Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication For Biomedical Applications

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/320073236
Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication for Biomedical

Applications
Article in IEEE Access · September 2017

DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2757267
CITATIONS READS
109 3,162
6 authors, including:
Han-Joon Kim Sanghoek Kim

National University of Singapore Kyung Hee University
18 PUBLICATIONS 228 CITATIONS 34 PUBLICATIONS 1,159 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Ki Jin Han
Dongguk University
91 PUBLICATIONS 775 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
A Performance Analysis for Interconnections of 3D ICs View project
Development of magnetic communication and wireless power transfer integrated system for extreme environment applications View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Han-Joon Kim on 27 October 2017.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SPECIAL SECTION ON ENERGY EFFICIENT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
WITH ENERGY HARVESTING AND WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER
Received August 30, 2017, accepted September 13, 2017, date of publication September 27, 2017,
date of current version October 25, 2017.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2757267
INVITED PAPER
Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and

Communication for Biomedical Applications
HAN-JOON KIM 1 , (Student Member, IEEE), HIROSHI HIRAYAMA2 , (Member, IEEE),
SANGHOEK KIM3 , (Member, IEEE), KI JIN HAN4 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
RUI ZHANG5 , (Fellow, IEEE), AND JI-WOONG CHOI 1 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Daegu 771-873, South Korea
2 Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya 466-8555, Japan
3 Department of Electronics and Radio Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Youngin-si 446-701, South Korea
4 Division of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, South Korea
5 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583
Corresponding author: Ji-Woong Choi ([email protected])

This work was supported by the research fund of Signal Intelligence Research Center supervised by the Defense Acquisition Program
Administration and the Agency for Defense Development of Korea.
ABSTRACT Near-field magnetic wireless systems have distinct advantages over their conventional far-
field counterparts in water-rich environments, such as underwater, underground, and in biological tissues,
due to lower power absorption. This paper presents a comprehensive review of near-field magnetic wireless
power transfer (WPT) and communication technologies in a variety of applications from general free-space
systems, to implantable biomedical devices we find of particular interest. To implement a fully wirelessly-
powered implantable system, both high-efficiency power transfer and high-rate data communication are
essential. This paper first presents the history and the fundamentals of near-field WPT and communication
in free-space systems, followed by technical details for their specific use in implantable biomedical devices.
Finally, this paper reviews recent advances in simultaneous wireless information and power transfer and
highlights their applications in implantable biomedical systems. The knowledge reviewed in the paper could
provide intuition in the design of various wireless and mobile systems such as wireless body area networks,
small-cell 5G cellular, as well as in-body biomedical applications, especially for efficient power and data
management and higher security.
INDEX TERMS Near-field wireless power, near-field wireless communication, biomedical applications,
implantable device.
I. INTRODUCTION identification (RFID), and wireless power transfer (WPT)

Electromagnetic (EM) fields from an emitting antenna are based on inductive coupling and magnetic resonance. These
generally divided into two regions, the near-field and the near-field technologies exploit the near-field magnetic field
far-field. Although the boundaries between these regions are via inductive coupling between coils. RFID is usually used
not sharply defined, they usually have distinctive characteris- in access control and healthcare applications [2], while NFC
tics [1]. While the far-field EM radiation dominates at greater is used for data exchange, fintech applications, and various
distances, the non-radiative near-field behaviors of EM fields smart devices [3]. WPT systems are typically applied in var-
dominate when close to antennas or scattering objects. The ious mobile devices, home appliances, and electric cars [4].
world of mobile electronics has exploded recently, and there Near-field magnetic systems have distinct advantages in
has been a dramatic increase in the level of interest in near- lossy dielectric media such as water, underground, and
field wireless power and information transfer technologies, biological tissues. In such environments, the conventional
such as near field communication (NFC), radio frequency far-field EM technologies experience significant path loss as
2169-3536
2017 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only.
21264 Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. VOLUME 5, 2017
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
H.-J. Kim et al.: Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication for Biomedical Applications
a result of high energy absorption in the medium [5], [6]. such as ultrasonic and optical methods [18], capacitive cou-
The near-field magnetic systems are more efficient than the pling [19], [20], intra-body communication (IBC) [21], and
conventional far-field counterparts for power and information so on. However, these methods have their own limitations,
transmission since they experience much less energy absorp- which can be briefly summarized as follows.
tion in a lossy dielectric medium [7]. 1) The ultrasonic based communication methods can
In the human body, high energy absorption also leads to deliver data to a deep implantation site [18]. However,
more substantial heating in surrounding tissues, similar to they have limited bandwidth below the 10 MHz carrier
the operating mechanism of a microwave oven [8], [9]. For frequency and can only send data over a distance of
this reason, conventional far-field EM technologies and near- a few cm, due to large absorption loss at high fre-
field magnetic systems need to be operated under proper quency [22]. The power reception also shows signif-
guidelines and regulations which limit exposure to radiated icant vulnerability to misalignment between transmit-
power, to ensure human safety [10]. Because of their lower ter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) [23].
path loss, the near-field magnetic systems can transfer power 2) Optical links cannot work deep inside of the body due
and information using less transmission power compared to the high absorption factor [20], and the efficiency of
to conventional far-field EM technologies, while satisfying power delivery is not sufficient to ensure reliable power
specific absorption ratio (SAR) constraints. Since near-field for implantable biomedical devices.
magnetic systems ensure better safety, they are more suitable 3) Capacitive coupling is a good telemetry method
for implantable biomedical devices. for chip-to-chip and implantable biomedical applica-
Furthermore, the near-field magnetic systems are highly tions, but it has an extremely short operating range
reliable in lossy dielectric medium [11]. Conventional far- (a few mm), which is a significant disadvantage [24].
field EM technologies exhibit variable channel conditions 4) IBC is suitable for transmitting data from implantable
and propagation delays due to the inhomogeneous permit- biomedical devices, however it is not appropriate for
tivity of the materials in transmission environments such as power transmission [25].
soil and the human body [12]. In contrast, near-field magnetic Among the various methods, the near-field magnetic
systems experience negligible channel variations even in an systems are the most suitable for wireless power and data
inhomogeneous lossy medium, because these materials have transmission for implantable biomedical devices, since they
similar permeability [13]. can efficiently deliver power and information without causing
Despite the above advantages, there have been signif- harmful effects to the human body. Nonetheless, the near-
icantly fewer works on near-field magnetic transmission field magnetic systems also have a few limitations, such
technologies than those pertaining to conventional far-field as low data rates, short transmission range, and sensitivity
EM technologies, partly because it is more difficult to con- with respect to the relative position of Tx and Rx. These
duct analysis and simulation without the far-field plane wave issues may not be critical in existing applications which only
simplification. To facilitate advances in near-field wireless require low data-rate communications at short range. Fur-
technologies, substantial research is necessary to develop the- thermore, depending on applications, the short transmission
ories, design methodologies, and measurement techniques. range of the magnetic system may not be a disadvantage.
To serve as a comprehensive reference and to inspire future Some researchers have reported the short range characteristic
research, this paper presents an overview of the near-field of the magnetic communication system to be a benefit in
magnetic wireless power and communication technologies. terms of achieving security and frequency reuse [26], [27].
Among other applications, this paper focuses on implantable However, those issues need to be solved to apply near-field
biomedical applications which require simultaneous wire- magnetic technologies to various future applications which
less information and power transfer (SWIPT). According to may require higher data rates, longer transmission distance,
studies in [14], 8 ∼ 10% of the population in America and and mobility support. To overcome these issues, researchers
5 ∼ 6% in industrialized countries have experienced benefits have proposed a number of promising solutions, which are
from implantable biomedical devices. Since the late 1950s presented in the following sections.
and early 1960s, research related to implantable biomedi- To facilitate the design of implantable biomedical devices
cal applications has been active and steadily growing [15]. with both WPT and communication, this paper aims
Compared to wireless technologies in free-space, implantable to present a comprehensive review of both near-field
biomedical devices have additional issues to deal with, WPT and communication technologies, from fundamen-
including miniaturization to allow minimally invasive opera- tal principles to state-of-the-art results, for both free-space
tion, biocompatibility, packaging, and hermeticity, in addition (Sections II and IV) and implantable biomedical applications
to the power absorption limits of the human body and other (Sections III and V), respectively. Furthermore, in Section VI
safety issues [14]–[17]. this paper discusses SWIPT in near-field magnetic systems
It is worth noting that near-field magnetic techniques for implantable biomedical devices. Fig. 1 provides an out-
are not the only methods by which implantable biomedical line of the paper. Table 1 summarizes the review results of
applications can send power and information. Besides far- near-field magnetic communication and/or WPT for free-
field EM technologies, there are other applicable approaches, space and/or implantable biomedical applications. This paper
VOLUME 5, 2017 21265

II. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC

WPT IN FREE-SPACE
A. HISTORY OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC WPT STUDIES
In 1865, Maxwell introduced what became known as
Maxwell’s equations, in which Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law,
Ampere’s law, and Faraday’s law were integrated into simul-
taneous equations to predict the existence of an electro-
magnetic wave [32]. In 1877, Hertz experimentally verified
the existence of an electromagnetic wave [33]. High volt-
age was applied to a Tx dipole antenna with a spark gap.
The electromagnetic energy arising from the Tx antenna
was then propagated to a Rx antenna, which emitted sparks
between the spark gap of the Rx antenna. It can be said
that this was the first ever WPT experiment. In 1884, Poynt-
ing derived Poynting’s theorem based on Maxwell’s equa-
tion regarding the energy conservation of an electromagnetic
field [34]. The Poynting vector indicates the energy density
and direction of a propagating electromagnetic field. Energy
flow in the near-field WPT is explained by the Poynting
vector [35], [36].
Between the late 1890s and 1910, Tesla developed a high-
voltage high-frequency generator to demonstrate the poten-
tial of WPT [37]. In 1926, the Yagi-Uda antennas were
introduced [38]. Yagi-Uda antennas are now widely used as
directional antennas, consisting of a fed radiator and non-
fed directors and reflectors. The directors and reflectors are
excited by the near-field of the radiator, and act as an array
antenna. It can be said that power excitation from the radi-
ator to the directors and reflectors in the Yagi-Uda antenna
is a kind of near-field WPT. WPT systems using magnetic
induction for devices implanted in the human body have also
been investigated since the 1960s [39], [40]; details of these
implant devices will be addressed in Section III. In 1969,
Richard et al. published a book which discussed the rela-
tionship between circuit theory and field theory from the
viewpoint of electromagnetic energy [41]. In 1978, a WPT
system for moving vehicles with a powered roadway using
magnetic induction was proposed [42]. In the next year, the
system was experimentally tested [43]. Since then, WPT
systems for moving electric vehicle have been studied contin-
uously [44], [45]. Since the 1980s, magnetic induction WPT
FIGURE 1. Organization of the paper.
systems have been broadly introduced in home appliances,
such as electric toothbrushes, shavers, and cordless phones.
Starting in the late 1990s, SONY developed the wireless
differs from previous survey/review papers in the literature IC card ‘‘FeliCa’’, which employed magnetic induction as a
on near-field WPT and/or communications in two main power supply for IC chips and for data transfer purposes [46].
respects: In 2007, the concept of ‘‘Self-resonant WPT’’ was proposed
1) Firstly, it presents a comprehensive overview of near- by an MIT group involving the fields of power electronics,
field WPT and communication technologies including magnetics, microwaves, and antennas [47], [48]. A photo-
their history, fundamental principles, recent trends, as graph of the experiment, in which power was transferred
well as specific discussions pertaining to both free- through the members of the laboratory, caused a stir in the
space and implantable biomedical applications. scientific and industrial world. It is remarkable that even
2) Secondly, it reviews SWIPT by focusing on its appli- in the traditional form of induction WPT before MIT, res-
cations in near-field magnetic systems for implantable onance capacitors were widely used for power factor com-
biomedical devices. pensation due to leakage flux [49]. From the viewpoint of
21266 VOLUME 5, 2017

TABLE 1. Summary of existing survey in related areas.
impedance matching, the MIT scheme was equivalent to B. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG VARIOUS TYPES OF
the commonly used transformer coupling model [50], [51]. NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC BASED WPT SCHEMES
In ‘‘self-resonant based WPT’’, however, by using self- There are a few types of near-field magnetic WPT schemes
resonant antenna instead of an LC resonator, a high quality- and their relationships are depicted in Fig. 2. The most
factor (Q-factor) was achieved. Q-factor is a dimensionless traditional near-field magnetic WPT scheme works by means
parameter which is defined as stored energy over energy loss of magnetic induction, shown as ‘‘Type 1’’ in Fig. 2. In this
in a period. A high Q-factor can greatly increase the power scheme, a resonant capacitor can be used for power fac-
transfer efficiency (PTE) of a system. Recently, two WPT tor compensation due to leakage flux. However, the load
organizations have proposed WPT standards. The ‘Wireless impedance is determined by the power demand of the load.
Power Consortium’ (WPC) proposed a ‘Qi’ standard which As a result, when the transmission distance increases, the
operates at 100 ∼ 205 kHz [52]. Qi is the most popular transmission efficiency decreases in accordance with the
WPT standard and has been adopted by various companies magnetic coupling coefficient km .
such as Nokia, LG electronics, HTC, SONY, and IKEA. Another type of the near-field magnetic resonant WPTs is
Another standard organization ‘AirFuel Alliance’ was estab- magnetic induction with complex conjugate matching, shown
lished to combine the ‘Power Matters Alliance’ (PMA) and as ‘‘Type 2’’ in Fig. 2. To maximize PTE, an impedance
‘Alliance for Wireless Power’ (A4WP) [53]. The PMA stan- matching network is introduced between the Rx coil and the
dard operates at 277 ∼ 357 kHz which is a frequency range load. Since coils are inductive in nature, resonance can be
similar to Qi. A4WP standardized ‘Rezence’ at 6.78 MHz obtained by inserting a capacitor to form an LC tank, as
with the support of Witricity, Intel, Samsung, Qualcomm, shown in Fig. 3. In practical terms, the separation between
AT&T, and Duracell. Qi and PMA use inductive coupling Type 1 and Type 2 is not clear. For example, consider the
technologies, while Rezence technology is based on the self- near-field magnetic WPT for a moving vehicle [54]. In such
resonant inductor. schemes, the Rx device on the vehicle may have a resonant
VOLUME 5, 2017 21267

