Electronic Circuits PDF by Wayne Charles

www.Engineeringbookspdf.
com

Electronic
Circuits

The Definitive guide
to Circuit Boards
Testing Circuits
and Electricity Principles

Wayne Charles
www.Engineeringbookspdf.com

Copyright 2016 by Wayne Charles - All rights reserved.

This document is geared towards providing exact and reliable information in regards to the topic and issue covered. The
publication is sold with the idea that the publisher is not required to render accounting, officially permitted, or otherwise,
qualified services. If advice is necessary, legal or professional, a practiced individual in the profession should be ordered.
- From a Declaration of Principles which was accepted and approved equally by a Committee of the American Bar
Association and a Committee of Publishers and Associations.
In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document in either electronic means or in printed
format. Recording of this publication is strictly prohibited and any storage of this document is not allowed unless with
written permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.
The information provided herein is stated to be truthful and consistent, in that any liability, in terms of inattention or
otherwise, by any usage or abuse of any policies, processes, or directions contained within is the solitary and utter
responsibility of the recipient reader. Under no circumstances will any legal responsibility or blame be held against the
publisher for any reparation, damages, or monetary loss due to the information herein, either directly or indirectly.
Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.
The information herein is offered for informational purposes solely, and is universal as so. The presentation of the
information is without contract or any type of guarantee assurance.
The trademarks that are used are without any consent, and the publication of the trademark is without permission or
backing by the trademark owner. All trademarks and brands within this book are for clarifying purposes only and are the
owned by the owners themselves, not affiliated with this document.
Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1: Common Units Used
Chapter 2: Types of Circuits
Chapter 3: Combined Circuits and Measurements
Chapter 4: Types of Current
Chapter 5: Introduction to Circuit boards – The Breadboard
Chapter 6: Stripboard
Chapter 7: Printed Circuit Board
Chapter 8: Testing the Circuits
Conclusion

Introduction
Electrical circuits have become an integral part of our everyday lives, and nearly
everything we touch these days has some form of electrical circuit in it. From the watch on
your wrist or the smartphone in your hand to some of the toothbrushes that we use to
brush our teeth, circuits are virtually impossible to avoid.
However, not very many people know or even understand what a circuit is and how it
works. In this book, you shall not only find out what a circuit is and how it works, you
will also learn how to test the circuits, and the basic principles of electricity.
People have known about electricity since the time of the Ancient Greeks. In fact,
scientists seem to have found proof that the Ancient Romans had invented a primitive
battery made from clay pots lined with copper. The scientists believe that the clay
‘batteries’ must have been used to produce light at Roman sites.
There are those who do not believe that the Ancient Romans could have been that
developed, however, sites near Baghdad have shown that even the Persians were using a
device similar to the Roman one. Perhaps the Persians and the Romans traded ideas when
they realized how beneficial such a development could be.
However, one thing that most historians will agree on is the fact that the Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta was the first man to construct a working circuit that actually carried a
steady electrical current. He achieved this feat in 1800, and ever since then, human beings
have been experimenting with circuits, trying to figure out new ways to make them better,
smaller, and more reliable.
In this book, you shall be introduced to the world of electricity and electrical circuits, and
learn why they are so important. To begin with though, you should start right at the
beginning, with the principles of electricity.

Chapter 1: Common Units Used
The principles of electricity are as simple as they are elegant. However, before you begin
to delve into these principles, it is important to understand what electricity is in the first
place. The simplest way to define electricity would be to say that electricity is the
movement of an electric current from one place to another. The movement of free
electrons from one place to the other causes this electric current, therefore, the more free
electrons a material has the better it will be at conducting electricity.
There are various parameters that need to be considered when you discussing the
principles of electricity, the most important of which are Coulombs, Volts, Amperes,
Ohms and Watts.

1. Coulomb
The coulomb (C) is the internationally accepted (SI) unit of electrical charge. The
Coulomb is named after the famous French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb who
developed a law by the same name to explain the electrostatic forces of attraction and
repulsion. Its symbol is C, and it is used to measure the amount of charge carried by a
constant current along a conductor in one second.
It can be described mathematically as: 1 C = 1 A x 1 S
1 C is roughly 6.242 x 1018 or 1.036 x 10-5 mol Protons, while -1 C is just about 6.242 x
1018 electrons.

2. Volts
Named after the famous Italian Physicist Alessandro Volta, the Volt (V) is a unit of
measurement used to describe the electromotive force (emf) required to drive a current of
one ampere through a conductor with a resistance of one ohm.
To simplify this explanation, imagine you have a hydraulic circuit, with a faucet, a pump,
a pipe and a trough. The pump helps to draw water into the pipe when the faucet is turned
on, and the water flows through the pipe, out of the faucet and back into the trough where
the whole cycle starts again.
The volt in this case would be the amount of pressure that the circuit would need to get the
water through it.
The volt can mathematically be represented in a number of ways. Expressing it in SI units
(the seven internationally accepted units of measurement) can be done as follows:
V= Potential Energy/Charge = N x m/coulomb =
Kg x m x m/ s2 x A x s = Kg x m2/ A x s3

3. Ampere
An ampere (A) or an amp is the SI unit for electric current. It is equivalent to 1 coulomb,
and is used to describe the flow rate of an electrical charge. The ampere is named after
André-Marie Ampère, a French physicist and mathematician that was central to the
development of classical electromagnetism during the early part of the 19th century.
It is important to remember that the amp should never be confused with the coulomb. This
is because the coulomb is a unit of charge, where as the amp is a unit of current, or the
amount of charge moving through the circuit at any given time.
It should come as no surprise then to realize that should there be an increase in the number
of charged particles passing through a specific point, then there should also be a rise in the
amperes of current.
Amperes can be mathematically expressed as follows:
1A = 1 C/s

