).
Chromic oxide f o r m s the passivating f i l m on stainless steel. In a n

oxidizing environment, the f i l m i s strengthened, self-generating,
and stable. A reducing environment tends to b r e a k down the f i l m
and causes the s t e e l to c o r r o d e ( r e f . 10.3), The addition of 11.5
percent o r m o r e of chromium produces high passivity in s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l . The passivity not only depends on the amount af chromium,
but to a g r e a t extent on the amount and condition of the carbon and
i t s relation to the amount of chromium ( r e f . 10.4).
10.2 Atmospheric Corrosion. Austenitic stainless s t e e l s a r e highly r e -

s i s t a n t to atmospheric corrosion. T e s t s of 18-8 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
exposed to the industrial atmosphere of New York City for 15 y e a r s
showed a weight l o s s of 1 . 4 and 1 . 9 m g / i n Z ( = O n 2 and 0 . 3 rrig/cm2)
and a n appearance described a s v e r y slight discoloration, mostly
d i r t (ref. 10.5). Atmospheric c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e c a n be improved
by periodic cleaning of any d i r t deposits that f o r m . The d i r t deposits
prevent oxygen f r o m getting to the m e t a l s u r f a c e and a l s o bring
c o r r o s i v e m a t t e r , particularly chlorides, into contact with the
m e t a l ( r e f . 11;. 1 ) . T e s t s w e r e a l s o p e r f o r m e d o v e r a period of t h r e e
y e a r s in a m a r i n e a t m o s p h e r e . In the f i r s t months, a thin s u p e r f i c i a l
but adherent r u s t appeared and uniformly covered the s u r f a c e and
then became thicker with prolonged e x p o s u r e . This r u s t was in g r e a t e r
quantity on the bottom side of the t e s t s h e e t s . After t h r e e y e a r s , the
r u s t was relatively thin on those panels that w e r e ifiitially polished
and could be removed with a n a p p r o p r i a t e m e t a l c l e a n e r . P a n e l s that
w e r e cleaned e v e r y 6 months showed a lower r a t e of r u s t formation
( r e f . 1 0 . 6 ) . Type 301 sheet t e n s i l e s p e c i m e n s in v a r i o u s conditions
w e r e exposed to the a t m o s p h e r e a t Niagara F a l l s , New York, f o r
five years. After cleaning off a n a p p r e c i a b l e quantity of deposited d i r t ,
a n examination showed a mild pitting in s o m e c a s e s but not enough
t c m a r the s u r f a c e a p p e a r a n c e . The e x p o s u r e indicated no effect on
the strength and ductility of the s p e c i m e n s ( r e f . 1 0 . 7 ) .
10.3 C o r r o s i o n in Water. The 13-8 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s r e m a i n p r a c t i c a l l y un-

attacked bv distilled w a t e r . E x ~ o s u r eto lone ~ e r i o d sof t i m e in t a ~
w a t e r , k e i t a t about 140'F ( 6 0 ' ~ ) a t seveu r o i a t i o n s , h a s shown t i i s
s t e e l to be highly r e s i s t a n t to c o r r o s i o n . Some r i v e r w a t e r s , p a r t i c -
u l a r l y those r i v e r s n e a r highly i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s , can be quite cor1,osive
to many m e t a l s , but 18-8 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s show a l m o s t complete r e -
s i s t a n c e to c o r r o s i o n (<O. 00005-mm p e n e t r a t i o n l y e a r ) i n r i v e r w a t e r s
(ref. 10.8).
The behavior of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l in m a r i n e w a t e r s will depend upon the

conditions of exposure. If the w a t e r velocity i q low, m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s
o r o t h e r solid m a t e r i a l s will become attached to the m e t a l and thus
s c r e e n out oxygen and concentrate c o r r o d e n t s on the m e t a l . Where
the w a t e r velocity i s high and m a t t e r cannot a t t a c h itself to the m e t a l ,
c o r r o s i o n i s negligible ( r e f . 1 0 . 8 ) . Galvanic c o r r o s i o n m a y occur in
s e a w a t e r if a m a t e r i a l m o r e eiectropositive than Type 301 i s i n con-
t a c t with the m e t a l ( s e e Section 1 0 . 5 , Galvanic C o r r o s i o n ) .
10.4 I n t e r g r a n u l a r C o r r o s i o n . When austenktic s t a i n l e s s s t e e l i s heated f o r

a length of t i m e between 800' and 1650 F (427' and 899'C), c h r o m i u m
c a r b i d e s will precipitate a t the g r a i n boundaries. This will reduce
the chromiurn content of the adjacent m a t e r i a l and r e d u c e i t s r e s i s t -
a n c e to c o r r o s i o n . C o r r o s i o n then m a y o c c u r along the g r a i n bound-
a r i e s . Welding operations m a y l e a v e the a r e a adjacent to the welds i n
this sensitive condition, which is then vulnerable to a t t a c k by c o r r o -
s i v e m e d i a that would not o r d i n a r i l y affect the s t e e l . Common methods
f o r eliminating this c h r o m i u m c a r b i d e precipitation in Type 301 a r e :
( a ) Maintain a v e r y low c a r b o n content; (b) Anneal a f t e r any c a r b i d e
precipi.tation h a s o c c u r r e d ( r e f . 1 0 . 8 ) .
10.5 Galvanic Corrosion. Galvanic action m a y t a k e place i f two d i s s i m i l a r

