Spontenous Thoughts in Meditative Tradit

13
Spontaneous Thoughts in
Meditative Traditions
Halvor Eifring
The spontaneous flow of seemingly random thoughts is a basic feature of the human
psyche,1 and mind wandering has recently become a hot topic in neuroscience, because
it has been linked to areas in the brain that become more rather than less active when
the person is at rest.2 The nature and function of this stream of consciousness have
been vehemently debated. On the one hand, it has been argued that “a wandering mind
is an unhappy mind,” and that mind wandering is a source of unhealthy distraction
and negative rumination, which in turn may lead to depression and anxiety—in short
mental garbage that needs to be properly disposed of.3 On the other hand, it has also
been argued that since mind wandering takes up almost half of our waking time, it
would not have survived the evolutionary struggle if it had no positive function, and
it has been suggested that the wandering mind helps the person to process emotions
and past memories, prepare for future challenges, perceive present reality more fully,
improve self-understanding as well as empathy with others, and increase his or her
creative potential.4
Meditation has become a significant part of this debate. Some have attempted
to show that meditation reduces mind wandering,5 while others have argued the
opposite, that at least some forms of meditation actually increase the activities of the
wandering mind.6 These contrasting views largely reflect different opinions about
the positive and negative functions of mind wandering. In addition, they also partly
reflect attitudes that have a long history in the various contemplative traditions of
Europe and Asia.
The most immediate historical background of such debates lies in the rise of modern
psychology—in William James’s theoretical notion of the “stream of consciousness”
and Sigmund Freud’s technical uses of “free association,” as well as Jerome L. Singer’s
more recent but less well-known research into “daydreaming.” Long before the advent
of modern psychology, however, discussions concerning spontaneous thoughts
and mind wandering had been taking place for at least a couple of thousand years
in large parts of the Eurasian continent, in the contexts of prayer, meditation, and
contemplation.
While psychoanalysis looks upon free association as a key to the discovery of
inner conflicts and an important tool for the treatment of psychological ailments,
Spontaneous Thoughts in Meditative Traditions 201
contemplative traditions tend to see mind wandering as an obstacle to meditative

progress, as a problem that needs to be overcome. The skepticism toward spontaneous
thoughts is found in contemplative traditions with widely different geographical and
cultural origins. Each of these must be seen and explained within its own historical
context. At the same time, these various traditions should also be discussed in relation
to each other. This chapter is a preliminary attempt to explore the parallels and contrasts
between the ways different traditions relate to the constant flow of spontaneous
thoughts. It will take a brief look at representative works of four traditions: classical
Yoga, Christian mysticism, early Daoism, and Buddhist Pure Land practices. After a
summary of the findings, it will then make an initial attempt at linking this historical
study to the modern attitudes described above.
The chapter looks at material that belongs not only to different cultures, but also to
different historical periods. Although early cultural contacts did exist between India
and Europe and may or may not have existed between India and China even before the
spread of Buddhism, whatever parallels are found between the different traditions can
hardly be fully explained as the results of cultural influence. They seem to suggest cross-
cultural similarities that may have their roots in physiological, psychological, or more
widely existential similarities between human beings. Such similarities pose important
questions concerning the universality of the phenomena in question, which is often
contrasted with their historical and cultural situatedness. This chapter, however, will
simply point out some of the parallels (as well as the contrasts), without venturing too
far into their possible explanations.
In each case, two basic questions will be posed. First, what is the doctrinal
background for the often skeptical assessment of spontaneous thoughts? And second,
since ridding the mind of spontaneous thoughts, or at least reducing their impact,
is in most cases no mean challenge, what are the recommended approaches to the
problem? In addition, we shall see that in all of the traditions, the skepticism toward
mind wandering is tempered by more accepting views.
Yoga Sūtra: Undisturbed flow

The Indian work known as Yoga Sūtra may have been put together by Patañjali around
the second century CE, though many of its spiritual practices and metaphysical
assumptions had by then already been around for centuries, some would argue
millennia. The work contains 195 short and often quite cryptic aphorisms concerning
meditative practice. Their interpretation often depends on a number of commentaries
written several centuries later.7
The single most famous statement in the work is sūtra I.2:
Yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind.

yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ
Although citta-vṛtti “the fluctuations of the mind” is a wider and at the same time
more technical term than the English phrases “spontaneous thoughts” and “mind
wandering,” this sentence is usually understood to imply that Yoga will lead to a state
202 Meditation and Culture
of consciousness without any disturbance from spontaneous thoughts and mind

wandering.
On closer look, the implications of this statement are quite complex. First of all, all
states of mind are understood to belong to one of the five fluctuations listed in sūtra I.6
and further elaborated upon in I.7-I.11: right knowledge (pramāṇa), error (viparyaya),
imagination (vikalpa), sleep (nidrā), and memory (smṛtayaḥ). Thus, it is not only mind
wandering in the narrow sense that needs to be stilled, but all mental activity.
The negative attitude toward spontaneous thoughts in the Yoga Sūtra is often
explained with reference to the strong duality between puruṣa (the transcendent self)
and prakṛti (objective or material reality) underlying Yoga philosophy. This duality
differs sharply from the Cartesian distinction between mind/spirit (res cogitans)
and body/matter (res extensa), since yoga places spontaneous thoughts in the same
category as bodily and material objects, the category of prakṛti. This category includes
all phenomena, whether bodily/material or mental/spiritual, its opposite being puruṣa,
a transcendent, non-phenomenal consciousness underlying all existence, in particular
human selfhood. Simply speaking, spontaneous thoughts must be stilled because
they come in the way of the realization of puruṣa. As we shall see, similar dualities
exist in a number of different contemplative traditions, and though the terminologies
and cultural conceptualizations surrounding them differ widely, the human—and
meditative—experiences underlying such dualities may have much in common.
When the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind is accomplished, “the seer abides
in its own true nature” (draṣṭuḥ svarūpe ‘vasthānam, I.3), that is, in the puruṣa, while
in the opposite case, the seer “is absorbed in the fluctuations” (vṛtti-sārūpyam, I.4),
that is in prakṛti.
In itself, however, the duality between puruṣa and prakṛti is hardly enough to
justify a skeptical attitude toward spontaneous thoughts or mental states. From the
Yogic point of view, apart from puruṣa itself, everything belongs to prakṛti, not only
spontaneous thoughts or other mental activities. So what is it about “the fluctuations
of the mind” that needs to be stilled, when there are other aspects of prakṛti that are
not dealt with in the same way?
The simple answer is that the fluctuations of the mind are seen as particularly
detrimental to Yogic realization. The mind, citta, is of prime importance for such
realization, but its constant fluctuation is seen as a hindrance. The Yoga Sūtra, like many
Indian scriptures, and similar to other contemplative traditions, excels in providing
terms for and lists of conditions that are seen as conducive to Yogic realization, as well
as conditions that are seen as detrimental. The latter includes:
● the five impediments (kleśa): ignorance (avidyā), ego (asmitā), attachment (rāga),
aversion (dveṣa), clinging to life (abhiniveśāḥ) (sūtra II.3-II.9)
● the nine disturbances (or interruptions, antarāya): disease (vyādhi), idleness
(styāna), doubt (saṁśaya), carelessness (pramāda), sloth (ālasya), lack of
detachment (avirati), misapprehension (bhrānti-darśana), failure to attain a
base [for concentration] (alabda-bhūmikatva), and instability (anavasthitatva)
(sūtra I.30)
● five secondary disturbances: suffering (duḥkha), dejection (daurmanasya),
trembling (aṅgam-ejayatva), inhalation (śvāsa), exhalation (praśvāsāḥ) (sūtra I.31)
The nine disturbances are explicitly said to constitute “distractions for the mind” (citta-
vikṣepāḥ), and the five secondary disturbances are said to “accompany the distractions”
(vikṣepa-saha-bhuvaḥ). The first and arguably greatest commentary on the Yoga Sūtra,
the fifth-century Vyāsa commentary, suggests that the fluctuations of the mind would
cease to exist if the nine disturbances were removed (Bryant 2009: 118), thus paving
the way for the (self-)realization of the puruṣa.