4. Ohms
The ohm (Ω) is a unit of measurement that is used to describe electrical resistance through
any conductive material. It was named after the German physicist and mathematician,
Georg Simon Ohm, who was a one of the pioneers in the study of electricity.
He developed a law by the same name (Ohm’s Law) to describe the relationship between a
conductor, the potential difference (voltage) applied to it, and the consequent electric
current. The law describes the ohm as an electrical resistance in a circuit transmitting a
current of one ampere when subjected to a potential difference of one volt.
Basically, it states that the ohm is the resistance to the passage of electricity through a
conductor should the said conductor have an electric current of 1 ampere pass through it,
and a potential difference of 1 volt.
The ohm can be mathematically represented as: Ω = V/A (This is also how you would
express Ohm’s law)
In most cases, the resistance of the conductor in ohm’s law remains constant even when
taken through a range of voltages and temperatures. Such conductors are called linear
resistors, and must not be confused with thermistors, which have a variable resistance
depending on different factors, most critical of which is temperature.

5. Watts
The watt (W) is the SI unit used to measure power, and was named after the Scottish
engineer James Watt. Electrical power is a gauge of how long it will take an electrical
circuit to transfer electrical energy, and it is measured in joules per second.
The electric power generated by a circuit can be defined in three different ways:
1. The power lost in a circuit is inversely proportional to the squared value of the
voltage travelling through it.
P = V2/R

2. The power lost in a circuit is directly proportional to the squared value of the
current going through it.
P = I2 x R

3. The power in a circuit is equal to the voltage multiplied by the current travelling
through it.
P = V x I
Where: P = Power
V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance

6. Ampacity
Ampacity can be simply defined as the amount of current that a conductor can handle
before its temperature begins making it sustain progressive or immediate damage.
Though it is not regularly considered when creating basic circuits, in larger installations
the ampacity of a conductor should be considered as it can drastically affect the materials
used to create the circuits.
The ampacity of a conductor is determined by:
1. The resistance of the conductor
2. The ability to lose heat
3. Ambient temperature
4. The insulation of the conductor

Chapter 2: Types of Circuits
Different elements of an electrical circuit can be connected in countless different ways.
For this reason, before you learn about the different circuit boards there are and how they
work, it is important to know what kinds of circuits there are, as many circuit boards
contain one or more of these circuits. There are two main types of circuits, Parallel circuits
and series circuits.

1. Series Circuits
Series circuits are so called because the components in the circuit are connected in a single
line or series so that the same current flows through them uninterrupted. This means that
all the elements of a series circuit carry the same current. An example of a series circuit is
shown below:
One of the major advantages (or disadvantages depending on the application) of these
circuits is, because all the components are connected in a straight line, breaking the circuit
at any given point will cause the entire circuit to open or break.
The very nature of series circuits allows the calculations that have to be carried out for
these circuits to be rather simplistic. For instance, should you want to calculate the
resistance for 3 resistors that are arranged in series, the equation would be:
RTotal = R1 + R2 + R3
This means that if you have three 4 Ω resistors then the total resistance is going to be:
RTotal = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 Ω
Calculating the potential difference across the circuit is equally simple. For instance,
should there be two 1.5 V batteries connected to the circuit in series, the total potential
difference will be 3V, i.e.
Vtotal = V1 + V2
Series circuits are not commonly used due to the fact that should any component in the
circuit fail, then the whole circuit fails until the issue with the component can be resolved.
However, they are used in certain appliances such as torches, where the voltage supplied
needs to be relatively high.
12V car batteries are also an example of components that are connected in series, as they
are often two 6V batteries that are connected together. In trucks, two of these batteries are
often connected in series to supply the 24V that the truck needs to run.

2. Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits are those where the potential difference (Voltage) across all the
components connected to the circuit is the same. This fact also means that all the devices
in the circuit will have the same polarities. However, this means that the current that flows
through all the components of the circuit will be shared, meaning that the total current in
the circuit will equal the sum of the currents through each component of the circuit. An
example of a parallel circuit is shown below:
Calculating the resistance for a parallel circuit is slightly more complicated. To calculate
the total resistance for the whole circuit, you have to add the reciprocals of all the
resistances in the circuit, then take the reciprocal of the sum. Mathematically, that would
be represented as:
1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
If only two resistors are connected in parallel, then the equation becomes:
Rtotal = R1R2/R1+R2
In a parallel circuit, the total resistance of the circuit always has a lesser value than the one
of the smallest resistor. For example, if you have 4 10 Ω resistors, then your total
resistance will be:
1/Rtotal = 1/10 + 1/10 + 1/10 + 1/10
1/Rtotal = ¼
Rtotal = 4
Parallel circuits have very many uses, and are appear often in everyday life. For instance,
almost everything in your house is connected in parallel to the mains supply, as are most
premises that are connected to the power grid. Parallel circuits are also used in Christmas
lights and Chandeliers to ensure that even if one light goes off the others will still
function.