m e t a l s a r e in contact in the p r e s e n c e of a n e l e c t r o l y t e . The m e t a l that
is m o r e electropositive will d i s s o l v e o r c o r r o d e , while the other
m a t e r i a l will not be affected. The m e t a l m o r e electropositive will be-
c o m e the anode, and the m e t a l l e s s electropositive will become t h e
cathode in a galvanic cell. Ordinarily, stainless steel will act a s
the cathode with most m a t e r i a l s and not be affected by galvanic
action. Under some special conditions, stainless steel may be-
coi-ne activated; the current will r e v e r s e and the stainless steel
will be attacked. Stainless steel may be activated by pasaing a n
electric c u r r e n t in a manner to make it anodic. This may be
done intentionally when electrolytic etching o r pickling i s per-
formed o r unintentionally by accident o r s t r a y c u r r e n t s . If
corrosion occurs because s t r a y c u r r e n t s a r e rendering the stain-
l e s s steel active, it can be stopped by grounding o r shunting the
current, by proper insulation, o r by providing a counter cur rent
to neutralize the effect of the s t r a y electric c u r r e n t ( r e f . 1 0 . 4 ) .
Table 10.1 shows the position of Type 301 in the galvanic s e r i e s
when active or passive.
10.6 Chemical Corrodents. Corrosion in the f o r m of pitting usually

o c c u r s during continuous exposures to relatively weak corroding
media where the steel otherwise would be resistant. Pitting o c c u r s
in certain vulnerable spots where the passivity i s continuously
destroyed. Compounds o r their acid radicals that a r e capable of
causing pitting a r e some fluorides, chlorides, bromides, iodides,
sulfides, sulfites, thiocyanates, and chlorite8 o r hypcrchlorites.
Pitting action will be accelerated in an acidic medium. Corrosive
solutions should not be permitted to stand f o r long periods of t i m e
in stainless steel equipment, particularly if the solutions a r e
acidic. Making the solution alkaline will r e t a r d corrosion. P e r -
iodic cleaning and aerating of equipment i s recommended a s a
procedure f o r retarding corrosion of equipment subject to chem-
ical corrodents. An i n c r e a s e in temperature, p r e s s u r e , and con-
centration will i n c r e a s e the r a t e of corrosion. Alternate wetting
and drying of the steel with a corrodeni solution will c r e a t e a con-
centration of the corrodcnt on the surface of the m e t a l that may
enhance the r a t e of c o r r o ~ i o n .Similarly, a partial i m m e r s i o n of
the steel in a corrodent will c r e a t e concentration of the corrodent
because of evaporation a t the surface of the solution, thus resulting
in a m o r e rapid r a t e of corrosion (ref. 10.4).
The 18-8 types of austenitic steels have excellent resistance t o

most types of atmospheric corrosion and a r e highly resistant to
organic acids such a s acetic acid and oxidizing acids such a s n i t r i c
acid, However, they a r e not general!:? r e s i s t a n t to mineral acid2
such a s sulfuric acid o r the the halogen acids such a s hydrochloric.
Detailed tables of the corrosion resistance of the alloy in various
chemical media, a s determined in the laboratory, a r e given in
r e f e r e n c e s 1 0 . 4 and 10.10; however, it m u ~ be
t recognized that
s e r v i c e conditions cannot be duplicated in the laboratory, for
example, i ~ n p u r i t i e so r combinations of chemicals, and such l i e t s
a r e to be used only a s guides. Cold working, s t r e s s , fabrication,
and surface finish all may have effects on the corrosion resistance.
10.7 S t r e s s Corrosion. Residual s t r e s s e s will be left in any m e t a l a f t e r
a d forming. he s t r e s s e d m e t a l may be slightly anodic compared
to adjacent unstress:?d m e t a l and, when subject to a c o r r o s i v e mcdia,
s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n may take place. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a i l u r e that rakes
place a s a r e s u l t of the s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n i s a b r i t t l e f a i l u r e . Chcinica.1
environments that a r e conducive to s t r e s s - c o r r o s i o n cracking in stain-
l e s s s t e e l include c a x s t i c and chloride solutions. Tensile s t r e s s c . ~ ,
cither external o r residual, m u s t be p r e s e n t on thc s u r f a c e of the- m e t a l
f o r s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n to occur ( r e f . 10.9).
S t r e s s cracking may be pronounced in Type 301 s t e e l in the f o r n ~ e d

I
condition i f high residual s t r e s s e s a r e p r e s e n t . The tendcncy f o r s t r e s s
cracking depends p r i m a r i l y on the value of tensile s t r e n g t h developed.
Severely f o r m e d p a r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the h a r d e r t e m p e r s of Type
301, should be immediately annealed o r s t r e s s relicvecl to prevent
cracking. S t r c s s - c o r r o s i o n cracking rnay occur in c e r t a i n media, p r i m -
a r i l y hot chlorides, i f r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e p r e s e n t . Under n o r m a l
a t m o s p h e r i c conditions, s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n d o e s not normally o c c u r even
in e x t r a hard s h e e t ( r e f . 10.10).
Results of t e s t s on s t r c s s - c o r r o s i o n cracking under a v a r i e t y of applied

s t r e s s e s and conditions show that, in general, Type 301 s t c e l i s v e r y
r e s i s t a n t to s t r e s s - c o r r o s i o n cracking in the environments t e s t e d .
These s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d on both longitudinal and
t r a n s v e r s e s h e e t specimens of full-hard, full-hard and s t r e s s - r e l i e v e d ,
and e x t r a - h a r d and s t r e s s - relieved conditions. The s p e c i m e n s w e r e
subjected to a n applied s t i e s s of 10-70 p e r c e n t of t h e i r tensile s t r e n g t h
i n a s e r i e s of t e s t environments. The n a t u r a l environments w e r e ex-
p o s u r e a t 80 f e e t and 800 feet (24 to 240 m e t e r s ) f r o m the ocean a t
Kure Beach, North Carolina and l a b o r a t o r y environments of 20-percent
n e u t r a l s a l t s p r a y and 3-112 p e r c e n t NaCi solution (10 minutes i m m e r -
sion and 50-minutes a i r - d r y cycle). Zxcept f o r t h r e e specimens, a l l
o t h e r s w e r e exposed about a y e a r and m o r e without any evidence of
s t r e s s - c o r r o s i o n cracking ( r e f . 10.11).
Basic and fundamental information on c o r r o s i o n and c o r r o s i o n p r o -

tection of m e t a l s f o r guidance in the design of m i l i t a r y components i s
p r e s e n t e d in r e f e r e n c e 1 0 , 1 2 .
TABLE 10.1 - Position of Typc 301 Stainless Steel
in the Galvanic S e r i e s
Source Ref. 10.5
ANODIC END Inconel (active)