FIGURE 2. Relationship among various kinds of WPT scheme.
FIGURE 3. Lumped circuit model for inductive coupling. The coils can be
shunt tuned by inserting capacitors Cp1 and Cp2 in parallel of series FIGURE 4. Unified resonant-WPT model: (a) unified model, (b) magnetic
tuned with Cs1 and Cs2 . induction with capacitor (Type 2 in Fig. 2), (c) self-resonant based WPT
(Type 3 in Fig. 2).
mechanism. However, the Tx devices under the road may not Resonant WPT systems are based on electric-field
have a resonant mechanism because they commonly exist as (E-field) coupling and magnetic-field (H-field) coupling, and
just a pair of conducting transmission lines. in order to explain them as an integrated system, a unified
Another near-field magnetic resonant WPT is the self- WPT model was proposed [60]. Fig. 4 (a) shows the unified
resonant based WPT [55], which is ‘‘Type 3’’ in Fig. 2. model. The power supply feeds electric power to the Tx
As explained in the previous subsection, achieving a high resonator, and power is extracted from the Rx resonator. Both
Q-factor by using the self-resonant coil can increase PTE. resonators have a coupler and reactance device. The coupler
This technique typically uses four coils, namely, driver, pri- is a device that generates a near-electric and/or magnetic
mary, secondary, and load coils, and its operation was initially field. The coupler includes a coupling coil and a self-resonant
explained by the coupled-mode theory [56] in [47] and [48]. antenna. The reactance device is a device that is not intended
In a self-resonant based power delivery system, extra coils to generate an electric and/or magnetic field. The reactance
on the driver and load side provide a way of tuning the input device includes a resonant capacitor and a matching inductor.
and output coupling, and therefore the input impedance and The coupler has inductive and capacitive reactance com-
the output impedance, respectively. In other words, the extra ponents which are expressed as XCant and XLant , respectively.
coils play the role of an impedance matching network [57]. The reactance device has inductive or capacitive reactance
The PTE can be greatly enhanced because the Q-factor of the component of XCex and XLex , respectively. With regard to the
coils and the impedance matching network can be kept high resonance, the resonant frequency of the system is determined
in order to compensate for small mutual coupling km between so that the reactive impedance of the resonator (i.e., the
the source and the load coils. When extra coils are used for Reactance device and Coupler) becomes zero: XCant +XCex =
impedance matching, self-resonant based power delivery can XLant + XLex . In terms of coupling, E-field coupling occurs
be understood as inductive coupling, since each pair of coils between the capacitive reactance of the Tx and Rx couplers
are coupled through the magnetic field. Therefore, the self- with the electric coupling coefficient kc , and H-field coupling
resonant based system can also be analyzed and optimized occurs between the inductive reactance of the Tx and Rx
using self-inductance and mutual inductance in circuit the- couplers with the magnetic coupling coefficient km .
ory [58], [59], which is generally more familiar to electrical In a WPT system which uses a coupling coil and a resonant
engineers than coupled-mode theory. capacitor, as shown in Fig. 4 (b), the coupler mainly has
21268 VOLUME 5, 2017

inductive reactance, while the capacitive reactance of the have generally been employed: robust structure and electrical
coupler itself is quite small. Therefore, an external form tuning.
of reactance is necessary to realize resonance. During the The first approach utilizes robust structures, which
exchange of energy between the external capacitive reac- can prevent or compensate the efficiency degradation
tance and inductive reactance, energy loss occurs, which caused by an unpredictable position change, by exploiting
reduces the Q-factor of the system, and hence degrades 3-dimensional (3D) coils, antenna arrays, and metamaterials.
the PTE. The 3D coil structure can prevent a reduction in PTE caused
In a WPT system using a self-resonant antenna, as shown by rotation misalignment due to omnidirectional magnetic
in Fig. 4 (c), the antenna itself has both inductive and fields [72], and the Tx coil array structure produces a broader
capacitive reactance capabilities. Therefore, without using a magnetic field, which can provide energy to the Rx coil even
resonant capacitor, resonance can be achieved. By employ- with lateral misalignment on the array structure [73], [74].
ing a self-resonant scheme, a high Q-factor is achieved Asymmetrical Tx and Rx coils can also increase the trans-
because the loss in the resonant capacitor is avoided. In the mission coverage [75]. Array structures are popular and can
magnetic-coupling self-resonant scheme, the electric field is produce a uniform magnetic field in an appointed area using
not negligible because of its resonant nature, as shown in antiparallel resonant loops [76], multi-loops having the same
Fig. 4 (c). Suppressing the electric field coupling by modify- axis [77], and overlapped arrays [78]. Reference [79] consid-
ing the geometry of the self-resonant antenna can improve the ered move-and-charge schemes which were combined with
Q-factor and extend transmission distance [61]. On the other a Tx array structure and omnidirectional Rx coil to prevent
hand, by utilizing electric field coupling, the transmission cases of both lateral and rotation misalignment. Recently,
distance can be extended by using a repeater consisting of some research groups have adopted metamaterials to extend
a single-wire conductor [62]. the operating range of near-field magnetic systems [80] and to
compensate for the losses that occur with misalignment [81].
C. RESEARCH TRENDS IN THEORY AND APPLICATIONS The second approach is based on electrical tuning to adjust
Achieving a maximum PTE is a priority goal in WPT systems the resonant characteristics. Efficiency can be degraded by
where impedance matching and coupling coefficient are the mismatched conditions, such as variable mutual inductance
key parameters of high PTE. Most early studies of WPT depending on relative position, and changing loads. To com-
systems tried to achieve high PTE by assuming that the pensate, its critical to dynamically adapt operating conditions
Tx coil and Rx coil needed to be closely located and perfectly and power transfer ranges to these changes. For example,
aligned. Reference [63] introduced the relationship between methods to dynamically adjust operating frequency, the input
port impedance and coupling coefficient, and the change in and output impedance of the coils, and the load impedances
image impedance patterns, to provide in-depth insight into of the rectifier are discussed in detail in [82] and [83].
system performance. Reference [64] showed the maximum Reference [84] compensated the decreased power efficiency
transmission efficiency of a two-port network, which rep- via displacement using frequency shift with an electrically
resents a pair of couplers. A theoretical analysis based on tuned Class-E inverter. They achieved a nearly constant
an antenna and a matching circuit approach [65], an equiv- PTE within a certain coupling coefficient range. Tuning
alent circuit approach [66], and field theory [35] were also can be also applied using a matching network at a given
conducted. operating frequency. Reference [85] solved PTE degrada-
Besides the studies on high PTE for a given limited trans- tion by frequency splitting with critical coupled systems by
mission range, research groups also attempted to extend adjusting the capacitance of the resonator. They verified the
range and support mobility with maximum PTE. Although proposed method via testbed, by applying offline tuning.
the transmission range of inductive coupling based magnetic Reference [86] presented an automated impedance matching
WPT systems are usually smaller than the Tx coil dimen- system using switching capacitor circuitry although it still
sion, [67] introduced self-resonant based WPT systems for had unsolved issues, such as the power consumption of the
distances longer than the Tx coil dimension using a high feedback loop and high system complexity.
Q-factor. Reference [68] presented a resonant WPT system Magnetic beamforming can simultaneously achieve the
using an intermediate perpendicular resonant coil between goals of both long transmission range and high PTE with
the Tx coil and Rx coil. Reference [69] developed a dipole mobility. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the stud-
coil resonance system (DCRS) with a ferrite core for a ies about magnetic beamforming techniques are very recent
stronger and wider magnetic field, enabling 209W at 5 m with trends in the communication and WPT area. In the first
a 20 kHz carrier frequency. study on magnetic beamforming in 2014, [87] proposed a
To support mobility, unpredictable loads and changes in the Tx coil array which could efficiently transmit power to a Rx
Rx position have to be addressed. References [70] and [71] about 50 cm away from the Tx device, without alignment by
proposed an analytical model of a near-field inductive cou- phase control. In 2015, a power transfer method for pow-
pling magnetic system and magnetic resonance system to ering up to 6 different devices was proposed by the same
compensate the effect of misalignment. To make near-field research group [88]. Reference [89] conducted a coupling
magnetic WPT systems robust and reliable, two approaches and circuit analysis of the Tx array components to prevent
VOLUME 5, 2017 21269

power leakage. They presented a theoretical analysis and in the tissue, and degrades the overall PTE. c) Safety regula-
well matched measurement results with various coil arrange- tions that address tissue heating by external electromagnetic
ments. Reference [90] proposed a beamforming algorithm for sources place a certain limit on the potential amount of power
maximum PTE with an orthogonal 3D coil based Tx coil that can be delivered [16]. Considering these factors, various
array. The aforementioned studies considered a single Tx design parameters such as operating frequency should be
device and multiple Rx devices. Reference [91] presented revisited for applications with biomedical purposes.
a multi-input single-output (MISO) WPT using signal pro- We first review the mechanisms of inductive coupling and
cessing and optimization methods with perfect parameter magnetic resonance for powering implantable devices. These
information between the Tx coils and Rx coil. They showed a methods are as widely used for the wireless powering of
near-optimal solution using the proposed non-convex system implantable devices as they are in free-space. To make the sur-
mode. This work was later extended to the general setups with vey more comprehensive, this section also introduces another
distributed transmitters with optimized locations and gen- method, mid-field coupling. When the Rx device size is much
eral magnetic multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) WPT smaller than the separation between the Tx and Rx device,
systems with arbitrary number of transmitters and receivers researchers have proposed operating at higher frequencies, in
in [92] and [93], respectively. the mid-field range, where both reactive and radiative energy
[94] introduced a magnetic beamforming system from a can be utilized [103].
different point of view, which considered the security of the
WPT system to prevent unwanted power transfer to unin- A. INDUCTIVE COUPLING
tended Rx. Issues still remain in the magnetic beamforming The most popular technique for delivering power wirelessly
systems, such as power leakage between the Tx array compo- to biomedical implants is inductive coupling, which was first
nents, the highly complex computations needed to determine used to power an artificial heart [104]. Since then, there
the optimal current of each transmit coil, and estimate the have been several comprehensive analyses of inductive links
system parameters. However, there are clues to solve these over tissues [105]–[108]. Table 2 lists the parameters of the
issues. Reference [89] reported enhanced performance with inductively coupled systems described in the literature [109]
reduced leakage, and [90], [91] mentioned the linear rela- although this list is not exhaustive.
tionship between the optimal current of each Tx coil and
the mutual inductance between each Tx coil and Rx coil TABLE 2. Frequency, Range, and coil size of select implants.
in particular cases. Reference [95] presented a non-coupling
coil pattern to mitigate the power leakage and computation
complexity issues. A non-coupling coil can reduce the power
leakage in the Tx array, since the coil pattern reduces coupling
between the Tx array components. Reducing power leakage
can lead to better PTE and longer transmission distance than
can be obtained with conventional coupling coil pattern sys-
tems. Additionally, reducing coupling can avoid the compli-
cated calculations needed to determine the optimal current
of each Tx coil, by using the linear relationship with mutual
inductance between each Tx coil and Rx coil.
WPT technologies are promising for various applica-
tions including mobile devices, home appliances, sensor To maximize PTE, impedance matching networks and cou-
networks [96]–[98], chip-to-chip applications [99], vehi- pling are as important in implantable biomedical applications
cles [100] and medical applications. To apply WPT tech- as they are in free-space applications. However, the limita-
nologies to these applications, challenging issues still need tions of implantable devices introduce significant obstacles to
to be worked out, such as EMC/EMI issues to meet safety realizing a proper impedance matching network. To compen-
regulations [101], [102], RF-to-DC conversion efficiency, in sate the improper Rx coil inductance resulting from its limited
addition to the issues mentioned in this paper. size, inductance tapping and voltage doubler circuits have
also been considered for impedance matching [106]. In addi-
III. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD WIRELSS POWER TRANSFER tion, ferrite cores [39] and efficient rectifying circuits [110]
FOR IMPLANTABLE BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS have been employed to enhance coupling between the Tx coil
Although methods of powering implantable biomedical and Rx coil. Table 3 lists the different tuning configurations
applications can basically employ the same technologies utilized to achieve high PTE for each application.
employed in free-space systems, they also need to consider Implantable biomedical applications also have misalign-
the following issues. a) To be minimally invasive, the size of ment issues similar to those encountered in free-space, due to
the implant needs to be highly restricted. b) Human tissue, the highly curved anatomical surfaces and relative movement
through which the electromagnetic wave propagates, is a of organs during daily life [131]. Many techniques have also
lossy medium. This leads to additional power losses, as heat been studied to improve the robustness of the link, and these
21270 VOLUME 5, 2017

TABLE 3. Tuning configurations of select studies. are much smaller than the distance from the Tx, it is advan-
tageous to use mid-field coupling, which exploits a higher
frequency range [103], [138]–[140].
C. MID-FIELD COUPLING
Microwave operating frequencies can be used to maximize
PTE. As frequency increases, electromagnetic waves atten-
uate faster in tissue because the skin depth is reduced. The
antenna efficiency of an electrically small Rx, however, gen-
erally increases with frequency. One can therefore expect
an optimal frequency at which PTE is maximized for a
are summarized in [109]. In [123], the dependency of the given Rx structure. Specifically, when the Rx was limited to
efficiency on the coupling coefficient km was reduced by millimeter-size and subjected to the constraints of a realizable
operating at the optimal voltage transfer ratio. A similar idea range of Q-factor, it was shown that the optimal frequency lies
was proposed in [124], where km maximized trans impedance in the low-GHz range [88]. At low-GHz frequency, a power
to desensitize its variation with km . In [107] and [125], the link with a typical source and Rx separation in an implantable
voltage transfer ratio was desensitized to variation in km by system corresponds to mid-field operation, where both reac-
staggered tuning circuits. Using coils with free-running oscil- tive and radiative modes of fields can be utilized to power up
lation, it was shown that the efficiency is independent of the Rx [141].
coupling if km is greater than the inverse of the loaded When the powering system operates at mid-field, the
Q-factor of the Rx coil [126]–[129]. In [130], a circuit source structure can be tuned to maximize efficiency, similar
approach was described to improve the tolerance to coupling to an antenna array concept operating with a far-field antenna.
variation, using coils at self-oscillation. In [132], the design Unlike a far-field operation, however, the purpose is not
parameters for planar spiral coils were optimized to maxi- simply to control the direction of plane wave propagation.
mize PTE. [133] implemented soft and flexible coils using a Instead, the purpose is to produce a field distribution in which
liquid metal alloy for more comfortable implants, with com- the electric field causing the heating of tissue is minimal per
parable system-level performance as metal based counter- given energy delivery to Rx. The source structure generating
parts. In most of these techniques, the idea of using resonant the minimum dissipated power in tissue was analytically
LC tanks on both coils to enhance the efficiency is widely found in [142] and [143].
embraced [47], [83], [134]. The starting point of such an analysis is to model the
human body as a multilayered structure (Fig. 5 (a)), where
B. SELF-RESONANT BASED POWER DELIVERY Green’s function is analytically known. The thickness and
Resonant based power delivery has been applied in the dielectric property of each layer follows the geometry
implantable and wearable devices [71], [135], [136]. Refer- of the human body and the Debye model [144]. The source
ence [71] used multiple inductor coils of a few centimeter size is modeled as a current sheet above the tissue to represent
for coupling and matching purposes. To achieve high PTE an arbitrary source, invoking the equivalence principle in
in a deeply implanted location, a high Q-factor is required electromagnetic theory. Fig. 5 (b)-(e) shows the solution for
in implantable biomedical devices. Since the Q-factor of multilayers approximating the chest wall – skin, fat, muscle,
those coils (a few hundreds) is much higher than that of bone, and cardiac tissue – at a maximum operating point
discrete inductors (a few tens) at corresponding frequencies, (2.6 GHz) compared to a coil source. The optimal current
the efficiency reported in [71] can be much higher than density, shown in Fig. 5 (c), consists of alternating current
that of a system using matching networks made of discrete paths spaced approximately every half wavelength. The cur-
LC components. rent paths propagate inwards, generating fields that exhibit a
Another benefit of using a multi-coil solution is that it pro- focusing effect, as shown in Fig. 5 (e). In contrast, the field
vides designers with more degrees of freedom to optimize the generated by a coil source shows divergent power flow lines,
inductive link [58], [136]. Spacing between the primary and as shown in Fig. 5 (d).
secondary coil can be adjusted to control the input impedance. The feasibility of operating millimeter-sized cardiac
Exploiting this feature, a three-coil link was also proposed implants was verified by experiment in [140]. A source
in [136], to achieve both high efficiency and power delivery. resembling the optimal current distribution was fabricated
However, having extra coils generally requires larger sized with metal slots. Four microwave ports were used to excite
implants and more complex designs, and introduces several the structure. A microelectronic stimulator, about 2 mm in
design constraints on the inductor geometry [137]. Moreover, diameter and 3 mm in length, weighting 70 mg, was fabri-
it is very difficult to fabricate coils with high Q-factors within cated with an Rx coil of about 2 mm diameter attached. The
a scale of a few millimeters. As a consequence, self-resonant device reports the power received based on the pulse rate
based coupling has not been adopted for powering millimeter- of a light emitting diode, which can be calibrated precisely
sized miniature implants. To operate implants whose sizes to the power transferred to the coil [143]. With 500 mW of
VOLUME 5, 2017 21271