Chapter 3: Combined Circuits and Measurements
An electrical circuit may not always be either series or parallel. A lot of the time, both
circuits are combined to form a compound circuit. Shown below is an example of a
combined circuit:

A When confronted with some of these circuits, the best thing would be to analyze them
and simplify, especially if you have to work out the resistance, voltage, or current for any
given component of the circuit.
For example, if you have a circuit with 4 resistors, three connected in parallel (10 Ω, 20 Ω
and 30 Ω respectively) and one in series (10 Ω) and you have been asked to calculate the
total resistance in the circuit, the first thing you should do is calculate the total resistance
of the resistors in parallel. Once you have done this, you can then add up the resistors that
are in series and find the total resistance, as illustrated below:
1. Add up the resistors in parallel
1/Rtotal = (1/10 + 1/20 + 1/30)
1/Rtotal = (6 + 3 + 2)/ 60
1/Rtotal = 60/11 = 5.45 Ω
2. Add the replacement resistor (5.45 Ω) to the final equation (Rtotal = R1 + R2)
Rtotal = 5.45 + 10 = 15.45

Connecting Instruments to your Circuit
When you finally start experimenting with circuits, you will realize that many of the tests
you will be carrying out will be done live. To ensure that you take the most accurate
readings possible, it is important to pay attention to this section before you move on.
There are certain things that are worth remembering when you are about to start taking
measurements. One is that ‘Current flows through a conductor’. A conductor is any
material that allows electricity to pass through it easily. Most metals are conductors, as is
water and any other compound that easily shares electrons.
On the other hand, insulators do not share electrons very easily and therefore are
considered bad conductors of electricity. Good insulators of electricity include materials
such as glass, plastic, rubber and wood.
There are a few things you need to consider before you connect a meter to your circuit
including, but not limited to the following:
- Do I have the right device for the job?
- Is it damaged in any way?
- Do I know how to calibrate it, or how it works?
- What am I trying to test, and therefore, how should I connect it to the circuit?
Well, some of these questions you are going to have to answer for yourself. However, in
regards to the last question, this section should help you a great deal.

Measuring current with an ammeter
Measuring current is very simple if you have an ammeter. The fact that current needs to
flow through a load means that for an ammeter to display a reading, it needs the current to
be directed through it. For this reason, an ammeter must be connected in series as shown
in the diagram below.
If you are measuring small currents this should not be an issue. However, for larger
currents, especially if you do not know what type of values you will be expecting, you
need to set your meter on the largest current range. If you get a smaller reading that
expected then you can slowly turn down the meter to get a more accurate reading.
Remember, to ensure that you get an accurate reading your ammeter needs to have a very
small internal resistance otherwise both the overall resistance, and therefore the current
flowing through the meter will be affected.
Measuring voltage with a voltmeter
As you know, the voltage or potential difference of a circuit is the amount of electromotive
force (emf) required to drive a current round a circuit. Therefore, a potential difference
will exist across a load to ensure that the electrons go through the load. To measure this
potential difference across a load, the voltmeter is connected parallel to the said load as
shown below
Unlike the ammeter that has a very low internal resistance, the voltmeter is the opposite,
and instead has a very high internal resistance. The voltmeter is connected in parallel to
ensure that most of the current keeps flowing through the circuit, and only the smallest
proportion of that current flows through the voltmeter.
Voltmeters are not 100% reliable, and there will always be a slight error in your readings,
especially as you add more components to the circuit. However, if properly calibrated,
these errors will prove insignificant in the end.

Measuring resistance using an ohmmeter
The resistance of a circuit is measured using Ohm’s law, meaning that an ohmmeter is
basically just a combined ammeter and voltmeter. If you know the voltage of the circuit,
then the internal battery of the ohmmeter and the current travelling through it can be
measured. The meter then divides the battery’s voltage by the current flowing through it
and gives the answer in ohms.
One of the most important things to remember when using an ohmmeter is to keep the
resistance of the leads in mind when doing the experiment. The resistance in the leads can
be measured by touching the leads together and taking down the value that the meter
returns. You can then adjust your final values appropriately, as you are doing your
calculations.
Most meters on sale today have a built in ‘null’ value, which can be helpful. It works by
reading the resistance of the leads and automatically recalibrating itself to consider the
value, leaving you free to carry out your experiment.
Chapter 4: Types of Current
Before experimenting with circuits, it is important that you become familiar with the
different types of electrical current, and what makes them differ from each other. There are
two types of current, alternating current and direct current.

Direct Current (DC)
The term direct current (DC) is used when referring to electrical systems that use only one
polarity of voltage or current. DC is produced by various sources, including batteries,
thermocouples, solar cells, power supplies, fuel cells and dynamos. Direct current flows
through conductors as usual, but it can also flow through semi-conductors, insulators and
can even flow through a vacuum.
The voltage across a direct current source is always constant, as is the current through the
source. As much as DC stands for direct current, it can also stand for constant polarity.
When described like this, the voltages produced by DC can vary over time as is seen when
measuring the voltage across a telephone line when a voice signal is passing through it.
DC is ordinarily found in extra-low voltage and low voltage appliances. This is especially
true for appliances that use batteries or solar power. It is also found in cars, which
normally run on a 12V DC current. However, there are cars like the classic VW beetle that
run on lower voltages (6V in the case of the beetle) and some that run on higher voltages
such as some semis that run on a 24 volt system (2 12 volt batteries connected in series)

Alternating Current (AC)
The term alternating current (AC) is used when referring to an electric current where the
charge reverses direction regularly. Depending on the country you are in, AC power
comes in two different frequencies, either 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
AC is produced using a generator called an alternator that turns mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Alternators work by spinning a copper coil of wire very fast in a
magnetic field. The interaction between the spinning coil and the magnet inevitably
produces AC power. AC power is produced due to the fact that as the wire spins, it
interacts with a different magnetic polarity periodically. The spinning of the wire is
induced by various means, including water (hence hydroelectricity), steam (to form
hydrothermal electricity), and wind turbines.
AC comes in a variety of forms, and if you were to connect an oscilloscope to an AC
circuit and plot its voltage over time, you would most likely see a variety of different
waveforms. The most common form of AC is the sine wave, though it can also come in
the form of a square wave or a triangle wave, as shown below:

The power that is supplied to homes and businesses arrives in AC form, and is usually
transported along the power lines at high voltage (+110kV) to reduce the amount of power
lost during transmission due to resistance in the wire. AC is also used to power electric
motors in dishwashers, refrigerators and other appliances. The motors in this case are
almost identical to the alternators that help produce the electricity. However, in this case,
the motors turn electrical energy into mechanical energy, the exact opposite of what
alternators do.
Chapter 5: Introduction to Circuit boards – The Breadboard
Circuit boards come in all shapes and sizes, and for a whole variety of purposes. They
exist in almost everything electronic that we use in our lives, from our fridges to our cars.
Now that you are familiar with the basics of electronic principles, it is now time to look at
the different sort of circuit boards there are and their different uses.
There are many different reasons why you should select the type of circuit board that you
are going to use carefully, not least of which is that the type of circuit board you choose
will also affect the type of work that you do. There are circuit boards for beginners who
look at experimenting with circuits as just a hobby, and there are those for the more
advanced hobbyist and the professional. Listed below are the three most common types of
circuit boards and their characteristics and uses.

Breadboard
The simplest circuit board there is a breadboard circuit board. It is usually utilized for
testing and for building prototypes before the final circuit is built. When people started
experimenting with circuits, especially in the early days of radio, many amateur
electricians would test their circuits out by nailing or tacking their wires and terminal
strips down to wooded boards that were used to slice bread on.
As time passed though, the breadboards evolved slowly until in 1971 Ronald J. Portugal
designed the first solderless breadboard, which made it much easier to change connections
and replace certain components. The lack of a need to solder your components to the
circuit board also meant that not only could you use your circuit board again, but you
could also use the components with which you were experimenting.
Modern breadboards are made up of a perforated block of plastic with a number of tin
plated phosphor bronze or nickel silver alloy spring clips under the perforations (called
sockets or holes). The sockets on a breadboard are usually spaced out at 0.1 in intervals,
and the leads for most components of the circuit can be pushed straight into the sockets. It
is important to note that stranded wire is not suitable for use with breadboards as they tend
to crumple when inserted into a socket, and strands have been known to break up, causing
serious damage to the board.
Integrated circuits are inserted across the gap in the middle of the board, with their notch
or dot on the left, while all the other components of the circuit (other than the power
supply) are inserted into the remaining free sockets.
The sockets in the middle of the breadboard are called the terminal strips. Terminal strips
have a notch in the middle which is meant to aid the cooling of ICs that are connected to
the circuit (hence the reason why ICs are inserted in the middle of the breadboard.)
Terminal strips are connected vertically across the board, usually in groups of 5 and are
not linked across the center of the board.
The sockets on the top and bottom of the breadboard are known as the Bus strips, and
these are usually reserved to supply the power to the circuit. They are linked horizontally
down the
circuit
board, and
usually one
of the strips
is meant for
ground,
while the
other one is
meant for
the supply
voltage.
Normally,
the column
that supplies
power would
be
represented
by red lines
when being illustrated in a diagram, while black or blue lines would represent the
grounded side. Below is a picture of a simple Breadboard.

It is important to note that on larger breadboards, there may be a gap halfway along the top
and bottom supply rows. If you have a breadboard that has this problem, you should
bridge the gap before you start trying to build a circuit, as you may forget and leave half
your circuit without power. In addition, if you would like to have a larger breadboard,
many companies make breadboards that can be stuck together to make them bigger.
Breadboards have quite a few reasons why they are used primarily for testing and
prototypes. One of the major reasons is that they have a very large stray capacitance,
meaning that they have a tendency to store unwanted charge. Though it can be ignored
most of the time, especially with smaller, lower frequency circuits, when it comes to high
power or high frequency circuits it can act as a feedback path. This would make the circuit
oscillate at the same frequency, rendering most circuits unusable.
Breadboards also have high inductance in some connections. This means that in some
places on the board, the board itself will be able to generate a magnetic field that will then
affect the rest of the components connected to the board. The resistance in these boards is
also quite high, and cannot be reproduced easily. They also have very poor voltage and
current ratings. For these reasons, breadboards are usually restricted to very low
frequencies, usually less than 10 MHz, depending on the size and complexity of the
circuit.
Solderless breadboards have some other limitations. For instance, you cannot connect any
surface-mount technology devices on the board unless they are compatible with the 0.1 in
grid spacing. What is more, breadboards cannot accommodate any devices that have
multiple rows of connectors if they are not compatible with the layout of the board.
Complex circuits are virtually impossible to create on solderless circuits due to all the
wiring that is needed, and the fact that there is no concrete way to secure the wires. The
fact that the breadboard is solderless means that it would be too easy to disturb the wires,
meaning you would probably spend 90% of your time checking connections, rather than
making sure that the circuit works properly.