Brasses
(electropositive)
Copper
Bronzes
Mags,esium Copper -nickel alloys
Magnesium alloys Monel
Zinc Silver solder
Aluminum 2 s Nickel (passive)
Cadmium Inconel (passive)
Aluminum 17 5ST Type 41 0
Iron and carbon s t e e l
Copper steel
A$& C r steel
Stainless Type 410 S t a i ~ l e Type
s~ 301
Stainlesb Type 430 St?,inless Type ?02
Stainless Type 446 Stainless Type 309
Stainless Type 301
S t a i d e s s Type 302
Stainless Type 309
1Stainlees
Stainless
Silver
~ 5 310e
Type 316
Graphite
Stainless Type 31 0 Gold
Stainless Type 316 Platinum
Lead-tin solder
Lead CATHODIC END
Tin
Nickel (active) (Electronegative)
Chapter 10 - Refercnces
10.1 L.L. S h r e i t , Ed., C o r r o s i o n , Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

New York, 1963.
10.2 F. H. Keating, Chromium-Nickel Austenitic S t e e l s , Butterworths

Scientific Publicatim, London, 1956.
1C. 3 J . M. Camp and C. B. F r a n c i s , "The Making, Shaping, and Treating

of Steel," 6th Zdition, United States Steel Go., 1951.
10.4 Republic Steel Corporation, "Republic Enduro Stainless Steel," 1971.
10.5 I. V . Williams and K. G. Compton, "Results of 15 Y e a r s Exposure

-
T e s t s on C o r r o s i o n R e s i s t a n t Steels,It P r o c . ASTM, 46, 673 (1946).
10.6 W. Mutchler, ' t C o r r o s i o n - R e s i s t a n t Steel Sheet in Marine Atmos-

-
pheres," P r o c . ASTM, 46, 621 (19G6).
10.7 W. 0 . Benda and C . M. Brown, llAtmospheric C o r r o s i o n T e s t s on High-

Chromium Steel," P r o c . ASTM, -
46, 593 (1946).
10.8 The Internaticnal Nickel Co., Inc., "Corrosion Resisting P r o p e r t i e s

of the Chrorrlium Nickel S t a m l e s s Steels," Nickel Alloy Steels, S e c . 7,
Data Sheet B, 1949.
10.9 C. J . Slunder and W. K. Boyd, ltEnvironmental and Metallurgical

F a c t o r s of S t r e s s - C o r r o s i o n Cracking on High Strength Steels,"
DWJC Report 151, April 14, 1961.
10.10 United States Steel, I1Fabrication of USS Stainless Steels," ADUSS-

(i3-1478-03, reprinted April 1971.
10.11 C. J. Slunder, t t S t r c s s - C o r r o s i o n Cracking of High Strength S t a i n l e s s

Steels in Atmospheric E n v i r ~ n m e n t s , ~DMIC l Report 158, September
15, 1961.
. 16.12 Military Standardization Handbook, t l C o r r o s i o n and C o r r o s i o n P r o -

tection of Metals,!! MIL-HDBK-721 (MR), Gept. of Defense, Wash-
inton, D. C., November 1965.
Chapter 11
SURFACE TREATMENT
11.1 General. The surface of Type 301 may be treated mechanically,

-ally, and electrochemically. The purpose of surface t r e a t -
ment for Type 301 is to:
a . Remove scale developed during heat treatment.
b. Improve resistance to corrosion.
c. Provide an attractive decorative finish.
11.2 Scale Removal. The very high temperatures that a r e attained during
welding, annealing, and forging will produce sufficient scale on
Type 301 to make its removal necessary. Such a scale will impair
the metal's appearance and resistance to corrosion. If the alloy i s
to be fabricated by cold working o r welding, i t must be s c a l e - f r e e .
Scale left on a surface that i s to be cold worked may lead to tearing
and induced corrosion attack. Descaling may be c a r r i e d out by
various pickling solutions, sand blasting, o r electropolishing (ref.
11.1 ). Scale-removing p r o c e s s e s must be controlled with g r e a t
c a r e ; otherwise, fabrication i s hindered and impairment of anti-
corrosicn properties may result (ref. 11.2).
The scale o r oxide formed on stainless steel under very high temp-
e r a t u r e s may be heavv and difficult to remove. In such c a s e s it
may be n e c e s s a r y to employ m o r e than one pickling bath to remove
the scale. An initial bath i s used to soften the scale and a second
bath to remove the scale. F o r m o r e tenacious scales, a n inter-
mediate bath I l i . y be n e c e s s a r y to a s s i s t in the softening of the scale.
Under a number of annealing conditions, the scale may be light
enough to be removed by a one bath p r o c e s s (ref. 11.3). The acids
most commonly used in making up pickling solutions for descaling
stainless steel a r e nitric, hydrofluoric, sulfuric, and hydrochloric
(ref. 11.5). Nitric acid is a n oxidizing agent whereas the other
acids a r e reducing. -4n oxidizer will promote and p r e s e r v e the p a s s -
ivity of stainless steel; reducers will descale by reducing the oxide,
but will also reduce the protective oxide film (ref. 11.5).
Reducing agents a r e used to soften the oxide scale and a r e followed

by a nitric acid bath to remove the softened s c a l e and p r e s e r v e the
passivity. When n i t r i c acid i s used alone, it will not a c t to dissolve
and remove oxide scale f r o m stainless steel; thus, f o r single-bath
pickling, hydrofluoric acid i s usually added to nitric acid.
A recommended two-bath pickling process utilizes the following
solutions:
Solution A
15 to 20 percent sulfuric acid (Sp. G. 1 . 8 4 ) by volume
Balance water, maintain a t 140' to 150' F (60' to 66' C ) .
Solution B
15 to 20 percent nitric acid (Sp. G. 1 / 4 2 ) by volume
Balance water, maintain a t 150' F (66' C).
I m m e r s e in Solutim A for not m o r e than 5 minutes o r until s c a l e

i s loose, r i n s e in water, then follow with a 5-minute immersion
in Solution B, rinse in water, and d r y . If this pickling process
i s the l a s t step and a bright finish i s desired, 1 to 3 percent by
volume of hydrofluoric acid can be added to Solution B (ref. 11.3).
When small p a r t s a r e produced manually, the anneal may pro-

duce a brittle d a r k scale; this i s the l e a s t difficult to remove
of a l l scales, and can be removed by a single bath. Solution B,
with hydrofluoric acid, i s used in this case. The p a r t s should
then be flushed in water and possible brushed with soft brushes
to remove scale (refs. 1 1 . 3 and 11.5).
Additional pickling solutions may be used;