FIGURE 5. (a) Multilayer tissue model and a current sheet above it to represent arbitrary source. (b-c) Current distribution of the coil
source (top) and the optimal source (bottom) at 2.6 GHz. (d-e) The magnetic field component aligned with the receiver dipole moment x̂
and the Poynting vector (white) generated by the coil source (top) and the optimal source (bottom) at 2.6 GHz.
output power from the source, 200 µW of power could be In the 1970s, more work on RFID was conducted by many
transferred to the device. Considering that modern pacemak- companies, academic institutions, and government labora-
ers require just 8 µW to operate [144], this is more than tories. In 1975, Alfred Koelle, Steven Depp, and Robert
sufficient to perform various advanced electronic functions. Freyman presented an important result in a paper entitled
The resultant PTE also approached the value derived from ‘‘Short-range radio-telemetry for electronics identification
theory. using modulated backscatter’’ [146], which is the start-
ing point of a completely passive tag with a transmission
IV. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC range of tens of meters. After this paper, General Electric,
COMMUNICATION IN FREE-SPACE Westinghouse, Philips, and Glenayre tested this passive iden-
As previously noted, near-field magnetic communication tification tag system at the Port Authority of New York
technologies, which have the same principles as near-field and New Jersey. Based on an RFID system consisting of a
WPT technologies, are types of short-range communication microwave system and an inductive system, various applica-
technologies based on magnetic fields, such as RFID, NFC, tions became widespread, including animal tracking, vehicle
and payment systems. The main concern of near-field mag- tracking, and factory automation. Further size reductions
netic WPT technologies is the PTE. However, the primary and functional improvements were achieved by utilizing
goals of modern near-field communication technologies are low-voltage and low-power complementary metal-oxide
throughput and reliability. In this section, we present the semiconductor (CMOS) logic circuits in the 1970s.
history of typical near-field magnetic communication In the 1980s, RFID applications were rapidly expanded
schemes, and introduce the principles of near-field mag- with the development of the personal computer (PC), since
netic communication and various related technologies, fol- the PC can provide a convenient and economical means of
lowed by descriptions of technological issues and recent collecting and managing data from RFID systems. At the
trends. same time, various nations became interested in different
applications of RFID. Transportation and personnel access
A. HISTORY OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC applications drew more interest in the United States (US),
COMMUNICATIONS while Europe was more interested in short-range systems
RFID is the oldest standard application to employ near- for animals, industry, business, and electronic toll collection
field magnetic communication technologies. In 1948, Harry applications.
Stockman published the landmark paper ‘‘Communication by In the 1990s, the US installed more than three mil-
means of reflected power’’ enabling communications using lion RFID tags for electronic toll collection purposes in
reflected power [145]. In the 1960s, RFID commercial activ- North America. Europe applied RFID tags for electronic
ities began with a few established companies, and an elec- toll collection, access control, and a wide variety of other
tronic article surveillance system (EAS), the first wide-spread commercial applications using both microwave and induc-
commercial application of RFID, was presented to the world tive technologies. These electronic tolling applications were
to prevent theft. This system, termed a one-bit tag, can only installed in Australia, China, Hong Kong, Philippines,
detect the presence or absence of the tag. Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Canada, Japan, Malaysia,
21272 VOLUME 5, 2017
Singapore, Thailand, South Korea, South Africa, and in other

countries. These types of electronic toll collection systems
were the first commercially successful application of RFID
technology [147].
Currently, RFID is used in various commercial fields
including the airline industry, railways, manufacturing, agri-
culture, hospitals, livestock, supply chains, food, payment FIGURE 6. Simplified concept of inductive coupling.
applications, tracking applications, and identification appli-
cations [2]. RFID is also now becoming more popu-
lar for short-range interactions in the Internet of Things
(IoT) [148], [149]. monitoring, and environmental pollution surveillance [154].
However, RFID cannot support peer-to-peer communica- The MFAN standard ISO/IEC 15149 includes an Air inter-
tion, which requires initialization of communication at either face, in-band control protocol for WPT, relay protocol for
end by both parties. NFC is one of the alternative near-field extended range, and security protocol for authentication.
magnetic communication methods to RFID, including peer-
to-peer communication. NFC technologies were developed B. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG VARIOUS TYPES OF
by Philips and Sony jointly in 2002. These were based on NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
RFID and contactless smartcard technology for contactless Before explaining the differences of the above-mentioned
communications. In 2004, ISO/IEC 18092 ‘‘Near field com- near-field magnetic communication schemes, we need to talk
munication – interface and protocol (NFCIP-1)’’ came into about the basic principle of near-field magnetic communica-
effect [151]. In 2007, Nokia 6131 NFC-enabled handsets and tion technologies. This principle is commonly applied to all of
NFC tags were supplied to 500 selected subscribers by Inno- the types of near-field magnetic systems described in Fig. 2.
vation Research & Technology in the United Kingdom (UK). Near-field magnetic communication systems are operated in
This was the first consumer trial of NFC technology. In 2010, the near-field region. A primary coil generates a magnetic
Samsung provided the first Android phone, Nexus S, which alternating field. When a secondary coil is placed in the near-
included a NFC function. In 2011, Google demonstrated field of the primary coil, these coils are coupled by inductive
NFC for gaming and sharing a contact, URLs, apps and coupling, and energy from the alternating field can be induced
video, and Research in Motion presented the first device to in a secondary coil according to Faraday’s law. This is the
include the PayPass service, the payment service of Master- basic principle of magnetic systems, as shown in Fig. 6.
Card which can use NFC. In 2012, the first NFC-enabled Additionally, if both the primary coil and secondary coil have
‘smartposter’ was used in a campaign by the UK restaurant identical resonance frequencies, the resonance circuit of the
chain EAT and Everything Everywhere. In 2013, Samsung secondary coil produces sympathetic resonance. Current in
and VISA announced a partnership to develop mobile pay- the secondary coil then flows against the external magnetic
ments using NFC. In 2014, AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile alternating field, affecting the external magnetic alternating
released the NFC payment service Softcard with Smartphone, field [155]. Using this phenomenon, a passive inductive cou-
and Apple applied their NFC payment service, Apple Pay, pling based RFID tag can obtain power and can transmit data
to their devices [151]. In 2015, Samsung released Samsung streams to an inductive coupling based RFID reader. The
Pay, which can support both magnetic card and NFC payment following schemes all employ the same inductive coupling
technology [152]. based RFID, although there are a few differences in other
RuBee (IEEE 1902.1) is another subset of RFID. RuBee components, such as network topologies and protocols.
shares the same operating principle of the other near-field NFC is a short-range half-duplex communication protocol
magnetic communication systems. However, RuBee is more which uses inductive coupling and an operating frequency of
similar to WiFi or Zigbee than RFID and NFC in terms of 13.56 MHz. It is commonly used with NFC mobile devices,
protocol. The RuBee protocol was designed for real-time NFC tags, and NFC readers, and the operating modes of NFC
asset visibility networks in harsh environments by Visible include the reader/writer mode, card-emulator mode, and
Assets. A RuBee work group (IEEE 1902.1) was formed in peer-to-peer mode, as shown in Fig. 7 [3]. In the reader/writer
late 2006 with 17 corporate members, and the Food and Drug operating mode, an active NFC mobile can read and write
Administration (FDA) classified RuBee as a non-significant the data stored in the NFC tag. This mode follows ISO/IEC
risk (NSR) class 1 device in medical visibility applications 14443 Type A, Type B, and FeliCa, and data exchanges
in the same year. In 2009, a final specification of RuBee was are performed according to the near field data exchange
issued as an IEEE standard [153]. format (NDEF) from the NFC Forum. In the card-emulation
Magnetic field area network (MFAN) is the latest scheme mode, NFC readers and NFC mobiles act as traditional RFID
employing near-field magnetic communication, using a readers and as a contactless, read-only RFID smart card
128 kHz carrier frequency for underground applications, such based on ISO/IEC 14442 Type A, Type B, and FeliCa. The
as underground state monitoring and earthquake manage- NFC technology can be integrated with existing types of
ment, underground facility management, building and bridge RFID infrastructure using the card-emulator mode [3], [151].
VOLUME 5, 2017 21273

MFAN-R can compose a small network with MFAN-Ns

which are located outside the range of MFAN-C, to expand
the network. Every node can operate as an MFAN-C,
MFAN-R, and MFAN-N [154].
C. RESEARCH TRENDS IN THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

The primary challenges of RFID and NFC are usually high
cost, privacy, security, and recognition issues [3], [147],
[148], [159]. However, this paper focuses more on the fun-
damental issues of the near-field magnetic systems, such as
limited channel capacity in free-space use, rather than these
standard-specific issues.
Before introducing specific high data rate schemes, we
briefly discuss the theoretical basis of path loss, link bud-
get, and channel. Akyildiz provided the path loss of a
magnetic induction (MI) waveguide for underground appli-
cations [160]–[162], and Agbinya provided a link budget
model [163]–[165] power equation and the channel capac-
ity of magnetic communication systems in various magnetic
FIGURE 7. Operation mode of NFC: (a) read/write mode, (b) card relay configurations [166]. Reference [7] provided clear the-
emulator mode, (c) peer to peer mode.
oretical demonstrations of the benefits of magnetic commu-
nication systems in the near-field with lossy mediums which
The peer-to-peer mode is unique to NFC and unlike RFID, have high permittivity and conductivity, such as the human
since RFID can only read data from a card or a tag. In the peer- body.
to-peer mode, two NFC mobiles can exchange information To enhance channel capacity or throughput, there have
in both directions according to ISO/IEC 18092 as NFCIP-1. been numerous studies involving many aspects, e.g., tests
The NFCIP-1 protocol basically operates a ‘‘request-response of different modulation schemes or the use of advanced
model’’ and includes an error handling function using the structures such as MIMO and relays. The general modula-
acknowledge (ACK) character frame. tion schemes used in conventional EM communication sys-
RuBee operates at 1 to 50 feet (0.3 to 15 m) with a tems, such as amplitude, frequency and phase modulation,
long wavelength (131 kHz) for harsh-environment and high- ranging from binary to higher-order encoding modulation,
security asset-visibility applications. RuBee does not use can be also applied to near-field magnetic communication
a reflected signal for backscattering, but actually transmits systems [167]. Amplitude shift keying (ASK) or amplitude
a data signal on demand, similar to WiFi and Zigbee, with a modulation (AM) schemes are the most common, and rely
slow data rate (1,200 baud) and a small packet size. Therefore, on varying the amplitude of the signal. ASK can emulate
RuBee cannot provide a high data rate, however, by using a the zero/one logic of digital communication, as the modula-
magnetic field with an electrically small size and low power tion depth of ASK can be controlled up to 100% from 0%.
operation, RuBee can guarantee high security communication When the modulation depth is 100%, it is called on-off
to eliminate the risk of eavesdropping [157. According to keying, which is a special case of ASK. FSK or frequency
a peer-reviewed study of the Mayo Clinic, RuBee does not modulation (FM) modulates the data by altering the fre-
affect implantable biomedical devices such as pacemakers quency of the carrier signal. Phase shift key (PSK) or phase
or interplantation cardioverta defibrillator (ICD)s. Further- modulation methods send the data by changing the phase
more, RuBee does not create EMI or EMC problems in the of the carrier signal. ASK and FSK are relatively sim-
operating room [158]. Therefore, RuBee is suitable for near- ple schemes for data transmission. However, some applica-
field short range magnetic communications that require long tions of near-field magnetic communication systems require
battery lifetimes, safety, and high security with an omnidirec- low power or powerless systems with simple architecture.
tional magnetic field. Load shift keying (LSK) or load modulation (LM) schemes
MFAN is unlike the other near-field magnetic commu- identify the reflected impedance in the Tx coil via the
nication approaches in terms of network topology. Other changing load impedance of Rx, and can thus reduce power
near-field magnetic communication systems support a broad- consumption. This back telemetry link can easily deliver
cast request- response or peer-to-peer method. MFAN can simple information, like RFID. LSK schemes have advan-
establish a centralized network which is similar to Zigbee, tages in terms of power consumption and hardware complex-
consisting of one MFAN-coordinator (MFAN-C), mul- ity. However, these schemes cannot support high data rates.
tiple MFAN-nodes (MFAN-N), and an MFAN-repeater Several research groups have applied carrier-less pulse mod-
(MFAN-R). The role of MFAN-C is access control and ulation (PM) based methods, which have been adopted from
time resource management as the center of the network. the impulse radio-ultra wideband (IR-UWB) schemes of
21274 VOLUME 5, 2017

conventional EM communication systems, to near-field

magnetic communication systems to obtain wide band-
width, low hardware complexity, and low power consump-
tion [168], [169]. Reference [170] presented a review of
the PM based near-field magnetic communication systems
to compare with carrier based EM communication schemes,
and capacitive coupling methods. In addition, [170] reported
useful information about the PM based near-field magnetic
system, such as the relationship between distance and data
rate, crosstalk, and constant magnetic field scaling. In PM
based systems, data is transmitted via sub-nanosecond pulses
with wide bandwidth, and the PM based methods are usu-
ally applied to chip-to-chip communication and implantable
devices with proximity distance. The bandwidth of the Tx FIGURE 8. The heterogeneous multi-pole loop antenna array MIMO is
coil and Rx coil should be two times higher than the sig- composed of circular loop antenna and quadrupole loop antenna [184].
nal frequency to suppress inter-symbol-interference (ISI),