Creating a Circuit on a Breadboard
When creating a circuit on a circuit board the first thing that you need to do is create a
circuit diagram. However, converting the diagram to the breadboard layout can be tricky
as the way you arrange the components on the board will look very different from the
circuit diagram.
When placing the different components of your circuit on the breadboard, the most
important thing to concentrate on will be the connections on the circuit board and not
necessarily their positions on the diagram. The best place to start would be with the IC
chip. Once that has been connected, you can begin to work around it slowly, pin by pin,
making sure that you have connected all the components to the pins they are supposed to
be connected to.
The best way to explain the process is to go through an example. Below is a diagram for a
monostable circuit that is rigged to light an LED light for about 5 seconds when the trigger
button is pressed. The time that the light will be on is determined by R1 and C1 (where C1
is a capacitor), therefore should you wish to change how long the light comes on you
should experiment by changing their values. The value for R1 should be between 1 kΩ
and 1 MΩ.
Time period can be calculated by:
Time period T = 1.1 x R1 x C1

To build this circuit
1. Insert the 555 IC in the centre of the breadboard and ensure that its notch or dot is
on the left
2. Connect a black wire to 0V
3. Connect the 10 kΩ resistor to the +9V power supply. Connect a push switch to 0V
(remember to solder the leads onto the switch)
4. Connect the 47 kΩ resistor to an used block of 5 holes, then connect an LED from
that block to 0V
5. Connect a red wire to the +9V row of sockets
6. Connect the 0.01 µF capacitor to 0V. If you find that the leads are too short, take a
wire and connect it to an empty block of holes, then connect the capacitor to that.
7. Connect the 100 µF capacitor to 0V and connect the lead to pin 6, then connect a
blue wire to pin 7
8. Connect the 47 kΩ resistor to +9V. Make sure that there is a wire already
connected to pin 6
9. Connect a red wire to +9V
When you have done all this:
- Check all the components are connected properly
- Make sure that all the parts are connected the right way round, especially the
LED and the 100 µF capacitor
- Ensure that no leads are touching unless they connect to the same block
- Connect the breadboard to a 9V supply and press the switch to test the circuit.
If the circuit fails to work, disconnect the power supply and re-check every connection
against the circuit diagram. Once you have the circuit working properly, remember you
can experiment with the circuit by changing the capacitors and the resistors to see how
long the LED stays on once you have pressed the switch.

Chapter 6: Stripboard

Stripboard is the next level up from breadboard, and just like its simpler counterpart it has
perforated holes or sockets that are arranged in a regular grid, with 0.1 inches separating
the sockets. Also similar to the breadboard is the parallel strips of copper that run
underneath the stripboard from one side of the board to the other and are separated by 0.1
inches.
Unlike breadboard though, stripboard is rather permanent, as components are usually
soldered to the board. This makes it ideal for small, simple circuits with just one or two
integrated circuits. However, the large number of holes on the board means that it is very
easy to connect components to the wrong sockets, therefore more care is needed when
working with stripboard than with breadboard. For larger, more complex circuits, it is
recommended that you use a printed circuit board, as it will be much easier to track the
connections that you make.
Stripboard first appeared on the market in the middle of the last century, and was created
to be an alternative to the printed circuit boards that had become common at the time. The
printed circuit boards at that time had the components that were connected to them placed
in a regular pattern. The stripboard was developed so that you could be free to connect
different components as you pleased, as long as they were connected to the conductors in
the right way to be able to complete the circuit.
Stripboard, like breadboard, does not need any special preparations in order to be used,
save cutting it to size. It is delivered in various sized, with one of the more common sized
being 160 mm x 100 mm. However, these dimensions may prove to be too much, hence
the reason why you may need to cut it to size.
Stripboard can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or (for those who trust their aim) it can be
simply snapped along the lines by placing it on the edge of a table and pressing down
hard. If you cut the board in this manner please make sure that you use a pair of pliers to
get rid of any jagged edges.
You may need to make additional preparations if you would like to make a more
complicated circuit. This preparation comes in the form of cutting the tracks on the
stripboard. In fact, most circuits that are built on stripboard have had to have some of the
tracks cut so to break the connection at that point.
If you would like to connect an integrated circuit to the stripboard then you are going to
have to cut a few tracks, unless it is one of those rare cases where it is alright to connect
opposite pins. Tracks are usually cut with a 3mm drill bit or a special track cutter tool. The
tracks are cut from the bottom or the copper side, and the position that the cuts need to be
made are usually marked with a cross (X). However, the nature of the board means that
even with the marking it is very tricky to find the right place to cut. Should you ever have
this problem, it is recommended that you solder your component onto the board before
you cut the track. The solder joint will make it easier to identify the right track to cut.
When cutting the track, place the track cutter (or drill bit) on the correct hole and twist it
to and fro, making sure not to apply too much force, after all, the aim of this exercise is to
cut the track, not punch a hole through the stripboard. Once you have made the cut, make
sure you thoroughly inspect your work to ensure that you have no stray copper wires left
across the break, as even the smallest sliver will conduct electricity.

Connecting Components to a Stripboard
When connecting components onto a stripboard, it is important to remember that they are
placed on the non-copper side of the board. Once they are placed properly, the board is
then turned around and the leads are soldered onto the tracks as shown below.
Most illustrations of stripboard layouts display the board from above so you never get to
see the tracks underneath the board. More often than not, they are shown with the tracks
running horizontally across the diagram. The nature of the stripboard means that the
components need to be connected very carefully. Confusion brought on by the large
number of holes is not uncommon, and many people have had to restart projects because
of avoidable errors. The best way to steer clear of these unfortunate events is to solder the
integrated circuit onto the circuit board first, then position all the other components around
it.
The position of the components as far as the horizontal is concerned is not really an issue,
as regardless of whether the component is too far right or left, it will still be connected to
the right tracks. However, should a component move too far up or down then this could be
a problem as it will connect to the wrong track and therefore the wrong part of the circuit.
There are some people (and more recently manufacturers) who create a grid reference by
labeling the holes with letters and numbers. However, if it’s being done manually this still
takes a lot of work, especially if you want to make a complex circuit.
Connecting external wires to the circuit board is quite straightforward, and is basically the
same as connecting components to the board normally. All you need to do is solder the
wires through the holes. On the other hand, should you have wires that are too thick to fit
through the holes in the stripboard, there are special pins called Veropins which fit snugly
into the holes and can be soldered onto the external components, making it easier to
connect them to the board.