The five impediments are clearly also closely connected to the fluctuations of the
mind. However, not all fluctuations of the mind are seen as impediments, at least not
always. On the contrary, the five types of fluctuations are explicitly said to be either
associated with impediments or not (kliṣṭākliṣṭāḥ, sūtra I.5). Although the duality
between puruṣa and prakṛti is absolute, therefore, some aspects of prakṛti are seen
as more conducive to the realization of puruṣa than others, and this includes some
aspects of the fluctuations of the mind. (As we shall see, similar ideas exist in other
contemplative traditions.) Thus, the negative assessment of the fluctuations of the
mind is not all-pervasive.
The distinction between “outgoing” and “restraining” karmic imprints (saṁskāra)
made in sūtra III.9 possibly points in the same direction. The fluctuations of the mind
are at the same time seen as products of karmic imprints from the past and producers
of karmic imprints deciding the future, keeping us in the wheel of life. However, while
the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind leads to the disappearance of the outgoing
imprints, it also leads to the appearance of restraining imprints and thereby, according
to sūtra III.10, to the “undisturbed flow” (praśānta-vāhitā) of the mind. This “flow”
still belongs to prakṛti, and to the mind, but rather than the fluctuating sequence
of different and often disturbing elements, we get “an ongoing sequence of similar
saṁskāras, like a movie reel of identical stills,” and thus come closer to the core or
essence of prakṛti, “an eternal and constant self that is not metaphysically dependent
on or interdependent with anything else,” though functionally dependent on puruṣa.8
The distinction between the three qualities of existence (the guṇas, including the
largely detrimental rajas and tamas and the more benign sattva; the distinction is
not made explicit in the Yoga Sūtra but often referred to in the commentaries) is a
similar case; Yoga reduces the influence of rajas and tamas and manifests the potential
of sattva; are perhaps the non-detrimental states of mind sattvic? Whether this more
positive assessment of some aspects of prakṛti may be extended to what we would call
“spontaneous thoughts” or “mind wandering” is not clear.
If the goal of Yoga is to still the fluctuations of the mind, large parts of the Yoga
Sūtra may be read as a manual on how to attain this goal. At a general level, the stilling
of thoughts is achieved by “practice” (abhyāsa) and “dispassion” (vairāgyābhyām), as
stated in sūtra I.12 and further elaborated in the following aphorisms. While dispassion
is explained as “the controlled consciousness of one who is without craving for sense
objects” (viṣaya-vitṛṣṇasya vaśīkāra-saṁjñā), the primary commentator Vyāsa adds
that this implies an indifference to the sense objects (as a result of long-term practice),
not an active rejection of them and even less their disappearance.9 If the same way of
thinking is applied to spontaneous thoughts, the implication would be that while Yoga
may eventually lead to a state in which such thoughts are stilled, this is an effect of the
practice and is not due to the practitioner’s driving away or suppressing the thoughts.
It even allows for a reading where the thoughts are still present, only in a quieter and
less disturbing form, as “restraining” rather than “outgoing” karmic imprints, and as
“sattvic” rather than “tamasic” or “rajasic” elements.
In the Yoga Sūtra, the most basic means of stilling the fluctuations of the mind
lies in various forms of attentional “one-pointedness” (ekāgrya or ekāgratā), mostly
through the successive stages of dhāraṇā “concentration,” dhyāna “meditation,” and
several levels of samādhi “absorption,” as in sūtra II.11:
The states of mind produced by these [impediments] are eliminated by meditation.

dhyāna-heyās tad-vṛttayaḥ
However, the practical implications of this are not clear. Are concentration, meditation,
absorption, and other forms of “one-pointedness” to be understood as the effects of
a practice or as technical elements involved in that practice? In the Yoga Sūtra, this
distinction is often blurred. In sūtra I.20, for instance, samādhi is listed along with
other qualities more or less as a means to achieve a certain state, while in sūtra II.2 we
are told that samādhi is a state that Yoga may help us bring about. In sūtra I.32, eka-
tattvābhyāsaḥ “practice [of fixing the mind] on one object” is described as a method
to eliminate disturbances, while in sūtra II.41, ekāgrya “one-pointedness” is mentioned
in a list of effects of the purification of the mind. Although the emphasis on meditative
concentration is traditionally interpreted as an injunction to actively dispel spontaneous
thoughts when they arise, it may just as well be seen as focusing on the mentally
absorbing effects of yogic practice, not as technical elements of the practice itself.