Solution C
10 to 14 percent sodium hydroxide, by weight
3 to 6 percent potassium permanganate, by weight
Balance water, maintain a t o r n e a r boiling.
This solution m a y be used a s an intermediate bath between

Solution A and B, where the scale i s v e r y difficult to remove.
The usual immersion time i s 20 to 30 minutes (ref. 11.3).
Solution D
5 to 10 percent sulfuric acid (Sp.G. 1.84) by volume
2 to 4: percent hydrochloric acid (Sp. G. 1 . 1 9 ) by volume
Balance water, maintain a t 160'F (71°C).
This solution may be substituted for Solution A. Very close con-

t r o l must be maintained with the u s e of this solution because,
when exhausted, it tends to cause pitt: g and become very c o r -
rosive (ref. 11.3). Solutions containing sulfuric and/or hydro-
chloric acids tend to cause pitting. There a r e s e v e r a l commer-
cially available inhibitors that will minimize this effect. Nitric
acid when used above 150' F (66' c ) will fume badly, which i s
dangerous to those working with it and which will exhaust the
strength of the bath; commercially available foaming agents will
minimize this effect (ref. 11.3)
Molten bsths of caustic o r alkali a r e used to change the composition
of the scale and make ~ t removal
s relatively easy in the subsequent
acid bath (ref. 11.3). One type of bath u s e s molten sodium hydroxide
to which about 2 percent sodium hydride h a s been added This bath
i s maintained a t 750' F (399' C ) o r higher. This will reduce the oxide
of the scale. The steel i s then removed f r o m the bath and water
quenched. The s t e a m generated usually blasts off m o s t of the scale.
The steel i s then i m m e r s e d in a acid bath of almost 10-perccnt
sulf,iric acid, and the balance of the scale i s removed. After a
water ririse, a solution s i m i l a r to Solution B i s used to brighten
thn finish (ref. 11.3).
1 1 . 2 1 sandbias ting i s a common and well known method to remove the

scale i r o m ordinary carbon s t e e l s . It i s , however, not in common
practice for stainless steel. If used, the sand should be clean and
f r e e f r o m iron and if hardened steel g r i t i s used, the metal surface
should be acid-cleaned to remove all t r a c e s of f r e e iron. Pickling
follows to make s u r e that the scale i s completely removed. Elec-
trolytic polishing p r o c e s s e s have been developed that provide a
fine high finish on p a r t s after fabrication and assembly. In elec-
tropolishing, the stainless steel i s made the anode and ~ i l e t a li s
removed into solution ( r e f . 11 . 2 ) .
11.3 Passivation. Passivation i s usually recommended a s a final s u r f a c e

treatment for stainless s t e e l bef0.i-e it is ready to be put into s e r v i c e .
The treatment will produce a stronger and m o r e resistant oxide
film than simple exposure to a i r . In the drawing, forming, machin-
ing, and other fabrication of stainless steels, the steel must come
in contact with other steels and may pick up on their surface s m a l l
amounts of f r e e iron or 'Itramp iron." If this f r e e iron i s allowed
to remain on the surface, it will soon rust, marking the stainless
steel surface and, m o r e significantly, leading to localized pitting
and eventual corrosion.
Nitric acid i s the recommended solution f o r passivation. The s t e e l

i s hcated in a 30-pcrcent solution (by volume) of nitric acid a t 120'
to 140°F (49' to 60'C) for 15 t9 30 minutes, and then rinsed well
in water ( r e f . 11.3).
11.4 --
Standard Finishes. F o r flat r d l e d stock, the mill finishes a r e div-
7 0 categories: unpolished and polished finishes. Table
11.1 shows the finishes available for flat rolled m a t e r i a l and for
bar and wire.
The bright and dull finishes for mill rolled sheet a r e produced by
applying a light cold roll?d pass on either polished or dull rolls.
The varicvs polished finishes a r e accomplished with abrasives and
buffing procesces to produce the finish d e s i r e d .
11.5 Protection of Finish. Stainless steel should be properly protected
during the various fabrication p r o c e s s e s to avoid unnecessary scratches
and contaminations. Not only do such scratches and contaminations
s c o r e the surface of the stainless steel, but they also f o r m a nucleus
for pitting and corrosion. Protection of the m a t e r i a l can be made by
the use of plastic coatings o r adhesive paper which can be peeled off
l a t e r . Ample lubrication should be used during drawing operations ;
paper under hold-down pads and adhesive paper on the edges of brakes
will avoid excessive marking and scoring.
Areas adjacent to welds may turn brown under some alternating wet
and d r y conditions. This i s an oxide film that should be removed.
Stainless steels a r e tougher than ordinary carbon steels and they tend
to drag and wear out wheels m o r e rapidly in the grinding, polishing,
and buffing p r o c e s s e s . Since they conduct heat away m o r e slowly, they
will overheat and warp m o r e easily. It i s therefore recommended that
a lubricant be used on a l l finish-grinding operations. All wheels, buffs,
dies, etc. should be checked constantly to s e e that they a r e not con-
taminated with other metals. These metals, when imbedded in the s u r -
face of the stainless steel, may cause galvanic corrosion under moist
conditions. Buffing and greasing components should be f r e e of iron
o r iron oxide.
TABLE 1 1 . 1 . - F i n i s h e s Available f o r Tvne 301 S t e e l
Source Ref. 11
F l a t Rolled Material B a r and Wire
Mill Rolled F i n i s he e Hot Rolled B a r