Planning a stripboard layout
As with breadboards, the first step to take when you want to build a circuit is to draw a
circuit diagram. Once you have done that you can convert the circuit diagram into a
stripboard layout. However, just like with the breadboard, the circuit diagram and the
stripboard layout will probably look like two different things. This is because as with the
breadboard layout, what you need to do is concentrate on the connections between the
components, not the appearance of the actual circuit.
Before you start planning the circuit, you need to collect all the parts you will be using so
you can work out how much space they will require. For instance, most resistors will need
at least 3 hole of space to be if they are going to lie flat, but it should be noted that they
can take a lot more space. They can also take very little space if you install them
vertically. However, this makes the tracks and indeed the resistor more vulnerable to
damage. For this reason, if you are thinking of having the stripboard layout last for a long
time, it is recommended that you mount all the resistors horizontally.
Planning the layout can be done in many ways. You can be traditional and do it with a
pencil and paper, or you could design it on a computer if you have the software. It is
important to check with your circuit diagram before you solder any part of the circuit, as
the diagram will help you should you not have connected anything properly.
Downloading a stripboard planning sheet is a sure fire way to make sure that you can
make your plans as accurate as possible. These sheets have a 0.1 inch grid marked on
them to match the spacing on the board. Working with a full scale ‘model’ of the circuit
will allow you to make your connections as accurate as possible and test how much space
you are going to need for certain components.
Below is a step-by-step example of how to plan for a 555 a stable circuit which flashes an
LED.

Please note: like in the first experiment, the LED flashes at a rate that is dependent on the
resistance of R1 and R2, and the capacitor C1. The resistance that R1 supplies should be
no more than 1 kΩ and combined, the resistance of R1 and R2 must not exceed 1 MΩ.
Below are the equations that you may use to calculate the length of time the LED lights
up.
LED on time: Tm = 0.7 x (R1 + R2) x C1
LED off time: Ts = 0.7 x R2 x C1
T = Tm + Ts = 0.7 x (R1 + 2R2) x C1
Frequency (flashes per second): f = 1/T
Tm and Ts are basically the same if R2 is significantly larger than R1

Planning the Layout
1. Place the chip holder in the middle of the planning sheet, ensuring that pin 1 is on
the left.
2. Mark the places where you cut the tracks using a cross (X). This is to stop opposite
pins from being connected together.
3. Choose the tracks that will connect to the power supply. Make sure that they are at
least two or three spaces above the last track and below the chip holder, like in the
diagram above.
4. Add the wire links by drawing a blob (•) at each end. The links are drawn vertically
because the tracks below the stripboard make horizontal connections. Remember to
work round the chip from pin one, and draw all the links to the supply tracks. In the
diagram, pin 1 is connected to both +V and 0V, while pins 4 and 8 connect to +V.
Make sure that you draw any links that are needed between pins on the same side.
There are none in this particular example but they are relatively straightforward to
add.
Links to pins on the other side of the chip should be handled with care. In the
example above, track 2 and 6 are connected because there are two links that are
connected to a track that is below the chip. This is not the only way to connect pins
on the other side of the chip. If the points are across from each other on the same
track, all it would take would be a repairing the broken track between them. The
other way to connect two pins that are on opposite sides of the chip is to curl an
insulated wire round the chip.
5. This is the most confusing step, as this is when you will start adding components
that will be added to the board. This is when you will also be able to gauge how
much space you will need for the components. It is an important step because it
tells you how much space you will need, and perhaps how large your circuit will
be. This is the hardest stage in the planning process and your plans will change
numerous times at this stage before you finally settle on a layout.

This is also where you can find alternative connections to work with. For instance,
if you have an LED that needs to be connected to 0V, but the link is too short,
perhaps you could connect the link to the track with the first pin, as this track is
already connected to 0V. Notice that connections that do not need the IC are made
using an unused track. For instance, if you look carefully you will see that the
resistor R3 is connected to the LED via a free track above the IC.
6. Add wires that will enable you to connect components that are not on the
stripboard such as switches. These are usually placed at the extremities of the
board. You should start off with the batteries or power supply leads. The other
connections are easier as they are all off the board and therefore you do not need to
worry about their size.
7. Check your plan carefully to make sure that all the connections have been done
properly, and that every connection that is in the circuit diagram has been made on
the circuit board. One way to do this is to go around pin by pin just the way you
did in the beginning, making sure that all the components that are meant to be
connected to the circuit are connected.
8. Look for ways to improve your plan, as most times there is a way that you can
make the circuit more efficient. For instance, in this case, once all the components
have been connected, the circuit can be made slightly smaller by moving the +V
and 0V tracks as shown below.

9. After you have done this, check your plan again, and this time, make a neat copy.
Make sure you have labeled everything clearly, including all the references and
values. Calculate the size of the final circuit board and make sure you leave a hole
on the left and the right of the board. These holes are left so as to avoid soldering at
the end of the track.