which is caused by a ringing signal from the Rx.
Reference [169] presented PM based multi-channel near-field misalignment, and applied this omnidirectional coil to
magnetic systems to achieve high data rates in a 4-stacked underwater communication systems [178]. Reference [179]
system in a package. The system inevitably had crosstalk showed the investigation results of various coil relay con-
issues between array components. To reduce the crosstalk, the figurations, which were derived using a detailed theoretical
system used the time division multiple access (TDMA) tech- analysis. The study showed variable received power with
nique between adjacent array components. Reference [171] various magnetic relay methods, which were dependent upon
used PM methods with the H-bridge architecture to achieve excitation methods, to find a better range extension method.
high data rates for mobile applications. However, the Reference [180] presented a multi-hop relay method for range
H-bridge requires high power consumption. To reduce the extension and enhanced channel capacity in non-line of sight
H-bridge power consumption, the system applied transmis- conditions.
sion time control. The proposed system also introduced reli- The magnetic relay methods are promising solutions for
able communication by using an additional amplifier and achieving high data-rates and range extension in acceptable
differential detection method, which can make a decision situations that allow additional relay coils. In peer-to-peer
regardless of signal strength when the system receives a weak applications, on the other hand, MIMO is a promising
signal due to large distance and misalignment. However, method for increasing channel capacity. Reference [181]
to achieve wide bandwidth the proposed methods require presented a link budget of various antenna configura-
a low Q-factor, which decreases transmission range and tions, such as single-input single-output (SISO), single-input
SNR. Therefore, these methods may not be suitable for multi-output (SIMO), multi-input single-output (MISO), and
implantable biomedical applications which require a high MIMO, without considering crosstalk between array compo-
Q-factor to receive enough power for reliable operation [172]. nents, and they proposed another multi antenna method using
In Section V, we introduce implantable biomedical devices a frequency splitting phenomenon [182]. They showed the
including PM based near-field magnetic communications potential of frequency splitting MISO or SIMO with a linear
with high Q-factor. binary chirp modulation in the strongly coupled region via
Other research groups have tried to achieve a high data rate hardware, using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA).
by using special coil structures such as relay coils and coil Reference [183] also demonstrated the potential of a
arrays. Akyildiz, Agbinya, and Masihpour reported magnetic 3×3 magnetic MIMO configuration with multiple coils,
relay based approaches, which are promising solutions which were arranged orthogonally to each other. Refer-
to obtain extended range and enhanced channel capacity, ence [184] proposed another magnetic MIMO configuration
respectively. Reference [11] proposed a spread reso- using a heterogeneous multi-pole loop antenna array with a
nance (SR) strategy which can achieve increased channel crosstalk cancellation effect, as shown in Fig. 8. This configu-
capacity with an MI waveguide, which was proposed by ration obtained parallel multiple streams without complicated
Solymar [173]–[176]. In this strategy, a resonant frequency signal processing methods, which are required in the conven-
of each relay coil is deviated from the original central fre- tional RF MIMO system. With quadrupole loops, antenna B
quency. This enhances bandwidth and reduces path loss, can generate a cancellation plane, which is composed of
whereas the SR strategy leads to increased system complex- cancellation points of the opposite magnetic fields H1 and H2 .
ity. They realized a magnetic communication system, which When circular loops, antenna A is located in the cancellation
included the MI waveguide system and underground testbed, plane, and there is no crosstalk between the quadrupole loops
using software defined radio (SDR) [177]. Furthermore, they and circular loops, as shown in Fig. 8. They also presented a
included measurement of the 3D coil to prevent rotational testbed with the magnetic MIMO using SDR [185].
VOLUME 5, 2017 21275

FIGURE 10. The general schematic overview of the near-field

communication and power transfer telemetry link using an
inductive coupling.
between the external component and the implantable biomed-

ical devices [16], [189]–[191]. Among the various modula-
tions schemes discussed in the previous chapter, ASK and
FIGURE 9. Cochlear implant: the part shown in dotted line is coil part for FSK are more attractive in terms of the minimal size of the
wireless power and communication.
implantable biomedical device, due to simple circuitry [190],
[194], [195], although they experience SNR degradation and
V. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC low data rates.
COMMUNICATION FOR IMPLANTABLE LSK schemes may be an alternative option to satisfy strict
BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS size and power consumption requirements, such as battery-
Various wireless communication technologies have been less operation and simple circuitry. Accordingly, they usually
applied in implantable biomedical devices, as mentioned in play an important role in monitoring and status feedback
the introduction. Among these technologies, near-field mag- processes, such as impedance around the electrode, chem-
netic communication systems are promising because they ical states, neural responses, and battery states [16], [106],
provide the advantages of near-field magnetic technologies. [196], [197]. However, similar to ASK and FSK, LSK cannot
Fig. 9 shows a cochlear implant which is one of the most suc- support high data rates.
cessfully commercialized implantable devices using the near- PM based methods can be considered for high data rate
field magnetic technologies. As we mentioned in Section III, communication schemes with low power consumption, as we
the near-field magnetic technologies used in free-space can mentioned in Section IV. However, the presented schemes
be applied to implantable biomedical applications, as lo ng as may not be appropriate for implantable biomedical appli-
several considerations of implantable biomedical devices are cations that require a larger distance than the on-chip coil
taken into account, such as size reduction for minimal inva- applications, due to low Q-factor needed to obtain wide
sive operation, biocompatibility, packaging, and hermeticity. bandwidth [196].
Additionally, low data-rate issues are also significant in Ghovanloo’s group proposed improved PM methods for
implantable biomedical applications, because of the high implantable devices. Reference [196] proposed pulse har-
data-rate demands of neural prosthesis applications, which monic modulation (PHM) which uses multiple pulses more
aim to achieve performance similar to human organs, such as than twice to suppress ringing signal from the Rx, with spe-
cochlear, retinal, and various other neural systems. Cochlear cific time delay and amplitude. By using PHM, the system did
implants and visual prostheses require a large volume of data not require a higher resonant frequency to avoid ISI caused
transmission between external sensors and the implantable by the ringing signal, or additional resistance to obtain an
biomedical devices, and an invasive brain-computer inter- excessively wide bandwidth. To verify the PHM scheme,
face (iBCI), such as prosthetic limbs need to transmit a large they fabricated a fully integrated transceiver which achieved
amount of data from the nervous system and a sensory system 10.2 Mbps [186], and presented an enhanced version, which
to external devices [186]. For example, to obtain resolu- could transmit data up to 20 Mbps, including automatic gain
tion similar to the human eye, a visual prostheses requires control in the Rx to reduce power consumption and ISI [123].
about 40 Mbps to support 600∼1000 electrodes [123].
However, a conventional visual prosthesis can only support B. MID-FIELD COUPLING
60∼100 electrodes. To satisfy the data rate requirement of Poon et al. [103] proposed a different optimal operating
these promising applications, we can apply the capacity frequency in the low-GHz range for better efficiency in
enhancing methods mentioned in Section IV. This section biological media, as explained in Section III. A detailed
reviews the trends in near-field biomedical communication overview of mid-field coupling is provided in Section III in
technologies in terms of inductive coupling and mid-field terms of power transfer. This subsection briefly introduces
coupling. mid-field coupling communication systems for implantable
biomedical applications. The original purpose of the mid-
A. INDUCTIVE COUPLING field coupling was to sustain high PTE while reducing the
Fig. 10 shows a general schematic overview of the near- size of the implantable devices. Moreover, it can provide
field magnetic technologies which use inductive coupling additional inherent advantages such as high data rate, less
21276 VOLUME 5, 2017

sensitivity in the link gain to changes in antenna orientation,

and good separation decoupling between the power transfer
and communication circuitry [118], [119], [124]–[126].
Reference [197] attempted to overcome the sensitiv-
ity issues. They proposed a power efficient backscatter-
ing method for the uplink from the implantable devices to
an external device. Because the separation between exter-
nal devices and the implantable device was much larger
than the size of the implantable device, the backscattering
method inherently suffers a high bit error rate (BER). Even
worse, tissue composition and the separation can be time-
varying depending on the motion of patients. This uncer-
tainty in an operating environment can degrade the quality
of the backscattering method severely. The proposed method
was able to achieve robust operation in variable conditions.
By using reconfigurable load modulations, it maximized the
distinguishability between two loads in the backscattered
signals for a given environment. Other parameters, such as FIGURE 11. SWIPT receivers in different domains: (a) time, (b) power, and
pulse width and data rate, were also reconfigurable to accom- (c) antenna.
modate uncertainties in the environment. For example, the

pulse width of a clock can be adjusted to trade-off between references therein). Generally speaking, SWIPT systems are
the signal quality and the amount of energy harvesting. Lastly, able to achieve substantially improved energy and spectrum
employing asynchronous amplitude modulation with data efficiencies, as compared to separate WPT and wireless
encoded in the pulse-width can eliminate the synchronization communication systems that operate independently. Typical
circuitry and bulky external clock, minimizing the power SWIPT receivers need to be designed to be able to separate
consumption as well as the implantable device size. received signals for information decoding and energy harvest-
ing, in either time, power, or antenna domains, as shown in
Fig. 11. When the system adopts time switching (TS), the
VI. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC BASED SWIPT
Rx is switched in time between information decoding and
Previous sections have addressed the near-field magnetic
power rectification, as shown in Fig. 11 (a). The TS technique
technologies for WPT and communication, respectively.
has the advantage of simple hardware implementation at
These two lines of work aim to maximize power transmission
the Rx. However, it requires accurate time synchronization
efficiency and chancel capacity, respectively, while in general
and scheduling. The power splitting (PS) technique splits the
a trade-off exists in achieving these two goals in an inte-
received signal into two streams of different power levels,
grated system. The SWIPT systems were first introduced for
as shown in Fig. 11 (b). The PS technique can achieve close
near-field applications in [198] and [199], although the term
to the optimal rate-energy performance trade-off theoreti-
SWIPT was first coined in [200] for far-field applications.
cal bound [201]. However, this technique requires higher
Nonetheless, the concept of SWIPT was already being used
Rx complexity than the TS technique. Fig. 11 (c) shows
in implantable biomedical applications to achieve high-rate
an antenna switching (AS) technique which switches each
communication and high- power transfer with small from
antenna element at the Rx between decoding and rectifying
factors [197]. Section V described implantable biomedical
to achieve SWIPT.
applications requiring high data rates, such as cochlear and
visual prosthesis. To achieve a high data rate, the systems
2) NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD BASED SWIPT
require a sufficient energy supply as well. Therefore, the
Some research groups have attempted near-field magnetic
implantable biomedical devices need to optimize both the
based SWIPT systems. Even before the far-field EM based
functions of communication and WPT.
SWIPT was widely studied, near-field magnetic systems
In this section, we first briefly introduce the SWIPT tech-
already supported simultaneous power and data transmission,
nologies by following the relevant literature in wireless com-
such as passive RFID, NFC, and various telemetry systems
munication, and then focus our discussion on recent studies of
including implantable biomedical devices. In this subsec-
near-field magnetic based SWIPT systems for both the free-
tion, we present a brief overview of the SWIPT schemes
space and implantable biomedical applications.
using near-field magnetic based technologies in the free-
space. Reference [204] took an approach that was similar to
A. SWIPT IN FREE-SPACE APPLICATIONS conventional far-field EM based SWIPT studies, and applied
1) FAR-FIELD EM BASED SWIPT it to a near-field magnetic system. They proposed an optimal
Recently, there has been a lot of interest in SWIPT sys- power allocation (OPA) strategy for an orthogonal frequency-
tems in wireless communications (see, [201], [202] and division multiplexing (OFDM) system to maximize the
VOLUME 5, 2017 21277

transfer power efficiency under the required channel capac-

ity. They presented the conditions for the existence and
boundaries of the OPA, a low-complexity algorithm for the
OPA, and compared their performance via simulation. Refer-
ence [205] proposed a new SWIPT system which was com-
posed of one data stream and multiple parallel power streams
for free-space applications such as the NFC based access
point for multiple devices. This was based on their previ-
ous work, about magnetic beamforming using an orthogonal
3-D coil structure for the WPT [90]. They proposed two opti-
mization solutions: maximization of the sum of the received
power of all the power Rx coils, and maximization of the
minimum received power among all power Rx coils under
the constraint of a data stream, via simulation and theoret-
ical analysis. References [204] and [205] reported related
results in terms of a theoretical analysis. Reference [206]
introduced a practical circuit model and measurement results
for an FD based SWIPT using a single inductive link. The FIGURE 12. Multi-carrier based SWIPT schemes: (a) multiple inductive
coupling (power-downlink, uplink) [208], [209], (b) inductive coupling
carrier frequency for power and data were 22.4 kHz, and (power, uplink), high frequency (downlink) [112], [210], (c) inductive
1.67 MHz, respectively. To minimize the effect of the data- coupling (power), high frequency (uplink, downlink) [211], [212], (d) three
carrier on power efficiency, the data-carrier had to be set at carrier signal: inductive coupling – low frequency (power), inductive
coupling - medium frequency (downlink), high frequency (uplink) [213].
least an order of magnitude higher than the power-carrier.
This scheme achieved reliable communication and efficient
wireless powering at low-carrier frequency. Reference [207]
presented a specific near-field magnetic based SWIPT system schemes have the most significant crosstalk issues among
for electric vehicle charging. This system supported wireless the multiple inductive links for power and data signals. Even
powering and an uplink telemetry scheme from the vehicle to when the power and downlink signals use different carrier fre-
the charger, which included battery status, vehicle identifica- quencies, crosstalk between the power and data signals can-
tion code, and emergency messages, using the same inductive not be avoided, because of the significantly different power
link. levels between these two signals [208]. Usually, this interfer-
ence can be cancelled by a high-order filter which requires
B. SWIPT IN IMPLANTABLE BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS a reasonable spectral separation between the power and data
SWIPT is an essential system for future implantable biomed- signals. However, [208] introduced a crosstalk cancellation
ical devices. To achieve the requirements of both high data- scheme without a high-order filter using non-coherent DPSK
rate and efficient power transmission, many research groups with a high data rate. Reference [209] also applied a multi-
have applied various telemetry methods. In this subsection, carrier system to support high-rate full duplex data communi-
we review the SWIPT systems employed for implantable cation with efficient power transmission using two inductive
biomedical applications. Cancelling or reducing crosstalk links. They presented a comparison between an orthogonal
is important to achieve simultaneous high data rate and coil structure and a proposed coplanar coil structure to reduce
high PTE in near-field magnetic based SWIPT systems for the crosstalk effect; the coplanar coil was more robust to
implantable biomedical devices. To solve the crosstalk issue, lateral misalignment than the orthogonal type.
some research groups have proposed multi-carrier systems Fig. 12 (b), (c), and (d) present far-field EM links and
supporting multiple links, while the other groups have tried inductive links used to obtain bidirectional data transmis-
single carrier approach. This subsection mainly discusses sion and power transfer. In Fig. 12 (b), they transmit simple
near-field magnetic based SWIPT methods to solve the command data and power from an external device to
crosstalk issues, and finally describes mid-field coupling implanted devices, and the implanted device sends sensor
based SWIPT. data to the external devices using an RF link [113], [210].
In Fig. 12 (c), the inductive coupling transmits only power,
1) NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC BASED SWIPT and data is passed through the RF link [211], [212].
To apply the SWIPT technologies to implantable devices, it is Ghovanloo reported the design of a wireless link for a
possible to use different carrier frequencies for different pur- high-performance implantable biomedical device using three
poses, for uplink, downlink, and power transmission. Fig. 12 carrier signals at three different frequencies, as shown in
shows various multi-carrier SWIPT systems for implantable Fig. 12 (d). However, these schemes bring high complexity to
biomedical devices. Fig. 12 (a) is composed of a multi-carrier the circuit and antenna structure [213]. The main challenge of
system to obtain multiple streams for separated data and this method is cancelling the interference between different
power transmission with two inductive links. However, these carrier signals. To ensure robustness against interference,
21278 VOLUME 5, 2017