Only in sūtra II.33 does the Yoga Sūtra express a concrete approach to counter
unwanted spontaneous thoughts:
Upon being harassed by negative thoughts, one should cultivate counteracting

thoughts.
vitarka-bādhane pratipakṣa-bhāvanam
The following sūtra indicates that cultivating counteracting thoughts is not to be

understood as suppression or “positive thinking,” but rather as thinking about the
consequences of entertaining negative thoughts, namely, that “the end results [of
negative thoughts] are ongoing suffering and ignorance” (duḥkhājñānānanta-phalā).
Again, there is no indication that spontaneous thoughts should be actively dispelled,
only that they should be seen in their proper context, in what Bryant calls “a type of
mindfulness meditation for yogīs.”10
Note, finally, that the Yoga Sūtra, in spite of its emphasis on individual practice and
technique, is also theistic, recommending “submission to God” (Īśvara-praṇidhānāt)
as a means, arguably even the prime means, to achieve “the perfection of samādhi”
(samādhi-siddhiḥ II.45) and, by repetition and contemplation of the mantra
designating him (the praṇavaḥ [oṁ] I.27), to achieve “freedom from all disturbances”
(antarāyābhāvaḥ I.29). By extension, submission to God may also be seen as a way, and
maybe the best way, of stilling the fluctuations of the mind.
Such theistic approaches often build on grace and come in several variants in a
number of different contemplative traditions, from the most insistently monotheistic
attitudes of Islam and Sikhism, via the more ambiguously monotheistic perspective of
trinitarian Christianity, to the plethora of gods in much of devotional Hinduism, the
visualization and corporeal integration of gods in some forms of Daoist mysticism,
and the pseudo-theistic approaches of Pure Land Buddhism. The Yoga Sūtra differs
from most of these, including the bhakti-oriented Hindu schools though not perhaps
Daoist mysticism, in placing comparatively little focus on the emotional element of
devotion. The Sanskrit term for devotion, bhakti, is not even mentioned in the work,
in sharp contrast to many other Hindu schools, including the Bhagavad Gītā, as well
as Sikhism.
The Cloud of Unknowing: Hard work

The Cloud of Unknowing is a fourteenth-century anonymous work of Christian
mysticism, written in Middle English. Its immediate historical context includes other
Late Medieval English mystics, such as the almost contemporaneous Richard Rolle
(d. 1349), Walter Hilton (d. 1396), and Julian of Norwich (b. 1342), some of whom it
indirectly argues against. In a wider sense, its history also includes the via negativa of
the Desert Fathers and Neo-Platonism, to which it sometimes makes reference.11
Like its Christian predecessors, as well as the Yoga Sūtra, The Cloud of Unknowing
is also based on a duality that differs radically from Cartesian body-mind thinking.
While it sometimes does refer to the familiar distinction between the physical (bodily
or flesch[e]ly) and the spiritual (goostli or gostely), and between body (body) and soul
(soule), the fundamental distinction is not between body and soul, or matter and
spirit, but between “created things” (creat[u]res) and “God himself ” (God . . . hym-
self) (ch. 3). The former category is by no means limited to the physical realm, but also
includes the spiritual:
Whenever I say “the whole created world” I always mean not only the individual
creatures therein, but everything connected with them. There is no exception
whatever, whether you think of them as physical or spiritual beings, or of their
states or actions, or of their goodness or badness. (ch. 5)
As ofte as I sey “alle þe creatures þat ever ben maad,” as ofte I mene, not only þe self
creatures, bot also alle þe werkes & þe condicions of þe same creatures. I oute-take
not o creature, wheþer þei ben bodily creatures or goostly, ne ȝit any condicion or
werk of any creature, wheþer þei be good or iuel.
All thoughts, spontaneous or not, belong to the realm of “created things” and may
disturb the direct contemplation of “God himself ”:
Everything you think about, all the time you think about it, is “above” you, between
you and God. And you are that much farther from God if anything but God is in
your mind. (ch. 5)
alle þing þat þou þinkest apon is abouen þee for þe tyme, & bitwix þee & þi God.
& in so mochel þou arte þe ferþer fro God, þat ouȝt is in þi mynde bot only God.