As much as you may want to get straight into the soldering work, you will still
need to check your plan very carefully first to make sure that you have made no
mistakes. Remember, as this is a stripboard, you will not be able to correct
mistakes that easily if you get anything wrong while you are soldering.
Chapter 7: Printed Circuit Board
Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are circuit boards that contain copper tracks connecting the
holes where the components are placed. Each PCB is unique, as it is created for just one
circuit, making the construction and assembly of the circuit very easy.
The copper circuits are printed onto an insulating board called the substrate. The different
components of the circuit are then soldered onto the different circuits. A printed circuit
board may have circuits on it that are designed to do just one thing, such as turn on a light,
while others are designed to perform a whole range of functions.
Printed circuit boards come in three types. There are single sided PCBs, where there is
only one layer of copper in the circuit board. Single sided boards are designed to hold
simple circuits. Once there are too many components for a single sided PCB to handle the
double sided board comes in to play.
Double-sided PCBs have two copper layers in the board. Connections between the circuits
on each side of the board are made by plating the insides of strategically drilled holes with
a conducting material. Although double sided printed circuit boards allow for even more
complex circuits, the most complex circuits are made using multilayer PCBs.
In multilayer circuits, the substrate has layers of conducting material embedded into it, and
separated by insulation. To connect components to the different conducting layers, holes
are drilled to the appropriate level and plated a conducting material. The components that
need to connect to the different layers do so by connecting to the appropriate hole. This
usually leads to a much simpler, neater circuit board.

Components on a printed circuit board are connected in two main ways:
- Through Hole Technology
Through hole connections are made just as the name suggests. The components all
have small wires or leads that are pushed through small holes in the circuit board.
These leads are then soldered to the connection pads on the opposite side of the board.
- Surface Mount Technology
With surface mount technology, J or L shaped legs on the components are soldered
directly on to the circuit board. This is done by first using a mixture of solder, glue,
and flux to hold the board together at the point of contact, usually until the solder has
melted and the connection has been finalized. However, you could wait for a few hours
as the solder is “reflowed” in an oven to complete the connection.
Surface mount technology needs a lot more concentration to carry out properly, but it does
get rid of the need to drill holes into the substrate.

Materials Needed To Create a Printed Circuit Board
The most common materials used to create printed circuit boards are a fiberglass epoxy
resin for the substrate, with a copper foil glued to one or both of the sides. There are also
PCBs made with a paper reinforced phenolic resin instead of fiberglass. These PCBs are
cheaper than their fiberglass counterparts and because of this they are used widely in
household electrical devices.
The circuits themselves are made from copper. To draw the circuits on the board, the
copper is either plated or etched onto it until it has left the desired pattern. A layer of tin-
lead is then used on the copper to prevent oxidation of the metal. The contact fingers on
the side of the board are not only coated with the tin-lead compound, but they are also
coated with nickel and gold to aid in conductivity.

Processing and Assembling a Printed Circuit Board
The manufacture of a printed circuit board is usually carried out in a very clean
environment that is as free of contamination that you can get. Most manufacturers have
their own unique processes but the following process is what would be used to make a
standard double sided printed circuit board.

Creating the substrate
1. Fiberglass is fed through a processing station where it is impregnated with epoxy
resin by dipping or spraying. Rollers then roll the fiberglass to the desired thickness
for the final resin. Any excess resin is also squeezed out during the rolling process.
2. The substrate is then passed through an oven to cure it, and then it is cut into large
panels.
3. The panels are then stacked up in layers alternating with layers of copper foil. The
stacks are then placed in another oven and subjected to high temperatures and
pressures for about an hour to fully cure the resin and ensure that the copper is
tightly bonded to the surface of the substrate.
4. The panels are then stacked up on each other and secured together to make sure
that they cannot move. They are then introduced to a CNC machine where holes
are drilled into them depending on the pattern that was entered into the machine
when the boards were laid out.
5. The holes that were intended to hold conducting material are plated with copper,
while the ones that were meant to be non-conductive are plugged to keep them
from being plated.