they applied several methods as follows: 1) using a coil efficiency and data recovery depends on the modulation depth
structure with an orthogonal geometry, which can reduce the of ASK. For implantable biomedical applications with power
crosstalk [213]; 2) using FSK modulation, which is more constraints, the modulation depth should be minimized to
robust against noise and interference than ASK; 3) apply- ensure a stable power supply. However, the minimized mod-
ing a higher data carrier frequency five to ten times greater ulation depth makes it difficult to recover the data and clock,
than the power carrier frequency to guarantee enough space and in the backscatter link, adjusting pulse width [219] and
between the carrier harmonic components in the frequency optimal modulating load [220] affect the data rate and energy
domain [196]. Furthermore, this research group recently pre- consumption, respectively.
sented a fully-integrated near-field wireless transceiver which
can support SWIPT using a pulse delay modulation (PDM) 3) CHALLENGING ISSUES OF NEAR-FIELD
scheme. PDM is a low-power carrier-less modulation scheme MAGNETIC BASED SWIPT
which offers a broad bandwidth with robustness against Many research groups have achieved sufficient power effi-
strong interference from the power carrier signal [184]. ciency and high data rates in downlink telemetry. How-
Reference [214] proposed a single-carrier near-field mag- ever, the SWIPT technologies still have challenging issues,
netic system which can support SWIPT in high data-rate especially at the uplink due to an asymmetry of size and
implantable biomedical devices. LSK is usually a popular power consumption between external devices and implanted
modulation in single-carrier near-field magnetic SWIPT sys- devices [214]. Furthermore, to implement near-field
tems [195], [215], [216]. However, LSK may not be capable magnetic based SWIPT systems, it is necessary to consider
of achieving both high efficiency WPT and a high data- various parameters and constraints in addition to carrier
rate, since there is a trade-off between transfer efficiency frequency and link structure, to both achieve performance
and data-rate. To achieve high PTE, implantable systems goals and address safety issues. To design a high-efficiency
require a high Q-factor. However, the data rate of LSK is and high-rate near-field magnetic SWIPT system, we need to
inversely proportional to the Q-factor. Furthermore, an extra take into account tissue effect, coil size, and the geometric
load for LSK leads to impedance mismatching and additional position between the coupled coils to achieve high coupling
power consumption from the real load [217], and the rectifier efficiency and high power conversion efficiency. However,
cannot receive power from the coil during data transmission. this causes large design complexity because of interactions
Reference [218] described a solution involving passive phase between the parameters. For example, high frequency can be
shift keying (PPSK) which can achieve simultaneous power used to obtain size reduction and a high Q-factor in the coils.
and data transmission via a single inductive link without the However, high frequency leads to parasitic value sensitivity,
extra load. The PPSK scheme can reverse the current phase increased source driving requirements, and difficult rectifier
of the secondary coil using half-period switching, where the implementation. In addition, the tissue effect varies depend-
reversed current leads to increased current in the primary coil, ing on the carrier frequency, thus, establishing the optimal
and the primary coil can receive data due to this phenomenon. frequency involves a trade-off between tissue effect and
However, the proposed scheme has additional power losses transmission efficiency [221]. To satisfy the performance and
due to the disruption of resonance. To overcome these prob- safety issues, engineers should have a comprehensive under-
lems, [214] proposed a new backscattering data modulation standing of the system in implantable biomedical devices.
technique, cyclic on-off keying (COOK), which can simulta-
neously support high efficiency power transfer and high-rate VII. CONCLUSION
communication with a small loss. Although COOK shows Implantable biomedical devices are strong candidate appli-
behavior similar to conventional LSK and PPSK, to synchro- cations of near-field wireless systems, due to the advan-
nize the received signal it closes the switch only during a tages of using near-field magnetic technologies inside the
single cycle when the voltage of the secondary coil is zero body. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the
and the current is at its peak. This synchronized switching near-field wireless powering and communication schemes for
does not disturb resonance. Unlike the multi-carrier methods, both free-space and implantable biomedical devices, from
the single-carrier schemes take into account the additional historic development to recent trends. Among the various
power loss resulting from the discontinuous power transfer issues in near-field magnetic systems, we focused on three
and disruption of resonance. However, the issues related to aspects: transmission range, misalignment, and limited chan-
the trade-off between power efficiency and data-rate still nel capacity. Section II provided a detailed history of the WPT
remain. from Maxwell to the present day, and compared different
WPT schemes in terms of coupling performance. Recent
2) MID-FIELD COUPLING BASED SWIPT trends were also introduced, concerning transmission range
The mid-field coupling based SWIPT concept has also and misalignment issues with the maximum PTE in free
been considered for implantable biomedical applications. space. To extend the transmission range, self-resonant cou-
Reference [197] described a wireless power and data pling, relay, and DCRS can be applied, and misalignment
transceiver with sub GHz band for low-power implantable error can be compensated by robust structures, using arrays or
devices. In this system, the downlink trade-off between power metamaterials, while electrical parameter tuning can be
VOLUME 5, 2017 21279

utilized for impedance matching. These methods can also [11] Z. Sun, I. F. Akyildiz, S. Kisseleff, and W. Gerstacker, ‘‘Increasing
be applied to implantable biomedical devices to satisfy their the capacity of magnetic induction communications in RF-challenged
environments,’’ IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 61, no. 9, pp. 3943–3952,
particular requirements, including minimal size, low-power Sep. 2013.
consumption, low-complexity, and safety, as discussed in [12] H. Aubert, ‘‘RFID technology for human implant devices: Technologie
Section III. Mid-field coupling based wireless powering was RFID pour implants dans le corps humain,’’ Comp. Rendus Phys., vol. 12,
no. 7, pp. 675–683, Sep. 2011.
also introduced for smaller sized implants, to operate in the [13] A. K. Sharma et al., ‘‘Magnetic induction-based non-conventional media
sub-GHz range. Sections IV and V dealt with near-field communications: A review,’’ IEEE Sensors J., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 926–940,
communication methods which share the fundamental prin- Feb. 2017.
[14] Y.-H. Joung, ‘‘Development of implantable medical devices: From an
ciple of near-field wireless powering. Section IV provided engineering perspective,’’ Int. Neurourol. J., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 98–106,
an overview of typical near-field magnetic communication Sep. 2013.
systems such as RFID, NFC, RuBee, and MFAN, and pre- [15] W. H. Ko, ‘‘Early history and challenges of implantable electronics,’’
ACM J. Emerg. Technol. Comput., vol. 8, no. 2, Jun. 2012, Art. no. 8.
sented both the limitations and promising methods to achieve
[16] R. Bashirullah, ‘‘Wireless implants,’’ IEEE Microw. Mag., vol. 11, no. 7,
high data-rate communication in free space, such as relay, pp. S14–S23, Dec. 2010.
MIMO and PM based modulation. Section V discussed near- [17] K. Bazaka and M. V. Jacob, ‘‘Implantable devices: Issues and chal-
field communication methods mainly used to achieve high lenges,’’ Electronics, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–34, Dec. 2012.
[18] U. Bihr, T. Liu, and M. Ortmanns, ‘‘Telemetry for implantable medical
data rates in implantable biomedical applications. The PM devices: Part 3—Data telemetry,’’ IEEE Solid-State Circuits Mag., vol. 6,
based methods and special structures discussed are also appli- no. 4, pp. 56–62, Nov. 2014.
cable to implantable devices, much the same as their use in [19] A. M. Sodagar and P. Amiri, ‘‘Capacitive coupling for power and data
telemetry to implantable biomedical microsystems,’’ in Proc. 4th Int.
free-space, while mid-field coupling was also shown to be IEEE/EMBS Conf. Neural Eng., Apr. 2009, pp. 411–414.
effective since it can achieve wide bandwidth because of the [20] J. Dai and D. C. Ludois, ‘‘A survey of wireless power transfer and
high carrier frequency. In Section VI, we briefly introduced a critical comparison of inductive and capacitive coupling for small
gap applications,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 11,
the conventional far-field EM based SWIPT system, and then pp. 6017–6029, Nov. 2015.
discussed recent studies on near-field magnetic based SWIPT [21] T. G. Zimmerman, ‘‘Personal area networks: Near-field intrabody com-
systems in free-space and implantable biomedical applica- munication,’’ IBM Syst. J., vol. 35, nos. 3–4, pp. 609–617, Apr. 1996.
tions. Future applications require high data rate communi- [22] L. Galluccio, T. Melodia, S. Palazzo, and G. E. Santagati, ‘‘Challenges
and implications of using ultrasonic communications in intra-body area
cation and highly efficient power transmission at the same networks,’’ in Proc. 9th Annu. Conf. Wireless Demand Netw. Syst.
time, and so the trade-off between them has to be considered, Ser. (WONS), Jan. 2012, pp. 182–189.
where the Q-factor of the coils and their cross coupling are the [23] S. Ozeri and D. Shmilovitz, ‘‘Ultrasonic transcutaneous energy trans-
fer for powering implanted devices,’’ Ultrasonics, vol. 50, no. 6,
primary factors that need to be taken into account for system pp. 556–566, 2010.
performance optimization. [24] C. Sawma, M. Sawan, and A. Kassem, ‘‘Capacitive data links intended for
implantable medical devices: A survey,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Advan.
Biomed. Eng. (ICABME), Sep. 2015, pp. 266–269.
REFERENCES [25] M. Seyedi, B. Kibret, D. T. H. Lai, and M. Faulkner, ‘‘A survey on
[1] C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 3rd ed. Hoboken, intrabody communications for body area network applications,’’ IEEE
NJ, USA: Wiley, 2012. Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 2067–2079, Aug. 2013.
[2] Y. Z. Mehrjerdi, ‘‘RFID: A bibliographical literature review with future [26] J. I. Agbinya et al., ‘‘Size and characteristics of the ‘cone of silence’
research directions,’’ Int. J. Ind. Eng., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 151–190, in near-field magnetic induction communications,’’ in Proc. MiLCIS,
Jun. 2014. Nov. 2009, pp. 1–4.
[3] V. Coskun, B. Ozdenizci, and K. Ok, ‘‘A survey on near field commu- [27] (Mar. 2009). FreeLinc Products. [Online]. Available: http://www.freelinc.
nication (NFC) technology,’’ Wireless Pers. Commun., vol. 71, no. 3, com/products/
pp. 2259–2294, Aug. 2013. [28] J. E. Ferguson and A. D. Redish, ‘‘Wireless communication with
[4] X. Lu, P. Wang, D. Niyato, D. I. Kim, and Z. Han, ‘‘Wireless charging implanted medical devices using the conductive properties of the body,’’
technologies: Fundamentals, standards, and network applications,’’ IEEE Expert Rev. Med. Devices, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 427–433, Jan. 2011.
Commun. Surveys Tuts., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 1413–1452, 3nd Quart., 2016. [29] M. A. Hannan, S. M. Abbas, S. A. Samad, and A. Hussain, ‘‘Modula-
[5] A. I. Al-Kalbani, M. R. Yuce, and J.-M. Redouté, ‘‘A biosafety compari- tion techniques for biomedical implanted devices and their challenges,’’
son between capacitive and inductive coupling in biomedical implants,’’ Sensors, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 297–319, Dec. 2011.
IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 13, pp. 1168–1171, Jun. 2014. [30] H. Xu, J. Handwerker, and M. Ortmanns, ‘‘Telemetry for implantable
[6] S. K. S. Gupta, S. Lalwani, Y. Prakash, E. Elsharawy, and L. Schwiebert, medical devices: Part 2—Power telemetry,’’ IEEE Solid-State Circuits
‘‘Towards a propagation model for wireless biomedical applications,’’ in Mag., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 60–63, Aug. 2014.
Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun., vol. 3. May 2003, pp. 1993–1997. [31] S. Rao and J. C. Chiao, ‘‘Body electric: Wireless power transfer for
[7] M. Manteghi and A. A. Y. Ibraheem, ‘‘On the study of the near-fields implant applications,’’ IEEE Microw. Mag., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 54–64,
of electric and magnetic small antennas in lossy media,’’ IEEE Trans. Mar. 2015.
Antennas Propag., vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 6491–6495, Dec. 2014. [32] J. C. Maxwell, ‘‘A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field,’’ Philos.
[8] Q. Tang, N. Tummala, S. K. S. Gupta, and L. Schwiebert, ‘‘Commu- Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 155, pp. 459–512, Jan. 1865.
nication scheduling to minimize thermal effects of implanted biosensor [33] H. Hertz, ‘‘Ueber sehr schnelle electrische schwingungen,’’ Ann. Phys.,
networks in homogeneous tissue,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 52, vol. 267, no. 7, pp. 421–448, May 1887.
no. 7, pp. 1285–1294, Jul. 2005. [34] J. H. Poynting, ‘‘On the transfer of energy in the electromagnetic field,’’
[9] R. F. Cleveland, E. Fields, R. E. Fields, and J. L. Ulcek, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 175, pp. 343–361, Jan. 1884.
‘‘Questions and answers about biological effects and potential hazards of [35] J. A. B. Faria, ‘‘Poynting vector flow analysis for contactless energy
radiofrequency electromagnetic fields,’’ Federal Commun. Commission transfer in magnetic systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27,
Office Eng. Technol., OET Bulletin 56, Washington, DC, USA, no. 10, pp. 4292–4300, Oct. 2012.
Tech. Rep., Aug. 1999. [36] S. Maeda and P. Diament, ‘‘Power flow between adjacent electric
[10] G. Lazzi, ‘‘Thermal effects of bioimplants,’’ IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag., dipoles,’’ IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 68–76,
vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 75–81, Sep. 2005. Dec. 2002.
21280 VOLUME 5, 2017