Cold Rolled S t r i p Hot rolled
and pickled
-
No. 1 finish cold r c l l e d annealed Hot rolled and annealed
Hot rolled annealed and pickled
-
No. 2 finish bright cold rolled Hot rolled and rough turned
-
No. 2 finish bright annealed Hot rolled annealed and rough
Sheets turned
No. 1 finish - hot rolled annealed
Hot Rolled Wire
and pickled
No. 2 B finish - bright cold rolled Hot rolled
No. 2D finish - dull cold rolled Hot rolled and annealed
Hot rolled annealed and pickled
Hot Xolled P l a t e s
Hot rolled
Cold Finished B a r
Hot rolled and annealed
Hot ro?led annealed and pickled Annealed and cold drawn
Heat t r e a t e d and cold drawn
Mill Polished F i n i s h e s Annealed and c e n t e r l e s s ground
(on one o r both s i d e s ) Annealed c e n t e r l e s s ground anc
Sheets and P l a t e s polished
-
No. 3 finish i n t e r m e d i a t e polish Heat t r e a t e d c e n t e r l e s s ground
and polished
No. 4 finish - s t a n d a r d polish
No. 6 finish - Tampico b r u s h e d
Cold Finished Wire
polish
-
No. 7 finish high l u s t e r polish Annealed and cold drawn
-
No. 8 finish m i r r o r polish Heat t r e a t e d and cold drawn
11.1 F. H. Keating, Chromium-Nickel Austenitic Steels, Butterworths

Scientific Publications, London, 1956.
11.2 International Nickel Co., I n c . , "Heat T r e a t m e n t and Physical

P r o p e r t i e s of the Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels," Nickel
Alloy Steels, Sec. 7, Data Sheet A, 1947.
11.3 Crucible Steel Co. of A m e r i c a , "The F a b r i c a t o r ' s Handbook,"

1955.
11.4 Republic Steel Gorp., "Republic Enduro Stainless Steel," 1964.
11.5 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, ltStairiless Steel F a b r i c -

ation," 1959.
11.6 United States Steel, "Fabrication of IJS? Stainless Steels,"

ADUSS 03-1478-03, r e p r i n t e d April 1.' : .
Chapter 12 I1
JOIMNG TECHNIQUES
I
12.1 General. Type 301 stainless steel i s readily welded by all fusion
m r e s i s t z n c e welding methods. Both soft and hard soldering can
also be performed on this alloy. Copper brazing can be accom-
plished under controlled conditions. Stainless steel can be riveted,
but requires techxiques different f r o m the usual methods for c a r -
bon steels. Welding techniques have been made sufficiently adaptable
to stainless steel so that riveting i s employed only in those applic-
actions where welding is not suitable because of structural
: I
requirements.
4
i
12.2 Weldin . All methods of welding applicable to carbon steel, except
ITa--m m e r o r forge welding, can be readily used for Type 301. Aus-
tenitic stainless steels a r e not normally preheated. Because of
carbide precipitation (see Section 10.4), the a r e a s adjacent to welds
a r e m o r e sensitive to corrosion than the parent material. The
forming of chromium carbides a t the grain boundary durintr welding
does not affect the structural strength, but may lead to fai. -re if
subjected to severe corrosive conditions. When p a r t s a r e left a s - % i
welded and subsequently exposed to severe corrosive conditions - .
and when the p a r t s a r e to be operated a t 800' to 1650OF (427' to
899OC), a stabilized type of stainless steel such a s Types 321 o r ?
347 should be specified. When exposure is below 800' F (427' C), i .,
the stabilized types a r e unnecessary and the low-carbon stainless 4
steel types such a s 304L and 316L a r e normally satisfactory I. .
(ref. 12.14).
Where use requires the same corrosion resistance for the welded
joint and the parent material, the welded p a r t s should be fully an-
nealed and then rapidly quenched to dissolve the carbides. Because
of the rapid heating and cooling possible with resistance welding,
carbide precipitation along grain boundaries is minimal. ConsequentlY,
corrosion resistance i s usually not adversely affected when the
material thickness i s l e s s than 118 inch (3.17 mrn). When thicknes s
i s greater than 1 / 8 inch and the welded structure i s to be subjected
to a corrosive exposure, a low-carbon o r stabilized grade of stain-
l e s s steel should be used (ref. 12.15). Great c a r e must be taken
in cleaning the welded a r e a of any carbonaceous material8 that
may be picked up in e a r l i e r stages of fabrication. Thc carbonaceous
material r a i s e s the carbon content of the weld and will reduce i t s
resistance to corrosion. The coefficient of thermal expansion of
austenitic stainless steel i s about 60 percent g r e a t e r than that of
mild steel. Warpage o r distortion a t the weld will result if these
thermal properties a r e not properly accounted for in the design
of welded equipment and welding fixtures (refs. l ? . 1, 12.3). The
most effective means to prevent fissuring o r cracking of the weld
metal is to adjust the composition of the weld deposit to include
small amounts of f e r r i t e . This can be accomplished by proper selec-
tion of filler metal composition. Ordinarily, 3 lo 4 percent f e r r i t e is
adequate. If the welds a r e in heavy sections, 6 to 7 percent f e r r i t e
may be required. The amount of f e r r i t e in a weld i s basically a func-
tion of i t s chemical composition and can be predicted from the Schaeff-
l e r Diagram (see iigure 12.1 ). Cooling r a t e and subsequent heat
treatment also influence the amount of f e r r i t e in the weld (ref. 12.1).
The heat of welding will reduce the mechanical properties of s t r a i n

hardened material to those of annealed Type 301. Planishing will
improve the tensile s t r e n g t h of weld metal by cold working, but will
have little effect on the mechanical properties of the heat-affected
zone (ref. 12.4).
The strengthening of the weld joints may also be accomplished by using