This must be seen as an argument against a widespread tendency within Late Medieval
Christian mysticism to approach God through intellectual approaches. The distinction
between created and uncreated and the relegation of thoughts to the realm of creation
have a long history within Christianity. As an early example, Evagrios Pontikos
(345–99) argues that even “dispassionate” thoughts keep us far from God, since they
are directed toward “created things,” while God is “beyond sense-perception and
beyond concept.”12
Both in Evagrios and in The Cloud of Unknowing, the thoughts discussed clearly
include what we would call spontaneous thoughts or mind wandering. While admitting
that such thoughts can be both angelic and demonic, or even plainly human, Evagrios
strongly tends to link thoughts to passion and to demonize them: “[The demon]
is always using our memory to stir up thoughts of various things and our flesh to
arouse the passions, in order to obstruct our way of ascent to God.”13 He classifies such
thoughts (logismoi) into lists of eight (gluttony, unchastity, avarice, anger, dejection,
listlessness, self-esteem, and pride), much like the lists of detrimental factors we saw
in the Yoga Sūtra. His list is further refined by the Church and ends up as the famous
idea of the Seven Deadly Sins.
Though arguing that thoughts keep the contemplative away from God, The Cloud
of Unknowing seems to have a much more accepting view of them than Evagrios.
Thoughts are “the expression of your normal mind,”14 and “[a]ll the while a soul lives
in this mortal body . . . he will always see and feel some of God’s creatures, or their
deeds, pressing in upon his mind between him and God.”15 Therefore, “a spontaneous
thought, springing to mind unsought and unwittingly, cannot be reckoned to be sin,”
whether it is “something you like, a thing that pleases you, or has pleased you in the
past,” or is “a grouse over something that grieves you, or has grieved you.”16
The author adds, almost as an afterthought, that spontaneous thoughts may be “the
result[s] of original sin” (þe pyne of þe original sinne), but since “you were cleansed
from the guilt of that when you were baptized” (of þe whiche sinne þou arte clensid in þi
baptyme), they cannot really be called sinful any more (ch. 10). Note the similarity with
the Yoga Sūtra’s view of spontaneous thoughts as resulting from past karmic imprints,
which is perhaps the closest Yogic equivalent to the Christian notion of sin. In both
cases, spontaneous thoughts are seen as residuals from the past.
However normal and unsinful, such thoughts or impulses nevertheless need to be
“quickly put down” (smetyn sone doun):
If you allow houseroom to this thing that you naturally like or grouse about, and
make no attempt to rebuke it, ultimately it will take root in your inmost being, in
your will, and with the consent of your will. Then it is deadly sin. (ch. 10)
ȝif it so be þat þis likyng or gruching fastnyng in þi fleschly herte & þeires be
suffred so longe to abide vnreproued, þat þan at þe last it is fastnid to þe goostly
herte (þat is to sey þe wile) wiþ a ful consent: þan it is deedly synne.
The practical implication of this often sounds like brutal suppression, actually much
more obviously so than the attentiveness (prosochi), watchfulness (nipsis), and
guarding of one’s heart (phylaki kardias) advocated by Evagrios and other Desert
Fathers. The practitioner must “crush all knowledge and experience of all forms of
created things,”17 “trample them down under foot,”18 and “suppress all this in the
cloud of forgetting,”19 “stamping out all remembrance of God’s creation.”20 “[A]s often
as they come up, push them down.”21 This is “very hard work indeed,”22 the aim of
which is to achieve “the single-minded intention of our spirit directed to God himself
alone.”23
In The Cloud of Unknowing, therefore, there is hardly any doubt that the practitioner
is asked to forcefully drive away all thoughts. Various techniques or stratagems are
devised to help him on the way. First of all, he may “take a short word . . . of one
syllable,” “[a] word like ‘god’ or ‘love’,” “or perhaps some other, so long as it is of one
syllable,” and use it to “hammer the cloud and the darkness above you” (the cloud of
unknowing separating him from God) and to “suppress all thought under the cloud
of forgetting.”24
If this does not help him get rid of the thoughts, two other “schemes” (sleiȝtes) are
proposed. The first suggests that you should “[d]o everything you can to act as if you
did not know that they [thoughts, impulses and memories] were so strongly pushing
in between you and God,”25 as if denying their presence.