Creating the printed circuit pattern on the substrate
Two processes are used to print the circuit pattern onto the substrate, one is additive and
the other is subtractive. In the additive process, copper is plated onto the surface of the
substrate, and the rest of the substrate is left unplated. In the subtractive process, the entire
substrate is first plated, then the areas that are not wanted are etched away, leaving the
circuit in place. The following section will describe the additive process.
6. The foil surface of the substrate is washed to rid it of grease. The panels then pass
through a vacuum where they are coated with a layer of photoresist material. The
vacuum ensures that no air bubbles will be trapped between the foil and the
photoresist. The desired circuit pattern mask is placed over the photo resist and
then exposed to ultraviolet light. The clarity of the mask in the areas of the circuit
pattern ensures that the photoresist in those areas becomes exposed to the
ultraviolet light, making it more soluble.
7. Once the mask is removed, the panels are sprayed with a solution that dissolves the
irradiated photoresist leaving the copper foil exposed.
8. When electroplating the copper, the foil on the copper of the substrate acts as the
cathode. The copper that is plated onto the exposed foil has a thickness of about
0.001 – 0.002 inches. The area of the substrate that is not exposed cannot act as a
cathode and therefore does not get plated. Tin-lead is then plated on top of the
copper to prevent oxidation.
9. The remaining photoresist is exposed to a solvent to help remove it from the rest of
the copper foil. The boards are then sprayed with acid to that eats away at the
copper. The circuit pattern remains unaffected as it was coated with the protective
tin-lead.
10. Contact fingers are then attached to the edge of the substrate, masked
off from the rest of the board, then coated with three metals, first tin-lead, then
nickel and finally gold.
11. The tin-lead coating on the copper printed circuit oxidizes easily,
therefore to protect it, the panels are passed through an oven or hot oil bath again,
which causes the metal coating to melt into a shiny surface.
12. Each panel is then sealed with epoxy again to protect the circuit while
the components are being attached to it. Various markings and instructions are then
penned into the boards
13. The panels are then cut into their respective boards, and then smoothed.
Before the components are added to the board, a test called the bare board test is carried
out. This test looks for “shorts” or connections that are there that should not be there, and
“opens” or connections that should be there that are not. In processes like the one
described above where the PCB manufacturing is on a large scale, the company would
probably have a rigid needle adapter that would check the connections on the board. The
adapter is a relatively expensive piece of equipment and therefore is unsuitable for small
and medium scale producers.
Small and medium scale produces would rather use flying probe testers to ensure that their
circuits are functioning properly. These probes are moved over the board by an XY drive,
where they are then instructed to apply a voltage to the different contact points on the
circuit.
Once this has all been done, the components need to be mounted. This can be done by an
individual at home or in the factory. If you are the one who is about to connect
components on to a circuit board then you have to keep in mind, just as with the
breadboard and the stripboard, the most important thing for you to concentrate on is the
connections that you are making, not the way the circuit looks. The good thing about
printed circuit boards is that you can use your computer to preview and test out the circuit
before you even get the board made.
Software such as Yenka Electronics allows you to design and test your circuit. It allows
you to use over 150 different components including resistors, integrated circuits,
capacitors, LEDs and switches, to create a circuit on your computer. The completed circuit
can then be modified in countless different ways until it works the way you would like it
to.
Software like this almost guarantees that the only mistakes you shall be making are when
you have to solder the components onto the board. However, that may not be such an issue
as there are machines that are designed to make those connections for you, so the only
thing you may have to do is design and test the circuit in the virtual world.
Chapter 8: Testing the Circuits
Now that you have an idea of the three types of circuits and their capabilities, and having
built at least two circuits by yourself, it is time to find out how to test these circuits. The
easiest way to test these circuits and make sure that they are performing at the ideal level
is by using a multimeter.
A multimeter is an instrument that was designed specifically to deal with electrical
measurements. It can take readings for a whole range of characteristics including electric
current, voltage, and resistance. Multimeters are used to test for everything from how
much current is flowing through a particular circuit to the potential difference of a
household battery.
When being used to test circuits, they are usually used to test the continuity of the circuit,
that is, to see if current still flows through the circuit. However, the vast majority of
functions that the multimeter has also allows you to check other things that could be
wrong with the circuit, such as checking to see if the potential difference of the circuit is
optimum, or if there is too much (or too little) resistance in a circuit.
Testing circuits for continuity is rather straightforward, though it differs slightly for the
different circuits. For instance, when testing for continuity in a breadboard circuit, the first
thing that you need to do is find a pair of jumper wires that fit the breadboard (the
breadboard should have come with some) and connect them to both multimeter probes. If
the need arises, use alligator clips to connect the jumper wires to the probe. Once the
multimeter is connected to the jumpers, set the multimeter to test resistance.
Locate one of the busses on the breadboard that is used for either ground or power
connections. Next find a row that has five holes labeled “A” to “E” or “F” to “J”. To test
the continuity of the “+” column of this breadboard this breadboard, touch one of the
multimeter probes to the top hole, and touch the probe to the bottom hole on the same
column. If the column has continuity, then the reading that you get will be zero or close to
zero. You can test the continuity of the “-” column in the same way.
If you want to check that the two busses are isolated from each other, then all you have to
do is touch one probe to any hole in the “+” column and the other probe into any hole in
the “-” column. If the result is infinite resistance, then the two busses are completely
isolated from each other.
To test a row’s continuity, touch one probe to the hole labeled “A” and another to the one
labeled “E”. If the number is zero or close to zero then the row has continuity. To check
that two different rows are isolated from each other, touch one probe to the hole labeled
“C” and another to the hole labeled “C” in the row below. If the multimeter returns an
infinite reading then they are completely isolated from each other.
Performing the continuity test on a stripboard is just as simple. In this case, the only thing
you have to remember is not to try and check for continuity along a row where you had to
cut the tracks due to an IC.
In printed circuit boards, the continuity of the circuit is usually checked when the board is
printed. However, should you want to make sure that you do have continuity and isolation
where you need them, you can test the relevant tracks to make sure that they do in fact
have these properties.
Conclusion
When man discovered how to harness electricity, the world could not even begin to
imagine the things that we would be capable of in a century. In the world we live in, it is
very hard to go a whole day without interacting with something that has an electrical
circuit.
In this book you have covered the basics of electricity, and learned how to use different
elements of electricity to your advantage. Understanding how current works in relation to
circuits should come in handy one day, especially if you are looking to experiment with
your own circuits in the future.
Designing and building your own circuits can prove to be very beneficial. To start with,
you will no longer have to deal with professionals for small jobs such as a broken clock or
watch. However, creating your own circuits and ultimately equipment is always
rewarding.
The different topics we have covered in this book should enable you to dive head first into
the world of amateur electronics. By now, should you have followed the examples laid out
in the book, you should know how to set up a basic circuit on a breadboard, a stripboard
and a printed circuit board.
The ability to create a clock, a timer or a bell for your front door is now in your hands, and
these are but a few examples of all the things that you could do with electrical circuits.
however, there is no way you are going to know what you are truly capable of unless you
start experimenting. So, get out the breadboard or the stripboard, design your first circuit,
and get to work. An electrifying life awaits you.

Electronic Circuits PDF by Wayne Charles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electronic Circuits PDF by Wayne Charles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electronic Circuits PDF by Wayne Charles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.Engineeringbookspdf.

Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.

You might also like