reinforcing plates o r thickened joints (ref. 12.5). A comprehensive
review of weldment evaluation methods i s given in r e f e r e n c e 12.20.
12.21 Fusicjn Welding. F o r m a t e r i a l l e s s than 118-inch (3.17-mm) thick,

fusion welding is ordinarily performed without filler metal. F o r
heavier material, the filler metal alloying composition should be a t
l e a s t that of Type 301 o r higher. F o r corrosion application, the
carbon content should be r e s t r i c t e d to low levels, aboct 0.03 to 0.04
percent o r even lower. The m o s t widely ~ s e methods d of fusion weld-
ing a r e by electric a r c p r o c e s s e s . Flame welding, such a s with an
oxy-acetylene torch, i s not generally recommended. Where used
(and only by s h e e r necessity), it i s used for thin m a t e r i a l and the
flame adjustment should be strictly neutral in o r d e r to prevent c a r -
burization. It i s difficult to make a satisfactory weld with an oxid-
izing flame (ref. 12.2).
Electron- and l a s e r - b e a m welding a r e two relatively new nonarc

procedures that have some application i t the welding of stainless
-,tee1 ( r e f s . 12.5, 1 2 . 6 ) .
Metal a r c welding with flux-coated filler i ods is the moat widely-used

p r o c e s s for welding heavier atock material. Either .AC o r DC c u r r e n t
may be used, although DC i s ordinarily p r e f e r r e d . A coating of AC-
DC titania f l u x o r DC lime-base flux may be used a s a rod coating.
F o r welds thicker than 1 14 inch (6.36 mm), multiple heads should
be used. The slag must be thoroughly cleaned f r o m each preceding
weld bead before ~ t a r t i n gthe next weld. The recommended c u r r e n t
ranges for AC o r DC metal a r e shown i n table 12.1.
Austenitic stainlee s s t e e l s have physical properties that a r e different

f r o m those of carbon s t e e l s and their weldiyig procedures a r e accor-
dingly altered. The electrical resistance of anstenitic stainlees steel
i s about six times g r e a t e r than carbon steel, the meltizg point about
200' F (93' C) lower, 3nd the thermal conductivity about 50 percent
l e s s . F o r these reasons, the welding-current requirements f o r
stainless steel a r e lower than for carbon s t e e l s (ref. 12.16).
The submerged-arc proceos and atomic hydrogen welding a r e also
used for stainless steel (ref. 1 2 . 7 ) . Atomic-hydrogen fusion
welding has its chief use for thin sheets and s t r i p f r o m 0.010 inch
to 0.140 inch (0.254 to 3.36 mm), although it i s also suitable for
heavier gage work. It i s adapteble to butt, lap, filler, and raised
edge-joints. The fusion and bonding take place under a constant
protectivc shield of hydrogen which, because of its reducing action,
protects against oxidation from the surrounding atmosphere a s
well a s burning away of the edgen and holing-through on light work.
The welds exhibit a surface trmoothness that reduces the amount
of subsequent finishing (ref. 12.14). Submerged-arc welding em-
pioys a continuous electrode which makes possible uninterrupted
depositing of filler metal under protection of flux separately
appiied (ref. 12.14).
The most widely used process for producing welds of high quality
a r e the two inert-gas arc-welding processes, TIG and MIG. The
TIG method i s perfotmed on this metal with a. single nonconsumable
tungsten electrode with an opening in the welding torch f o r the inert
gas (usually argonj to be introduced around the a r c . The MtG method
i s generally used for 1IS-inch thick (3.17 m m ) steel o r heavier and
employs a filler metal a s the electrode fed f ~ o m
a r e e l of wire
through the welding gun into an inert gas atmosphere. The gas
mixture used i s 98 percent argon and 2 percent oxygen. These
methods provide excellent quality welds at high speeds with no flux
removal problems (ref. 12.2).
The effects of low temperatures on TIG-weld tensile properties of

cold rolled sheet a r c shown in figure 12.2. The effects of exposure
a t elevated temperature on fmion and spot welds a r c indicated in
table 12.2.
12.22 Resistance Welding. The high electrical resistance of austenitic

stainless steels permits rapid heating, iimitcd to a small area,
and allows elect=ical resistance weld& to be an efficient, highly
recornmentied joining procedure for this steel. Resistance welding
i s done under water o r a s t r e a m of water directed a t the weld o r ,
m o r e commonly, the electrodes a r e cooled with water circulating
through the hollow portion. This cooling minimizes warpage and
carbide precipitation (ref. 12.10). The p r i m a r y requirements for
resistance welding are: clean metal surface, eufficicnt pressure,
c o r r e c t joint and electrode design, sufficient power, and accurate
timing (ref. 12.2). Spot, seam, and stitch welding, o r butt and
flash resistance welding a r e ordinarily performed on Type 301.
More recent applicationo of high-frequency resistance welding have
also been made on this stainless steel.
Resistance welding is sometimes used in conjunction with fusion

welding. A sheet welded together by the TIG process can be rein-
forced a t the joint by a backup sheet joined by spot welds. Low cycle
fatigue data f o r such a complex joint is givcn in figure 12.3. Effi-
ciency of parent metal in tension for spot-v!cldc.d ~ J w c fof
. various
tempers a r e given in figure 12.4 f o r various shcet gages.
-Brazing. Copper brazing r e q u i r e s protective atmospheres and high
purity copper. T e m p e r a t u r e of 2050' to 2100' F (1121°to 1l49* C ) a r e
needed to m e l t and flow the copper ( r e f . 12.14). Corrosion due to
galvanic action may occur if a brazed p a r t i s subjected to wet c o r -
rosive conditions. Silver-alloy brazing (also called " s i l v e r soldering"
o r "hard solderingIf)i s discussed in Section 1 2 . 4 .
d.
Solderin Both soft and h a r d soldering may be performed success-
u y on ype 301 s t a i n l e s s steel; 50 percent tin and 50 percent lead
solder i s most commonly used for soft soldering. Higher tin p e r -
centages up to 100 percent m a y be used to c r e a t e better color match
and a stronger joint. Roughening the s t e e l s u r f a c e helps the solder
to adhere, for i t i s difficult to make solder adhere to a bright o r
highly polished s t a i n l e s s s u r f a c e ( r e f . 12.3).
Fluxes especially p r e p a r e d for s t a i n l e s s s t e e l should be used. Irn-