[37] N. Tesla, ‘‘Experiments with alternate currents of high potential and high [64] T. Ohira, ‘‘Maximum available efficiency formulation based on a black-
frequency,’’ Trans. IEE, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 266–319, Jan. 1891. box model of linear two-port power transfer systems,’’ IEICE Electron.
[38] H. Yagi and S. Uda, ‘‘Projector of the sharpest beam of electric waves,’’ Exp., vol. 11, no. 13, p. 20140448, Jun. 2014.
Proc. Imperial Acad., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 49–52, Feb. 1926. [65] Q. Chen, K. Ozawa, Q. Yuan, and K. Sawaya, ‘‘Antenna character-
[39] J. C. Schuder and H. E. Stephenson, ‘‘Energy transport to a coil which ization for wireless power-transmission system using near-field cou-
circumscribes a ferrite core and is implanted within the body,’’ IEEE pling,’’ IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 108–116,
Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. BME-12, no. 3, pp. 154–163, Jul./Oct. 1965. Aug. 2012.
[40] J. C. Schuder, J. H. Gold, and H. E. Stephenson, ‘‘An inductively coupled [66] R. D. Fernandes, J. N. Matos, and N. B. Carvalho, ‘‘Resonant electrical
RF system for the transmission of 1 kW of power through the skin,’’ IEEE coupling: Circuit model and first experimental results,’’ IEEE Trans.
Trans. Biomed. Eng., vols. BME-18, no. 4, pp. 265–273, Jul. 1971. Microw. Theory Techn., vol. 63, no. 9, pp. 2983–2990, Sep. 2015.
[41] R. B. Adler, L. J. Chu, and R. M. Fano, Electromagnetic Energy Trans- [67] S. Y. R. Hui, W. Zhong, and C. K. Lee, ‘‘A critical review of recent
mission and Radiation. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 1968. progress in mid-range wireless power transfer,’’ IEEE Trans. Power
[42] J. G. Bolger, F. A. Kirsten, and L. S. Ng, ‘‘Inductive power coupling for Electron., vol. 29, no. 9, pp. 4500–4511, Sep. 2014.
an electric highway system,’’ in Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., vol. 28. [68] J. Kim, H.-C. Son, K.-H. Kim, and Y.-J. Park, ‘‘Efficiency analysis of
Mar. 1978, pp. 137–144. magnetic resonance wireless power transfer with intermediate resonant
[43] J. G. Bolger, L. S. Ng, D. B. Turner, and R. I. Wallace, ‘‘Testing a coil,’’ IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 389–392,
prototype inductive power coupling for an electric highway system,’’ in 2011.
Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., vol. 29. Mar. 1979, pp. 48–56. [69] C. Park, S. Lee, G.-H. Cho, and C. T. Rim, ‘‘Innovative 5-m-off-
[44] M. Eghtesadi, ‘‘Inductive power transfer to an electric vehicle-analytical distance inductive power transfer systems with optimally shaped dipole
model,’’ in Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., May 1990, pp. 100–104. coils,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 817–827,
[45] A. Esser, ‘‘Contactless charging and communication system for electric Feb. 2015.
vehicles,’’ in Proc. IEEE Ind. Appl. Soc. Ann. Meet., vol. 2. Oct. 1993, [70] K. Fotopoulou and B. W. Flynn, ‘‘Wireless power transfer in loosely
pp. 1021–1028. coupled links: Coil misalignment model,’’ IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 47,
[46] J. Boyd, ‘‘Here comes the wallet phone [wireless credit card],’’ IEEE no. 2, pp. 416–430, Feb. 2011.
Spectr., vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 12–14, Nov. 2005. [71] A. K. RamRakhyani and G. Lazzi, ‘‘Multicoil telemetry system for
[47] A. Kurs, A. Karalis, R. Moffatt, J. D. Joannopoulos, P. Fisher, and compensation of coil misalignment effects in implantable systems,’’ IEEE
M. Soljačić, ‘‘Wireless power transfer via strongly coupled magnetic Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 11, pp. 1675–1678, 2012.
resonances,’’ Science, vol. 317, no. 5834, pp. 83–86, Jul. 2007. [72] D. Liu, H. Hu, and S. V. Georgakopoulos, ‘‘Misalignment sensitivity of
[48] A. Karalis, J. D. Joannopoulos, and M. Soljačić, ‘‘Efficient wireless strongly coupled wireless power transfer systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Power
non-radiative mid-range energy transfer,’’ Ann. Phys., vol. 323, no. 1, Electron., vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 5509–5519, Jul. 2017.
pp. 34–48, Jan. 2008. [73] W. X. Zhong, X. Liu, and S. X. R. Hui, ‘‘A novel single-layer winding
[49] O. H. Stielau and G. A. Covic, ‘‘Design of loosely coupled inductive array and receiver coil structure for contactless battery charging systems
power transfer systems,’’ in Proc. IEEE Power Syst. Technol., vol. 1. with free-positioning and localized charging features,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind.
Dec. 2007, pp. 85–90. Electron., vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 4136–4144, Sep. 2011.
[50] D. S. Ricketts, M. J. Chabalko, and A. Hillenius, ‘‘Equivalence of induc- [74] J. P. C. Smeets, T. T. Overboom, J. W. Jansen, and E. A. Lomonova,
tive coupling and strongly coupled Magnetic resonance in wireless power ‘‘Comparison of position-independent contactless energy transfer sys-
transfer,’’ Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 102, no. 5, p. 053904, 2013. tems,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 2059–2067,
[51] D.-W. Seo, J.-H. Lee, and H. Lee, ‘‘Study on two-coil and four-coil Apr. 2013.
wireless power transfer systems using z-parameter approach,’’ ETRI J., [75] Q. Yuan, Q. Chen, L. Li, and K. Sawaya, ‘‘Numerical analysis
vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 568–578, 2016. on transmission efficiency of evanescent resonant coupling wireless
[52] (2017). Wireless Power Consortium Website. [Online]. Available: power transfer system,’’ IEEE Trans. Antenna Propag., vol. 58, no. 5,
http://www.wirelesspowerconsortium.com pp. 1751–1758, May 2010.
[53] (2016). AirFuel Alliance Website. [Online]. Available: http://www. [76] W.-S. Lee, W.-I. Son, K.-S. Oh, and J.-W. Yu, ‘‘Contactless energy
airfuel.org transfer systems using antiparallel resonant loops,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind.
[54] S. Ahn et al., ‘‘Low frequency electromagnetic field reduction techniques Electron., vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 350–359, Jan. 2013.
for the on-line electric vehicle (OLEV),’’ in Proc. IEEE EMC, Jul. 2010, [77] J. Kim, H.-C. Son, and Y.-J. Park, ‘‘Multi-loop coil supporting uniform
pp. 625–630. mutual inductances for free-positioning WPT,’’ Electron. Lett., vol. 49,
[55] J.-H. Chou, D.-B. Lin, and S.-J. Chen, ‘‘Near-field coupled antenna pair no. 6, pp. 417–419, Mar. 2013.
with transmission efficiency enhancement for WPT,’’ in Proc. APEMC, [78] U.-M. Jow and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘Geometrical design of a scalable overlap-
May 2015, pp. 275–277. ping planar spiral coil array to generate a homogeneous magnetic field,’’
[56] H. Haus and W. P. Huang, ‘‘Coupled-mode theory,’’ Proc. IEEE, vol. 79, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 2933–2945, Jun. 2013.
no. 10, pp. 1505–1518, Oct. 1991. [79] Z. Zhang and K. T. Chau, ‘‘Homogeneous wireless power transfer
[57] M. Kesler, ‘‘Highly resonant wireless power transfer: Safe, efficient, and for move-and-charge,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 11,
over distance,’’ WiTricity Corp., Watertown, MA, USA, Tech. Rep., 2013, pp. 6213–6220, Nov. 2015.
pp. 1–32. [80] B. Wang, K. H. Teo, T. Nishino, W. Yerazunis, J. Barnwell, and J. Zhang,
[58] M. Kiani and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘The circuit theory behind coupled- ‘‘Experiments on wireless power transfer with metamaterials,’’ Appl.
mode magnetic resonance-based wireless power transmission,’’ IEEE Phys. Lett., vol. 98, no. 25, p. 254101, 2011.
Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 59, no. 9, pp. 2065–2074, [81] A. L. A. K. Ranaweera, C. A. Moscoso, and J.-W. Lee, ‘‘Anisotropic
Sep. 2012. metamaterial for efficiency enhancement of mid-range wireless power
[59] A. K. Ram Rakhyani, S. Mirabbasi, and M. Chiao, ‘‘Design and transfer under coil misalignment,’’ J. Phys. D, Appl. Phys., vol. 48, no. 45,
optimization of resonance-based efficient wireless power delivery p. 455104. 2105.
systems for biomedical implants,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst., [82] A. P. Sample, B. H. Waters, S. T. Wisdom, and J. R. Smith, ‘‘Enabling
vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 48–63, Feb. 2011. seamless wireless power delivery in dynamic environments,’’ Proc. IEEE,
[60] H. Hirayama and N. Kikuma, ‘‘An essence of coupled-resonance wireless vol. 101, no. 6, pp. 1343–1358, Jun. 2013.
power transfer from viewpoint of electro-magnetic field,’’ IEICE Trans. [83] A. P. Sample, D. T. Meyer, and J. R. Smith, ‘‘Analysis, experimental
Commun., vol. J98-B, no. 9, pp. 868–877, Sep. 2015. results, and range adaptation of magnetically coupled resonators for
[61] Y. Zhang, T. Yoshikawa, and I. Awai, ‘‘Analysis of electric and magnetic wireless power transfer,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 2,
coupling components for spiral resonators used in wireless power trans- pp. 544–554, Feb. 2011.
fer,’’ in Proc. APMC, Nov. 2014, pp. 1366–1368. [84] S. Aldhaher, P. C.-K. Luk, and J. F. Whidborne, ‘‘Electronic tuning of
[62] I. Awai, Y. Ikuta, Y. Sawahara, Y. Thang, and T. Ishizaki, ‘‘Applications misaligned coils in wireless power transfer systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Power
of a novel disk repeater,’’ in Proc. IEEE WPTC, May 2014, pp. 114–117. Electron., vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 5975–5982, Nov. 2014.
[63] N. Inagaki, ‘‘Theory of image impedance matching for inductively [85] D.-W. Seo, J.-H. Lee, and H.-S. Lee, ‘‘Optimal coupling to achieve
coupled power transfer systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn., maximum output power in a WPT system,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 901–908, Apr. 2014. vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 3994–3998, Jun. 2016.
VOLUME 5, 2017 21281

[86] T. C. Beh, M. Kato, T. Imura, S. Oh, and Y. Hori, ‘‘Automated [108] W. J. Heetderks, ‘‘RF powering of millimeter- and submillimeter-sized
impedance matching system for robust wireless power transfer via mag- neural prosthetic implants,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. BME-35,
netic resonance coupling,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 9, no. 5, pp. 323–327, May 1988.
pp. 3689–3698, Sep. 2013. [109] J. S. Ho, S. Kim, and A. S. Y. Poon, ‘‘Midfield wireless powering
[87] J. Jadidian and D. Katabi, ‘‘Magnetic MIMO: How to charge your phone for implantable systems,’’ Proc. IEEE, vol. 101, no. 6, pp. 1369–1378,
in your pocket,’’ in Proc. Annu. Int. Conf. Comput. Netw. (MobiCom), Jun. 2013.
Sep. 2014, pp. 495–506. [110] R. Kadefors, E. Kaiser, and I. Petersen, ‘‘Energizing implantable transmit-
[88] L. Shi, Z. Kabelac, D. Katabi, and D. Perreault, ‘‘Wireless power hotspot ters by means of coupled inductance coils,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.,
that charges all of your devices,’’ in Proc. Annu. Int. Conf. Comput. vol. BME-16, no. 3, pp. 177–183, Jul. 1969.
Netw. (MobiCom), Sep. 2105, pp. 2–13. [111] T. Akin, K. Najafi, and R. M. Bradley, ‘‘A wireless implantable mul-
[89] B. H. Waters, B. J. Mahoney, V. Ranganathan, and J. R. Smith, ‘‘Power tichannel digital neural recording system for a micromachined sieve
delivery and leakage field control using an adaptive phased array wire- electrode,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 109–118,
less power system,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 11, Jan. 1998.
pp. 6298–6309, Nov. 2015. [112] H. Yu and K. Najafi, ‘‘Low-power interface circuits for bio-implantable
[90] S. Kisseleff, I. F. Akyildiz, and W. Gerstacker, ‘‘Beamforming for microsystems,’’ in IEEE Int. Solid-State Circuits Conf. (ISSCC) Dig. Tech.
magnetic induction based wireless power transfer systems with multi- Papers, San Francisco, CA, USA, Feb. 2003, pp. 194–487.
ple receivers,’’ in Proc. IEEE Global Commun. Conf. (GLOBECOM), [113] Y. Hu and M. Sawan, ‘‘A fully integrated low-power BPSK demodulator
Dec. 2015, pp. 1–7. for implantable medical devices,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg.
[91] G. Yang, M. R. V. Moghadam, and R. Zhang, ‘‘Magnetic beamforming Papers, vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 2552–2562, Dec. 2005.
for wireless power transfer,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Acoust., Speech [114] M. Piedade, J. Gerald, L. A. Sousa, G. Tavares, and P. Tomas, ‘‘Visual
Signal Process. (ICASSP), Mar. 2016, pp. 3936–3940. neuroprosthesis: A non invasive system for stimulating the cortex,’’ IEEE
[92] M. R. V. Moghadam and R. Zhang, ‘‘Node placement and distributed Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 2648–2662,
magnetic beamforming optimization for wireless power transfer,’’ IEEE Dec. 2005.
Trans. Signal Inf. Process. Netw., to be published. [Online] Available: [115] W. Liu et al., ‘‘A neuro-stimulus chip with telemetry unit for reti-
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=7890356 nal prosthetic device,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 35, no. 10,
[93] G. Yang, M. R. V. Moghadam, and R. Zhang, ‘‘Magnetic MIMO signal pp. 1487–1497, Oct. 2000.
processing and optimization for wireless power transfer,’’ IEEE Trans. [116] G. J. Suaning and N. H. Lovell, ‘‘CMOS neurostimulation ASIC with 100
Signal Process., vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 2860–2874, Jun. 2017. channels, scaleable output, and bidirectional radio-frequency telemetry,’’
[94] H. Sun, H. Lin, F. Zhu, and F. Gao, ‘‘Magnetic resonant beamforming IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 248–260, Feb. 2001.
for secured wireless power transfer,’’ IEEE Signal Process. Lett., vol. 24, [117] T. Cameron, G. E. Loeb, R. A. Peck, J. H. Schulman, P. Strojnik, and
no. 8, pp. 1173–1177, Aug. 2017. P. R. Troyk, ‘‘Micromodular implants to provide electrical stimulation of
[95] K. Kim, H.-J. Kim, and J.-W. Choi, ‘‘Magnetic beamforming with non- paralyzed muscles and limbs,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 44, no. 9,
coupling coil pattern for high efficiency and long distance wireless pp. 781–790, Sep. 1997.
power transfer,’’ in Proc. IEEE Wireless Power Trans. Conf., May 2017, [118] G. E. Loeb and R. Davoodi, ‘‘The functional reanimation of paralyzed
pp. 1–4. limbs,’’ IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag., vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 45–51, Sep. 2005.
[96] T. van den Boom et al., ‘‘Remote CMOS pressure sensor chip with [119] B. Smith et al., ‘‘An externally powered, multichannel, implantable
wireless power and data transmission,’’ in IEEE Int. Solid-State Circuits stimulator-telemeter for control of paralyzed muscle,’’ IEEE Trans.
Conf. (ISSCC) Dig. Tech. Papers, San Francisco, CA, USA, Feb. 2000, Biomed. Eng., vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 463–475, Apr. 1998.
pp. 186–187. [120] S.-Y. Lee and S.-C. Lee, ‘‘An implantable wireless bidirectional commu-
[97] O. Chevalerias et al., ‘‘Inductive telemetry of multiple sensor modules,’’ nication microstimulator for neuromuscular stimulation,’’ IEEE Trans.
IEEE Pervasive Comput., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 46–52, Jan./Mar. 2005. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 2526–2538, Dec. 2005.
[98] A. D. DeHennis and K. D. Wise, ‘‘A wireless microsystem for the remote [121] Q. Huang and M. Oberle, ‘‘A 0.5-mW passive telemetry IC for biomedical
sensing of pressure, temperature, and relative humidity,’’ J. Microelec- applications,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 937–946,
tromech. Syst., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 12–22, Feb. 2005. Jul. 1998.
[99] L. Aluigi, T. T. Thai, M. M. Tentzeris, L. Roselli, and F. Alimenti, [122] I. C. Forster, ‘‘Theoretical design and implementation of a transcutaneous,
‘‘Chip-to-package wireless power transfer and its application to multichannel stimulator for neural prosthesis applications,’’ J. Biomed.
mm-Wave antennas and monolithic radiometric receivers,’’ in Proc. IEEE Eng., vol. 3, pp. 107–120, Apr. 1981.
Radio Wireless Symp. (RWS), Jan. 2013, pp. 202–204. [123] N. N. de Donaldson and T. A. Perkins, ‘‘Analysis of resonant coupled
[100] M. Sato, G. Yamamoto, D. Gunji, T. Imura, and H. Fujimoto, coils in the design of radio frequency transcutaneous links,’’ Med. Biol.
‘‘Development of wireless In-wheel motor using magnetic resonance Eng. Comput., vol. 21, pp. 612–627, Sep. 1983.
coupling,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 5270–5278, [124] E. S. Hochmair, ‘‘System optimization for improved accuracy in tran-
Jul. 2016. scutaneous signal and power transmission,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.,
[101] S. Kong et al., ‘‘An investigation of electromagnetic radiated emission vol. BEM-31, no. 2, pp. 177–186, Feb. 1984.
and interference from multi-coil wireless power transfer systems using [125] D. C. Galbraith, M. Soma, and R. L. White, ‘‘A wide-band efficient induc-
resonant magnetic field coupling,’’ IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn., tive transdermal power and data link with coupling insensitive gain,’’
vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 833–846, Mar. 2015. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. BEM-34, no. 4, pp. 265–275, Apr. 1987.
[102] H. Kim et al., ‘‘Coil design and measurements of automotive magnetic [126] P. E. K. Donaldson, ‘‘Frequency-hopping in RF energy-transfer links,’’
resonant wireless charging system for high-efficiency and low magnetic Electron. Wireless World, vol. 92, pp. 24–26, Aug. 1986.
field leakage,’’ IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn., vol. 64, no. 2, [127] P. E. K. Donaldson, ‘‘Three separation-insensitive radiofrequency induc-
pp. 383–400, Feb. 2016. tive links,’’ J. Med. Eng. Tech., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 23–29, Jan. 1987.
[103] A. S. Y. Poon, S. O’Driscoll, and T. H. Meng, ‘‘Optimal frequency [128] P. E. K. Donaldson, ‘‘Power for neurological prostheses: A simple induc-
for wireless power transmission into dispersive tissue,’’ IEEE Trans. tive RF link with improved performance,’’ J. Biomed. Eng., vol. 9,
Antennas Propag., vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 1739–1750, May 2010. pp. 194–197, Jul. 1987.
[104] J. C. Schuder, ‘‘High-level electromagnetic energy transfer through a [129] T. Ivall, ‘‘Does your coupling coefficient matter?’’ Electron. Wireless
closed chest wall,’’ IRE Int. Conv. Rec., vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 119–126, 1961. World, vol. 93, no. 6, pp. 577–579, 1987.
[105] F. C. Flack, E. D. James, and D. M. Schlapp, ‘‘Mutual inductance of [130] C. M. Zierhofer and E. S. Hochmair, ‘‘High-efficiency coupling-
air-cored coils: Effect on design of radio-frequency coupled implants,’’ insensitive transcutaneous power and data transmission via an inductive
Med. Biol. Eng., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 79–85, Mar. 1971. link,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 716–722, Jul. 1990.
[106] W. H. Ko, S. P. Liang, and C. D. Fung, ‘‘Design of radio-frequency [131] A. B. Amar, A. B. Kouki, and H. Cao, ‘‘Power approaches for implantable
powered coils for implant instruments,’’ Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., vol. 15, medical devices,’’ Sensors, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 28889–28914, 2015.
no. 6, pp. 634–640, 1977. [132] U.-M. Jow and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘Design and optimization of printed spiral
[107] D. C. Galbraith, ‘‘An implantable multichannel neural stimulator,’’ coils for efficient transcutaneous inductive power transmission,’’ IEEE
Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA, USA, Dec. 1984. Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 193–202, Sep. 2007.
21282 VOLUME 5, 2017