The second scheme is perhaps more interesting, since it seems to imply giving
up the aim of dispelling spontaneous thoughts: “Cower down before them like some
cringing captive overcome in battle, and reckon that it is ridiculous to fight against
them any longer,” so that you “surrender yourself to God while you are in the hands of
your enemies.”26 The implication seems to be that sometimes, the fight against thoughts
may in the end be just as much an obstacle to the contemplation of God as the thoughts
themselves.
It is also interesting to note that the “hard work” involved in the fight against
spontaneous thoughts is gradually made easier, both because “one has got used to it
over a long period” and because “devotion has come,” after which “[y]ou even may
have little effort to make, or none,” because “sometimes God will do it all himself.”27
In addition to habituation, therefore, the increasing proximity to God will reduce the
effort required to drive away the thoughts. In the end, we are told, you should “not
overstrain yourself emotionally or beyond your strength,” and “[w]ork with eager
enjoyment rather than with brute force.”28
In contrast to the rather sparing theistic references in the Yoga Sūtra, the longing
love for God is the main theme in The Cloud of Unknowing. Even here, however, there
are also examples of depersonalized and nontheistic references to a transcendent
realm described in paradoxical language. In chapter 68, the practitioner is told that
he should be “nowhere” (noȝwhere) and be tied to “nothing” (nouȝt), but that it is only
his “outer self ” (vtter man) that is calling this “nothing,” while his inner “self calls” it
“All” (Al), and “when you are ‘nowhere’ physically, you are ‘everywhere’ spiritually”
(whi noȝwhere bodely is euerywhere goodly). To the neophyte, this realm appears
“completely dark and hidden” (ful blynde & ful derk), but it is actually “overwhelming
spiritual light that blinds the soul that is experiencing it” (a soule is . . . bleendid in
felyng of it for habundaunce of goostly liȝt).
Furthermore, the longing love for God is described as a “quiet, eager joy, at rest in
body and soul.”29 The author warns against “the violence of emotional reaction”30 and
against “behaving wildly like some animal.”31
Inward Training: Measured harmony

Inward Training 內業 may be “the oldest mystical text in China,”32 and also the oldest
among the texts discussed in this chapter, arguably dating from the fourth century
BCE.33 Very early, it was included as one of only four proto-Daoist texts in the collection
Guǎnzǐ 管子, which contains seventy-six anonymous texts mostly on political and
economic topics.34 Partly because of its hidden existence in this compilation, it is much
less well known than the classical works of Daoism, in particular the Lǎozǐ 老子 and
the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子, both of which it possibly precedes.
Inward Training differs from both the Yoga Sūtra and The Cloud of Unknowing in
being consistently nontheistic and non-devotional. It does refer to shén 神, a term that
is sometimes translated as “god,” but Roth (1999) thinks its meaning in Inward Training
is translatable as a completely depersonalized “(the) numinous.” Rickett (1998) uses the
more ambiguous term “spirit,” which of course may be either personal or impersonal.
Even if Roth should turn out to be wrong in a few cases, and a collocation such as guǐ-
shén 鬼神 should be translated as “ghosts and gods” or “ghosts and spirits” rather than
Roth’s “the ghostly and the numinous,” these gods or spirits do not have the central role
of the God of Yoga Sūtra or, in particular, The Cloud of Unknowing and other Christian
works. On the contrary, they are portrayed as not being particularly efficacious, as
when we are told that the final penetration of a difficult problem “is not due to the
power of the ghosts and the gods, but to the perfection of essence and energy” (see
below). The single term that comes closest in meaning to God is the completely
impersonal dào (道) “the Way.”
The Way is beyond language and beyond the senses, without form, without place,
even exhausting the placeless, it cannot be fixed, it leaves without returning and comes
without staying, and, using plant metaphors, it has no root and no stalk, no leaves and
no flowers. Still, it infuses the body, coexists with man, is never far away and never
takes leave, and we can perceive its accomplishments.35
While often characterized as monistic, due to the omnipresence of the Way and its
insistence on the One (一), this worldview may also be seen as representing a non-
Cartesian duality reminiscent of the Yoga Sūtra and The Cloud of Unknowing, since
the Way occupies a unique position vis-à-vis all other forms of existence, including
spontaneous thoughts and impulses. There exists, however, a hierarchy of elements
that belong to our worldly existence but are, as it were, particularly close to the Way:
energy (qì 氣), essence (jīng 精), spirit (shén 神), and to some extent even the human
mind (or, literally, heart, xīn 心). The mind is the prime human gateway to the Way,
often by way of energy, essence, and spirit. However, it needs to be properly cultivated
(修心). It must be made tranquil (靜), calm (安), stable (定), aligned (正), orderly (治),
complete (全), and concentrated (摶). Only then can one grasp the mind that exists
within the mind,36 and the Way can be halted and attained.37 Both Rickett and Roth
argue that the text describes meditation techniques with this aim.