proper fluxing i s often the cause of joint failures. Fluxes should be
neutralized immediately a f t e r the joint i s made, then flushed away
with w a t e r . Soft soldered joints cannot be depended upon f o r their
mechanical strength and a r e used p r i m a r i l y a s a s e a l . If strength i s
required in addition to a s e a l , the soldered joint chould be used in
conjunction with another joining device, such a s spot welding, rivet-
ing, o r lock steamicg ( r e f . 1 2 . 3 ) .
A v e r y satisfactory joint m a y be obtained by s i l v e r soldering. This

method i s often used to join stainless s t e e l to copper, bronze, an-
other steel, stainless steel, o r many nonferrous m e t a l s . A sound,
strong, gas-tigbt and liquid-tight joint i s made i f p r o p e r procedures
a r e followed. Gogd silver-alloy joints have tensile strengths g r e a t e r
th2.n 40 k s i (28.1 k g / m m 2 ) (ref. 1 2 . 3 ) .
Rivctin . Rivets a r e available in iLi6 g r a d e of s t a i n l e s s steel and no

----i;ig
t r o u e should be e x p e r i e x e d in driving s i z e s 3/16 inches (4.8 m m )
and s m a l l e r . L a r g e r s i z e r i v e t s should be hot driven. The r i v e t s
should not be heated m o r e than 10 minutes and to the t e m p e r a t u r e
range of 2000' to 2200' F (1019' to l204'C). In no c a s e should the
r i v e t s be driven a t t e m p e r a t u r e s below 1800' F (982' C ) (ref. 1 2 . 3 ) .
Mechanical Joints. A number of lock joints and edge reinforcements

may be used on stainless s t e e l sheets not thicker than 0.062 inch
1.575 m m ) . Some of thesc joints a r e designed to be filled with soft
s o l d e r . The lock joint will provide mechanical strength while the
solder will provide a s e a l (re:. 12.2).
TABLE 12.1. -- Current Ranges for AC-DC Metal Arc Welding
Source
-.
FLZloy
Electrode hiaterial Gzge
Ref. 12.2
T
Volts
4
__
Lameter, in U.S. Std. ~ ~ u inche
i + s - ?lat amp.
-=zz
amp. amp.
1/16 d. 025-0.037 20 20-35 20-25 20-30

5/64 0.030-0.062 21 30-45 30-33 30-40
3/32 0.050-0.109 22 50-70 45-55 50-60
0.109-0.187 23 90-210 75-85 90-100
I
1 18
5/32 O.O87-O.5OO 24-25 125-150 95-110 125-140
3/16 0.375-0.750 25-27 155-195
1 14 >O. 375 26-28 240-290
5/16 - -
27- 30 325-375
'kAC current recommended; if DC used, employ procedures

to avoid arc blcw.
1 inch = 25.4 mm.
TABLE 1 2 . 2 . - R e s d t s of Fatigue T e s t s Before and &ter Exposure for 23,600 Hours at 2 8 8 ' ~ (550°F)
-- --
Source Ref. 1 2 - 2 0
Type 301, 50-percent cold rolljd
Before Exposure 1 Aiier Exposure -
I
Spot Welded Fusion Welded I Spot 'Nelded ,Fusion Welded
S, Fatigue life, S, Fatigue life,? Fatigue life, S,,, Fatigue life,
'
kg/mm21 ksq kilocycles k g l z a l ksi, I kp?nk21ksi kilocycles kg/mm2 1 ksi kilocycles

+
Chromium Equivalent = %Cr %Mo + 1.5 x %Si + 0.5 a %Cb
(Cr-Mo-1 .5Si-0.5Cb)
FIGURE 12.1. - Schaeffler diagram: f e r r i t e a s determined
f r t m chemical composition of auetenitic stainlees eteel.
(Ref. 12.8)
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 1OO'F

Temperature
FIGURE 12.2. -Effect of low temperatures oat tanaile properties
and efficiency of Type 301 TLG butt-welded rheet.
(Ref. 12.9)
400 600 800
Number of Cycles
FIGURE 1 2 . 3 . -
Low-cycle S-N curves for complex welded joints
of Type 301 60 percent cold-rolled sheet; thickness,
0.025 inch ( 0 . 6 3 5 rnm). (Ref. 12.9)
8 EQ spaces
7 EQ spaces
0.32
Joint 1 (L): Heliarc buttweld plus spotweld doubler

Joint 2 (L): Same a s 1(L) except 2 rows of spotweld
on each side of buttweld instead of 4 .
Joint 3(T): Resistance

spotweld
6 ZX2 spaces
(Note: 1 in = 25.4 mm)
0.28
Spot Spacing (Center to Ccntcr)
FIGURE 1 2 . 4 . -Efficiency of the parent metal in tension for spot-
welded Type 301 sheet in various conditionn.
(Ref. 12, 3 ,
..
103
--
W. L. Wilcox, "Welding S t a i n l e s s St3el,lt Metal P r o g r e s s , 85(6),
-
96 (1964); Metal P r o g r e s s , 86(1), 121 (1964).
Crucible Steel 20. of A m e r i c a , "The F a b r i c a t o r ' s Handbook,"

1955
Republic Steel C c r p . , "Arc Welding S t a i n l e s s Steel," 196%
-
United S t a t e s Steel, "USS 301 A Standard AISI Type S t a i n l e s s
S t e e l Cold-Reduced to Higher P r o p e r t i e s i o r A i r c r a f t and
Missiles," June !959.
M. L'. Randall, R. E. Monroe, and D. J. Martin, "New Devel-

opments i x Welded F a b r i c a t i o n of L a r g e Solid-Fuel Rocket-
Motor C a s e s , t t DMIC R e p o r t 173, August 6, 1965.
J . E. Anderson aud J. E. Jackson, I t L a s e r Wcldii., - Where I t