[133] A. Qusba, A. K. RamRakhyani, J.-H. So, G. J. Hayes, M. D. Dickey, [158] J. Stevens, C. Weich, and R. GilChrist, ‘‘RuBee (IEEE 1902.1)—The
and G. Lazzi, ‘‘On the design of microfluidic implant coil for flexible physics behind, real-time, high security wireless asset visibility networks
telemetry system,’’ IEEE Sensors J., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1074–1080, in harsh environments,’’ Visible Assets, Inc., Stratham, NH, USA, White
Apr. 2014. Paper, 2010. [Online]. Available: http://ru-bee.com/White-SEC/RuBee-
[134] X. Yu, S. Sandhu, S. Beiker, R. Sassoon, and S. Fan, ‘‘Wireless energy Security-080610.pdf
transfer with the presence of metallic planes,’’ Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 99, [159] F. Tao, Y. Wang, Y. Zuo, H. Yang, and M. Zhang, ‘‘Internet of things
no. 21, p. 214102, 2011. in product life-cycle energy management,’’J. Ind. Inform. Integration,
[135] X. Liu, F. Zhang, S. A. Hackworth, R. J. Sclabassi, and M. Sun, Mar. 2016.
‘‘Wireless power transfer system design for implanted and worn [160] Z. Sun and I. F. Akyildiz, ‘‘Underground wireless communication using
devices,’’ in Proc. IEEE 35th Annu. Northeast Bioeng. Conf., Apr. 2009, magnetic induction,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun., Jun. 2009,
pp. 1–2. pp. 1–5.
[136] M. Kiani, U.-M. Jow, and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘Design and optimiza- [161] M. C. Vuran and I. F. Akyildiz, ‘‘Channel model and analysis for wireless
tion of a 3-coil inductive link for efficient wireless power transmis- underground sensor networks in soil medium,’’ Phys. Commun., vol. 3,
sion,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst., vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 579–591, no. 4, pp. 245–254, 2010.
Dec. 2011. [162] S. Kisseleff, I. F. Akyildiz, and W. H. Gerstacker, ‘‘Throughput of
[137] M. Zargham and P. G. Gulak, ‘‘Maximum achievable efficiency in near- the magnetic induction based wireless underground sensor networks:
field coupled power-transfer systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Key optimization techniques,’’ IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 62, no. 12,
Syst., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 228–245, Jun. 2012. pp. 4426–4439, Dec. 2014.
[138] S. Kim, J. S. Ho, and A. S. Y. Poon, ‘‘Midfield wireless powering of sub- [163] J. I.Agbinya and M. Masihpour, ‘‘Magnetic induction channel models
wavelength autonomous devices,’’ Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 110, p. 203905, and link budgets: A comparison between two Agbinya-Masihpour mod-
May 2013. els,’’ in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Commun. Electron. (ICCE), Aug. 2010,
[139] S. Kim, J. S. Ho, and A. S. Y. Poon, ‘‘Wireless power transfer to minia- pp. 400–405.
ture implants: Transmitter optimization,’’ IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., [164] J. I. Agbinya, ‘‘A magneto-inductive link budget for wireless power trans-
vol. 60, no. 10, pp. 4838–4845, Oct. 2012. fer and inductive communication systems,’’ Prog. Electromagn. Res. C,
[140] J. S. Ho et al., ‘‘Wireless power transfer to deep-tissue microim- vol. 37, pp. 15–28, Jan. 2013.
plants,’’ Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 111, no. 22, pp. 7974–7979, [165] J. I.Agbinya and M. Masihpour, ‘‘Near field magnetic induction commu-
Apr. 2014. nication Link Budget: Agbinya-Masihpour model,’’ in Proc. 5th Int. Conf.
[141] J. S. Ho and A. S. Y. Poon, ‘‘Energy transfer for implantable electronics Broadband Biomed. Commun. (IB2Com), Dec. 2010, pp. 1–6.
in the electromagnetic midfield,’’ Prog. Electromagn. Res., vol. 148, [166] J. I. Agbinya and M. Masihpour, ‘‘Power equations and capacity perfor-
pp. 151–158, Aug. 2014. mance of magnetic induction communication systems,’’ Wireless Pers.
[142] S. Gabriel, R. W. Lau, and C. Gabriel, ‘‘The dielectric properties of Commun., vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 831–845, 2012.
biological tissues: III. Parametric models for the dielectric spectrum of [167] Ø. Ytrehus, ‘‘Communication on inductively coupled channels: Overview
tissues,’’ Phys. Med. Biol., vol. 41, no. 11, pp. 2271–2293, Nov. 1996. and challenges,’’ in Coding Theory and Applications (Lecture Notes
[143] A. J. Yeh, J. S. Ho, and A. S. Y. Poon, ‘‘Optical probe for in Computer Science), vol. 5228, Á. Barbero, Ed. Berlin, Germany:
input-impedance measurement of in vivo power-receiving microstruc- Springer, 2008.
ture,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Antennas Propag. (APS), Jul. 2014, [168] N. Miura, D. Mizoguchi, M. Inoue, T. Sakurai, and T. Kuroda,
pp. 1409–1410. ‘‘A 195-gb/s 1.2-W inductive inter-chip wireless superconnect with trans-
[144] L. S. Y. Wong, S. Hossain, A. Ta, J. Edvinsson, D. H. Rivas, and mit power control scheme for 3-D-stacked system in a package,’’ IEEE
H. Naas, ‘‘A very low-power CMOS mixed-signal IC for implantable J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 23–34, Jan. 2006.
pacemaker applications,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 39, no. 12, [169] F. Inanlou and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘Wideband near-field data transmission
pp. 2446–2456, Dec. 2004. using pulse harmonic modulation,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg.
[145] H. Stockman, ‘‘Communication by means of reflected power,’’ Proc. IRE, Papers, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 186–195, Jan. 2011.
vol. 36, no. 10, pp. 1196–1204, Oct. 1948. [170] H. Ishikuro, N. Miura, and T. Kuroda, ‘‘Wideband inductive-coupling
[146] A. R. Koelle, S. W. Depp, and R. W. Freyman, ‘‘Short-range radio- interface for high-performance portable system,’’ in Proc. IEEE Custom
telemetry for electronic identification, using modulated RF backscatter,’’ Integr. Circuits Conf. (CICC), Sep. 2007, pp. 13–20.
Proc. IEEE, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 1260–1261, Aug. 1975. [171] S. Lee, K. Song, J. Yoo, and H.-J. Yoo, ‘‘A low-energy inductive
[147] J. Landt, ‘‘The history of RFID,’’ IEEE Potentials, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 8–11, coupling transceiver with cm-range 50-Mbps data communication in
Oct. 2005. mobile device applications,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 45, no. 11,
[148] L. Atzori, A. Iera, and G. Morabito, ‘‘The Internet of Things: A survey,’’ pp. 2366–2374, Nov. 2010.
Comput. Netw., vol. 54, no. 15, pp. 2787–2805, Oct. 2010. [172] F. Inanlou, M. Kiani, and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘A 10.2 Mbps pulse harmonic
[149] U. Trottmann, ‘‘NFC-possibilities and risks,’’ in Proc. Seminars Future modulation based transceiver for implantable medical devices,’’ IEEE
Internet (FI) Innov. Internet Technol. Mobile Commun. (IITM), vol. 13. J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1296–1306, Jun. 2011.
Feb. 2013, pp. 35–42. [173] R. R. A. Syms, I. R. Young, and L. Solymar, ‘‘Low-loss magneto-
[150] ISO/IEC 18092 Information Technology/Telecommunications and Infor- inductive waveguides,’’ J. Phys. D, Appl. Phys., vol. 39, no. 18,
mation Exchange Between Systems/Near Field Communication/Interface pp. 3945–3951, 2006.
and Protocol (NFCIP-1), document ISO/IEC 18092:2004(E), 2004. [174] E. Shamonina, V. A. Kalinin, K. H. Ringhofer, and L. Solymar,
[151] (2016). Near Field Communication. [Online]. Available: https://en. ‘‘Magnetoinductive waves in one, two, and three dimensions,’’ J. Appl.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_field_communication Phys., vol. 92, no. 10, pp. 6252–6261, 2002.
[152] (2016). Samsung Pay. [Online]. Available: http://www.samsung. [175] R. R. A. Syms, E. Shamonina, and L. Solymar, ‘‘Magneto-inductive
com/sec/samsung-pay/ waveguide devices,’’ IEE Proc. Microw., Antennas Propag., vol. 153,
[153] C. Weich, R. Gilchrist, and J. Stevens. (Jan. 2016). RuBeeweb informa- no. 2, pp. 111–121, Apr. 2006.
tion. Visible Assets, Inc. [Online]. Available: http://www.rubee.com [176] M. C. K. Wiltshire, E. Shamonina, I. R. Young, and L. Solymar,
[154] Information Technology-Telecommunications and Information Exchange ‘‘Dispersion characteristics of magneto-inductive waves: Comparison
Between Systems-Magnetic Field Area Network (MFAN)—Part1: Air between theory and experiment,’’ Electron. Lett., vol. 39, no. 2,
Interface, document ISO/IEC 15149-1, 2011. pp. 215–217, Jan. 2003.
[155] K. Finkenzeller, RFID Handbook: Radio-Frequency Identification Fun- [177] X. Tan, Z. Sun, and I. F. Akyildiz, ‘‘Wireless underground sensor net-
damentals and Applications, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2004. works: MI-based communication systems for underground applications,’’
[156] J. Haikio, T. Tuikka, E. Siira, and V. Tormanen, ‘‘‘Would you be my IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 74–87, Aug. 2015.
friend?’—Creating a mobile friend network with ‘hot in the city,’’’ in [178] I. F. Akyildiz, P. Wang, and Z. Sun, ‘‘Realizing underwater communica-
Proc. 43rd Hawaii Int. Conf. System Sci., Honolulu, HI, USA, Jan. 2010, tion through magnetic induction,’’ IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 53, no. 11,
pp. 1–10. pp. 42–48, Nov. 2015.
[157] N. Gvozdenovic, R. Prestros, and C. F. Mecklenbräuker, ‘‘Far-field testing [179] J. I. Agbinya, ‘‘Investigation of near field inductive communication
method of spurious emission produced by HF RFID,’’ Int. J. Antennas system models, channels and experiments,’’ Prog. Electromagn. Res. B,
Propag., vol. 2016, May 2016, Art. no. 4715898. vol. 49, pp. 129–153, Feb. 2013.
VOLUME 5, 2017 21283