Conversely, a number of conditions of the mind are detrimental to the attempts at
attaining the Way, and this is where spontaneous thoughts, as well as desires, emotions,
sensory impressions, and other spontaneous impulses, come into the picture. Worries
and pleasures, joy and anger, desires, and profit-seeking all make us lose our proper
state of mind.38 With worries and sadness, joy and anger, there is no place for the Way.39
Agitation is harmful and also makes us lose the Way.40 We should not let external
things disrupt our senses, and not let our senses disrupt our minds.41 And while
thinking is part of life, it leads to knowledge, and excessive knowledge may be fatal, or
at least make you lose your vitality.42 Not being able to let go of your thoughts makes
you distressed inside and weak outside,43 though even thinking that reaches a dead
end may eventually, by help of external spiritual forces, reach a positive breakthrough:
Think about it, think about it, and think about it again. When thinking about it
provides no way through, ghosts and spirits will provide a way through, though
not due to the power of the ghosts and the spirits, but to the perfection of essence
and energy.
思之思之，又重思之。思之而不通，鬼神將通之，非鬼神之力也，精氣之
極也。(Roth 1999: 83)
How, then, do these meditative techniques deal with the various spontaneous impulses
that are seen as detrimental to the attainment of the Way? Some passages propose
getting rid of (去) or stopping (止) them, or, in a metaphor, diligently cleaning out
the lodging place of the numinous (敬除其舍). In general, however, the text is more
interested in creating harmony (和) than in ridding the mind entirely of its spontaneous
impulses. The problem is not the impulses in themselves, which are as natural to man
as the four seasons are to heaven:
Spring and autumn, winter and summer are the seasons of the heavens, . . . Pleasure
and anger, accepting and rejecting are the devices of human beings.
春秋冬夏，天之時也……喜怒取予，人之謀也。(Roth 1999: 59)
The problem is their excessiveness (淫) and loss of measure (失度). The solution is to
regulate (節) them and limit them to the appropriate degree (節適之齊), not to pull
and push them (勿引勿推) or use force (力). Then the results will come spontaneously
(自來, 自至, 自歸), and the Way will of itself become stable (道將自定).
The regulation of spontaneous thoughts and impulses seems to be driven by a strong
concern with gain (得) and loss (失). Depending on one’s ability to harmonize the
mind properly, one can either gain the Way or lose it, and this is not only a matter of
gaining or losing the guiding thread (紀), the basic point (端), or the proper measure
(度), but is portrayed as a question of worldly success (成) or failure (敗), order (治)
or chaos (亂), and even life (生) or death (死). It is also what makes or breaks a ruler’s
ability to make the world listen (天下聽) and submit (天下服). Whatever one has
gained, therefore, must be diligently guarded against loss (敬守勿失). In spite of the
emphasis on the basic spontaneity of the Way, the diligent regulation of thoughts and
impulses seems to represent a clear restriction of their spontaneous flow.
As in the Yoga Sūtra, many formulations in Inward Training are ambiguous with
regard to method and effect. Terms like “collect the mind” (摶心), “hold on to the
one” (執一), and “guard the one and discard the myriad particularities” (守一棄萬苛)
may be read as injunctions to concentrate on one thing and suppress everything else,
and posterity has often read them this way. But they may also, and just as likely, be
read as expressions of a unifying vision of the Way that includes but is not limited by
all particular detail, including thoughts and impulses. The open awareness implied by
terms such as “enlarge the mind” (大心) and “widen the energies” (寬氣) seems to
point in the latter direction. This vision is primarily an effect of meditative practice, and
it is unclear to what extent it has technical implications for the practice itself.