Stands Today," M a t e r i a l s in Design Engineering, 0 1 i Z ) , -
92 (1965).
M a t e r i a l s i n Dc s i g n Engineering, " A r c Welding, I f November

1964, p . 107.
Metals 'Handbook, Vol 1, 8th Fdition, A m e r i c a n Society f o r

Metals, 1961.
J . L. Christian, I1Physicaland Alechanical P r o p e r t i e s of

P r e s s u r e V e s s e l M a t e r i a l s f o r Application in Cryogenic
Environment," ASD-TDR-62-258, M a r c h 1962.
.
J Goodford, I t Joining of Crucible R c z i s t a l S t a i n l e s s Steel,"
Crucible S t e e l Company of A m e r i c a , 1954.
F. J . Reippel, "New Developments in the Welding of Metals,"

DMIC R e p o r t 131, Zune 24, 1960.
R. E. Keith e t al. , "Final Report on Manufacturing Methods

f o r High F r e q u e n c y R e s i s t a n c e Weldirg," AFML- TR-65-9,
December 1964.
Military Handbook-5A, t t M e t a l l i c M a t e r i a l s and E l e m e n t s f o r

Flight Vchicle structure^,^^ Dept. of Defense, FSC 1500,
F e b r u a r y 1966; l a t e s t change o r d e r J a n u a r y 1970.
12.14 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., I1Stainless Steel F a b r i c a t i ~ n , ~ ~
1959.
12.15 Welding Handbook, Sec. 4, A. L. Phillips, Ed. , American

'Welding Society, 1960; third printing, 1965.
12.16 United States Steel Corp., I1Fabrication of Stainle6s Steel,"

1969.
12.17 J. E. Campbell, "Review of C u r r e n t Data on the Tensile

P r o p e r t i e s of Metals a t Very Low Temperatures," DMIC
Report 148, F e b r u a r y 14, 1961.
12.18 Republic Steel Gorp., llSoldering Stainless Steel," 1967.
12.19 W. Illg and L.A. Imig, "Fatigue c;f Four Stainless Steels
.. ..before and a f t e r Exposure to Elevated T e m p e r a t u r e s
for up to T h r e e Years,!! NASA T N D-6145, April 1971.
12.20 J. J. Vagi, R. P. Meister, and M. D. Randall, "Weldment

Evaluation Methods ," DMIG Report 244, August 1968.

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REPROL JClBlLlTY OF 'THE ORIGINAL 'OPY IS POOR. --*

MATERIALS DATA HANDBOOK

Stainless Steel Type 301

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Contract No. NAS8-26644

WESTERN APPLIED RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, INC.

1403-07 Industrial Road San Carlos, California 94070

The revised edition of the Materials Data Handbook on stainless

It is intended that this Handbook present, in the f o r m of a single

The Handbook i s divided into twelve (12) chapters. The scope of

Information on the alloy i s given in the f o r m of tables and figures,

Throughout the text, tables, and figures, common engineering units

Sincere appreciation is tendered to the many commercial organ-

Stainless Steel Type 301

TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROFERTIES:

TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

Formability -- -- -- - - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - Good in annealed condition

One-half notch section dimension

Degr ee(s ) Fahrenheit

Type 301 i s the lowest alloyed member of the 18-percent chromium,

1. 2 Of the a u ~ l e n i t i cstainless steels, Type 301 i s the one used most

1.5 General Precuations

Military Handbook-SA, ltMetallic Materials and Elements for Flight

The International Nickel Co., "Heat Treatment and Physical Properties

Republic Steel Corp., ''Republic Enduro Stainless Steel,It 1969.

Aerospace Structural MI tala Handbook, J. G. Sessler and V. Weiee,

2.1 General. Type 301 i s available in a full range of commercial sizes

Allegheny Metal 17-7, Allegheny Ludlurn Steel Corp.

2.5 Available F o r m s , Sizes, and Conditions. Type 301 is available

Alloy Type 301

Product Condition I AMS I ASTM

Plate, sheet, and

Sheet and s t r i p (b) CR-125 ksi, 1I 4 H 55173 A177-67

(a) As of May 1971.

2.2 SAE Aerospace Material Sp~cifications,Society of Automotive

2.3 ASTM Standards, P a r t 3, "Wrought Iron Bar and Sheet, Metallic

2.4 Index of Specifications and Standards, Dept. of Defense, P a r t I,

3.1 Chemical Corn. losition

3.11 The nominal chemical composition of Type 301 is:

3.12 There are some differences in the chemical composition ranges a s

3.13 The principal alloying elements a r e chromium and nickel. Figure

The chromium content gives the steel i t s passivity and resistance

The mechanical properties of cold-worked Type 301 a r e influenced

Manganese and carbcn a130 promote the stability of austenite. C a r -

3.2 Strengthening Mechanisms

3.21 General. Austenitic chromium-nickel etainlees steels cannot be

The austenite in Type 301 i s not thermodynamically stable at room

Light sections of the alloy may be annealed a t 1950' to

S t r e s s Relief. To improve the elastic properties of cold-worked mat-

Surface oxide scale formed during thermal treatment must be removed

Cold Working. The strength of sheet obtained by cold rolling depends

Critical Temperatures. The melting ratlge of the alloy i s 2550' to

The effect of carbon on the constitution of stainless s t e e l containing

3.5 Microstructure. The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of a fully austenitic steel

3.6 Metallographic Procedures. The s p e c i m e : . ~used for optical m i c r o -

Electrolytic polishing eliminates these difficulties and, in general,

Etching i s performed on specimens in o r d e r to isolate the con-

TABLE 3.2. - Electropo hing of Austenitic Stainless Stcel

Perchloric acid 30 ml Iron o r I