[180] M. Masihpour and J. I. Agbinya, ‘‘Cooperative relay in near field mag- [200] R. Zhang and C. K. Ho, ‘‘MIMO broadcasting for simultaneous wireless
netic induction: A new technology for embedded medical communica- information and power transfer,’’ IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun., vol. 12,
tion systems,’’ in Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Broadband Biomed. Commun., no. 5, pp. 1989–2001, May 2013.
Dec. 2010, pp. 1–6. [201] S. Bi, C. K. Ho, and R. Zhang, ‘‘Wireless powered communication:
[181] H. Nguyen, J. I. Agbinya, and J. Devlin, ‘‘Channel characterisation and Opportunities and challenges,’’ IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 53, no. 4,
link budget of MIMO configuration in near field magnetic communica- pp. 117–125, Apr. 2015.
tion,’’ Int. J. Electron. Telecommun., vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 255–262, 2013. [202] S. Bi, Y. Zeng, and R. Zhang, ‘‘Wireless powered communication net-
[182] H. Nguyen, J. I. Agbinya, and J. Devlin, ‘‘FPGA-based implementation works: An overview,’’ IEEE Wireless Commun., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 10–18,
of multiple modes in near field inductive communication using frequency Apr. 2016.
splitting and MIMO configuration,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. [203] X. Zhou, R. Zhang, and C. K. Ho, ‘‘Wireless information and power
Papers, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 302–310, Jan. 2015. transfer: Architecture design and rate-energy tradeoff,’’ IEEE Trans.
[183] R. B. Gottula, ‘‘Discrete-time implementation, antenna design, Commun., vol. 61, no. 11, pp. 4757–4767, Nov. 2013.
and MIMO for near-field magnetic induction communications,’’ [204] K. S. Lee and D.-H. Cho, ‘‘Simultaneous information and power trans-
Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Electr. Comput. Eng., Brigham Young Univ., fer using magnetic resonance,’’ ETRI J., vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 808–818,
Provo, UT, USA, 2012. Oct. 2014.
[184] H.-J. Kim, J. Park, K.-S. Oh, J. P. Choi, and J.-W. Choi, ‘‘Near- [205] S. Kisseleff, I. F. Akyildiz, and W. H. Gerstacker, ‘‘Magnetic induction-
field magnetic induction MIMO communication using heterogeneous based simultaneous wireless information and power transfer for
multipole loop antenna array for higher data rate transmission,’’ single information and multiple power receivers,’’ IEEE Trans. Commun.,
IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 1952–1962, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 1396–1410, Mar. 2017.
May 2016. [206] J. Wu, C. Zhao, Z. Lin, J. Du, Y. Hu, and X. He, ‘‘Wireless power
[185] S. Hwang, H.-J. Kim, K. T. Kim, and J.-W. Choi, ‘‘Testbed implementa- and data transfer via a common inductive link using frequency division
tion of near-field magnetic MIMO communication system using SDR,’’ multiplexing,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 7810–7820,
in Proc. Int. Symp. Antennas Propag. (ISAP), Okinawa, Japan, Oct. 2016, Dec. 2015.
pp. 610–611. [207] C.-C. Huang, C.-L. Lin, and Y.-K. Wu, ‘‘Simultaneous wireless
[186] M. Kianiand and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘A 13.56-Mbps pulse delay modula- power/data transfer for electric vehicle charging,’’ IEEE Trans. Ind.
tion based transceiver for simultaneous near-field data and power trans- Electron., vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 682–690, Jan. 2017.
mission,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuit Syst., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–11, [208] M. Zhou, M. R. Yuce, and W. Liu, ‘‘A non-coherent DPSK data
Feb. 2015. receiver with interference cancellation for dual-band transcutaneous
[187] D. Guermandi, S. Gambini, and J. Rabaey, ‘‘A 1 V 250 KPPS telemetries,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 2003–2012,
90 nm CMOS pulse based transceiver for CM-range wireless commu- Sep. 2008.
nication,’’ in Proc. IEEE Eur. Solid-State Circuits Conf., Sep. 2007, [209] G. Simard, M. Sawan, and D. Massicotte, ‘‘High-speed OQPSK and
pp. 135–138. efficient power transfer through inductive link for biomedical implants,’’
[188] S. Lee, J. Yoo, and H. J. Yoo, ‘‘A 200-Mbps 0.02-nJ/b dual-mode IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 192–200, Jun. 2010.
inductive coupling transceiver for CM-range multimedia application,’’ [210] N. M. Neihart and R. R. Harrison, ‘‘Micropower circuits for bidirec-
IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1063–1072, tional wireless telemetry in neural recording applications,’’ IEEE Trans.
May 2009. Biomed. Eng., vol. 52, no. 11, pp. 1950–1959, Nov. 2005.
[189] M. Catrysse, B. Hermans, and R. Puers, ‘‘An inductive power system with [211] J. H. Schulman et al., ‘‘Battery powered BION FES network,’’ in Proc.
integrated bi-directional data-transmission,’’ Sens. Actuators A, Phys., Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE 26th Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. (EMBS), Sep. 2004,
vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 221–229, Sep. 2004. pp. 4283–4286.
[190] M. A. Adeeb, A. B. Islam, M. R. Haider, F. S. Tulip, M. N. Ericson, [212] K. Gosalia, G. Lazzi, and M. Humayun, ‘‘Investigation of a microwave
and S. K. Islam, ‘‘An inductive link-based wireless power transfer data telemetry link for a retinal prosthesis,’’ IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory
system for biomedical applications,’’ Active Passive Electron. Com- Techn., vol. 52, no. 8, pp. 1925–1933, Aug. 2004.
pon., vol. 2012, May 2012, Art. no. 879294. [Online]. Available: [213] U.-M. Jow and M. Ghovanloo, ‘‘Optimization of data coils in a multi-
http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/apec/2012/879294.pdf band wireless link for neuroprosthetic implantable devices,’’ IEEE Trans.
[191] A. Yakovlev, S. Kim, and A. Poon, ‘‘Implantable biomedical devices: Biomed. Circuits Syst., vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 301–310, Oct. 2010.
Wireless powering and communication,’’ IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, [214] S. Ha, C. Kim, J. Park, S. Joshi, and G. Cauwenberghs, ‘‘Energy
no. 4, pp. 152–159, Apr. 2012. recycling telemetry IC with simultaneous 11.5 mW power and 6.78
[192] P. R. Troyk and M. A. K. Schwan, ‘‘Closed-loop class E transcutaneous Mb/s backward data delivery over a single 13.56 MHz inductive
power and data link for microimplants,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., link,’’ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 51, no. 11, pp. 2664–2678,
vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 589–599, Jun. 1992. Nov. 2016.
[193] M. Ghovanloo and K. Najafi, ‘‘A wideband frequency-shift keying [215] S. Mandal and R. Sarpeshkar, ‘‘Power-efficient impedance-modulation
wireless link for inductively powered biomedical implants,’’ IEEE wireless data links for biomedical implants,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed.
Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 51, no. 12, pp. 2374–2383, Circuits Syst., vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 301–315, Dec. 2008.
Dec. 2004. [216] M. Ghovanloo and S. Atluri, ‘‘An integrated full-wave CMOS recti-
[194] P. Mohseni, K. Najafi, S. J. Eliades, and X. Wang, ‘‘Wireless multi- fier with built-in back telemetry for RFID and implantable biomedical
channel biopotential recording using an integrated FM telemetry circuit,’’ applications,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 55, no. 10,
IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng., vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 263–271, pp. 3328–3334, Nov. 2008.
Sep. 2005. [217] L. Zhou and N. Donaldson, ‘‘A fast passive data transmission method for
[195] Z. Tang, B. Smith, J. H. Schild, and P. H. Peckham, ‘‘Data transmis- ENG telemetry,’’ Neuromodulation-Malden, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 116–121,
sion from an implantable biotelemeter by load-shift keying using circuit 2003.
configuration modulator,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 42, no. 5, [218] D. Cirmirakis, D. Jiang, A. Demosthenous, N. Donaldson, and T. Perkins,
pp. 524–528, May 1995. ‘‘A fast passive phase shift keying modulator for inductively coupled
[196] M. Ghovanloo and S. Atluri, ‘‘A wide-band power-efficient inductive implanted medical devices,’’ in Proc. Eur. Solid-State Circuits Conf.,
wireless link for implantable microelectronic devices using multiple Sep. 2012, pp. 301–304.
carriers,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 54, no. 10, [219] M. Mark et al., ‘‘A 12 Mbps 330 fJ/b transponder for implanted
pp. 2211–2221, Oct. 2007. neural sensors,’’ in Symp. VLSI Circuits Dig., Jun. 2011,
[197] A. Yakovlev, J. H. Jang, and D. Pivonka, ‘‘An 11 µW sub-pJ/bit reconfig- pp. 168–169.
urable transceiver for mm-sized wireless implants,’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. [220] A. Bletsas, A. G. Dimitriou, and J. N. Sahalos, ‘‘Improving backscatter
Circuits Syst., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 175–185, Feb. 2016. radio tag efficiency,’’ IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn., vol. 58, no. 6,
[198] L. R. Varshney, ‘‘Transporting information and energy simultaneously,’’ pp. 1502–1509, Jun. 2010.
in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Inf. Theory, Jul. 2008, pp. 1612–1616. [221] R.-F. Xue, H.-K. Cha, J. H. Cheong, K. P. Basappa, M. Je, and Y. Zheng,
[199] P. Grover and A. Sahai, ‘‘Shannon meets Tesla: Wireless information ‘‘Wireless powering and bidirectional telemetry front-end for implantable
and power transfer,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Inf. Theory, Jun. 2010, biomedical devices,’’ in Proc. 13th Int. Symp. Integr. Circuits, Dec. 2011,
pp. 2363–2367. pp. 144–147.
21284 VOLUME 5, 2017

HAN-JOON KIM (S’15) received the B.S. and RUI ZHANG (S’00–M’07–SM’15–F’17) received
M.S. degrees in information control and instru- the B.Eng. (Hons.) and M.Eng. degrees from the
mentation engineering from Kwangwoon Uni- National University of Singapore, Singapore, in
versity, Seoul, South Korea, in 2011 and 2013, 2000 and 2001, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
respectively. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. from Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA, in
degree in information and communication engi- 2007, all in electrical engineering. From 2007 to
neering with the Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute 2010, he was with the Institute for Infocomm
of Science and Technology, Daegu, Korea. His Research, Agency for Science, Technology and
research interests include magnetic communica- Research, Singapore, where he holds a Senior
tion, wireless power transfer, and transcranial Scientist joint appointment. In 2010, he joined
magnetic stimulation. the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Univer-
sity of Singapore, where he is currently an Associate Professor. He has
authored over 250 papers. His research interests include energy-efficient and
energy harvesting-enabled wireless communications, wireless information
and power transfer, multiuser MIMO, cognitive radio, UAV-assisted com-
munications, wireless information surveillance, and optimization methods.
HIROSHI HIRAYAMA (S’01–M’03) received He has been listed as a Highly Cited Researcher (also known as the World
the B.E., M.E., and Ph.D. degrees in electri- Most Influential Scientific Minds), by Thomson Reuters, since 2015. He has
cal engineering from the University of Electro- been an elected member of the IEEE Signal Processing Society SPCOM and
Communications, Chofu, Japan, in 1998, 2000, SAM Technical Committees. He was a co-recipient of the Best Paper Award
and 2003, respectively. Since 2003, he has been from the IEEE PIMRC in 2005, the IEEE Marconi Prize Paper Award in
with the Nagoya Institute of Technology, where he Wireless Communications in 2015, and the IEEE Communications Society
is currently an Associate Professor. His research Asia-Pacific Region Outstanding Paper Award in 2016. He was a recipient
interests include antenna technologies, EMC/EMI, of the 6th IEEE Communications Society Asia-Pacific Region Best Young
and wireless power transmission. Researcher Award in 2011 and the Young Researcher Award of the National
University of Singapore in 2015. He served as the Vice-Chair of the IEEE
Communications Society Asia-Pacific Board Technical Affairs Committee.
He has served for over 30 international conferences as a TPC Co-Chair or an
Organizing Committee Member, and as a Guest Editor for eight special issues
in the IEEE and other internationally refereed journals. He has served as an
Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS and the IEEE
SANGHOEK KIM received the B.S. degree with JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS (Green Communications and
a double major in electrical engineering and math- Networking Series). He is currently an Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
ematical science from Seoul National University, SIGNAL PROCESSING and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GREEN COMMUNICATIONS AND
South Korea, in 2007, and the M.S./Ph.D. degree NETWORKING.
in electrical engineering from Stanford University,
USA, in 2013. He was a recipient of the Kwan-
jeong Scholarship during the study. He was with
Qualcomm Inc., as a Signal/Power Integrity Engi-
neer and with SiBeam Inc., as a mmWave System
Engineer. Since 2016, he has been an Assistant
Professor with the Electronic Engineering Department, Kyung Hee Uni-
versity, South Korea. His current research focuses on the applications of
radiofrequency technology and electromagnetic theory in wireless interface
with bio-implantable devices and biomedicine.
JI-WOONG CHOI (S’00–M’04–SM’09) received

KI JIN HAN (S’06–M’10–SM’16) received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from Seoul
the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engi- National University(SNU), Seoul, South Korea,
neering from Seoul National University, Seoul, in 1998, 2000, and 2004, respectively, all in
South Korea, in 1998 and 2000, respectively, and electrical engineering. From 2004 to 2005, he
the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engi- was a Post-Doctoral Researcher with the Inter-
neering from the Georgia Institute of Technology, University Semiconductor Research Center, SNU.
Atlanta, GA, USA, in 2009. He was with the From 2005 to 2007, he was a Post-Doctoral Vis-
System Research and Development Laboratory, iting Scholar with the Department of Electrical
LG Precision Co., Ltd., Yongin, South Korea, from Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
2000 to 2005. From 2009 to 2011, he was with USA. He was also a Consultant with GCT Semiconductor, San Jose, CA,
the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, USA, USA, for development of mobile TV receivers from 2006 to 2007. From
as a Post-Doctoral Researcher. He is currently with the Division of Elec- 2007 to 2010, he was with Marvell Semiconductor, Santa Clara, CA, USA,
tronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul, Korea, as as a Staff Systems Engineer for next-generation wireless communication sys-
an Associate Professor. His current research interests include EMC for tems, including WiMAX and LTE. Since 2010, he has been with the Depart-
power electronics, computational electromagnetics, and electronic packag- ment of Information and Communication Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk
ing. He received the 2015 IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging Institute of Science and Technology, Daegu, South Korea, as an Associate
and Manufacturing Technology Best Paper Award in 2016 and the Samsung Professor. His research interests include wireless communication theory,
Scholarship for graduate study in 2005. He served as the Technical Program signal processing, biomedical communication applications, and brain–
Committee Chair of the 2015 IEEE Electrical Design of Advanced Packaging machine interface.
and Systems Symposium.
VOLUME 5, 2017 21285
View publication stats

Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication For Biomedical Applications

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication For Biomedical Applications

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication For Biomedical Applications

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and Communication for Biomedical

Article in IEEE Access · September 2017

Han-Joon Kim Sanghoek Kim

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

A Performance Analysis for Interconnections of 3D ICs View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Review of Near-Field Wireless Power and

Corresponding author: Ji-Woong Choi ([email protected])

I. INTRODUCTION identification (RFID), and wireless power transfer (WPT)

VOLUME 5, 2017 21265

II. REVIEW OF NEAR-FIELD MAGNETIC

21266 VOLUME 5, 2017

TABLE 1. Summary of existing survey in related areas.

VOLUME 5, 2017 21267

FIGURE 2. Relationship among various kinds of WPT scheme.

21268 VOLUME 5, 2017

VOLUME 5, 2017 21269

21270 VOLUME 5, 2017

VOLUME 5, 2017 21271

Singapore, Thailand, South Korea, South Africa, and in other

VOLUME 5, 2017 21273

MFAN-R can compose a small network with MFAN-Ns

C. RESEARCH TRENDS IN THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

21274 VOLUME 5, 2017

conventional EM communication systems, to near-field

nal frequency to suppress inter-symbol-interference (ISI),

VOLUME 5, 2017 21275

FIGURE 10. The general schematic overview of the near-field

between the external component and the implantable biomed-

21276 VOLUME 5, 2017

sensitivity in the link gain to changes in antenna orientation,

modate uncertainties in the environment. For example, the

VOLUME 5, 2017 21277

transfer power efficiency under the required channel capac-

21278 VOLUME 5, 2017

VOLUME 5, 2017 21279

21280 VOLUME 5, 2017

VOLUME 5, 2017 21281

21282 VOLUME 5, 2017

VOLUME 5, 2017 21283

21284 VOLUME 5, 2017

JI-WOONG CHOI (S’00–M’04–SM’09) received

VOLUME 5, 2017 21285

View publication stats

You might also like