Pure Land: Between opposites

The text called Casual Teachings on the Pure Land (淨土隨學) has in common with
the Yoga Sūtra that its way of thinking ultimately originates in India, and with Inward
Training that it is written in Chinese.44 It differs from both in being relatively recent,
relatively unknown, and in having an identifiable author, the monk Yùfēng Gǔkūn
(玉峯古崑), who died in 1892, and who associated himself with the Pure Land School
of Buddhism.45 The text is a collection of poems, prefaces, and other brief writings on
the virtues of this school, often in contrast to the more complex teachings of Chán
(Zen) Buddhism or other Buddhist practices, even other Pure Land teachings.
While most Buddhist practices ultimately aim to bring the practitioner out of the wheel
of life and death, the more immediate goal of the Pure Land practices is to be reborn in
the Pure Land of the West, presided over by Amitābha Buddha. Gǔkūn’s recommended
practice focuses on the verbal recitation of Amitābha Buddha’s name (Nāmó
Āmítuó fó 南無阿彌陀佛) accompanied by the use of a rosary to help counting the
number of repetitions, usually recommending 60,000 repetitions as a daily assignment,
increasing it to 100,000 repetitions a day during seven-day meditation retreats.
This form of devotional recitation has much in common with the theistic practices
of the Yoga Sūtra and The Cloud of Unknowing. Still, Buddhism has neither a personal
god resembling the god of Christianity or Yoga, nor an impersonal core corresponding
to the Way of Daoism. Amitābha Buddha is identified as an awakened person, not a
god, though his omnipresence and supernatural powers are such that the difference
is far from clear-cut, and his humanity by no means decreases his value as an object
of devotion. The strong focus on rebirth in the Pure Land is reminiscent of Christian
ideas of Paradise, and it actually plays a much more central role in the Pure Land texts
than Paradise does in The Cloud of Unknowing. The ripe fruit of one’s practice will be
had at the moment of death.
In contrast to the other texts we have looked at, and most other Buddhist texts as
well, Casual Teachings on the Pure Land is highly critical of those who actively seek to
rid the mind of spontaneous (or, in Buddhist parlance, “deluded” 妄) thoughts. They
are just as obsessed, we are told, as those who seek Chán awakening:
Ever since I encountered the Pure School, I have often seen people reciting the
name of the Buddha while either being obsessed with reaching awakening and
thus blocking their mind or detesting deluded thoughts and thus filling their mind
with worries. (p. 431c)
崑自學淨宗以來，每見念佛之人，或執著悟門，意不開暢，或惡嫌妄想，
心生憂愁。
Gǔkūn insists that “even a multitude of digressive thoughts are no hindrance,”46 and
that “you do not need to dispel deluded thoughts.”47 He encourages the practitioner to
“stop detesting deluded thoughts as if they were thieves,”48 and to “give free rein to the
thousands and ten thousands of thoughts.”49 He even presents a poem of twelve stanzas
in which each stanza begins with the line “reciting the name in a messy way is full
of effects,”50 indicating that digressions are no hindrance, and another poem of eight
stanzas in which each stanza begins with the line “there is no need to be concerned
about deluded thoughts.”51 In the latter poem, he suggests a mindful approach to such
thoughts: “Just see what it [the thought] is.”52 While Gǔkūn is not the only Buddhist
who criticizes the goal-orientation implied in ridding the mind of thoughts, he goes
further than most in insisting that the presence of mind wandering is no obstacle to
spiritual progress.
Paradoxically, however, we also see in his text, as in almost all Buddhist texts on
the subject, a strong concern with the assumed negative effects of mind wandering,
as well as its connection with bad karma from previous lives. Gǔkūn complains that
“the multitude of digressive thoughts is really lamentable, and thousands of schemes
do not help to get rid of them,”53 and that “the mind is chaotic and in urgent need of
smoothing out.”54 He repeatedly uses the image of the wandering mind as an untamed
and seemingly untamable horse or monkey, bemoaning the fact that “the monkey of
the mind and the horse of consciousness are utterly hard to stop.”55 The notion of mind
wandering as a detrimental factor in the quest for spiritual progress is by no means
absent from Gǔkūn’s way of thinking.
This paradox in Gǔkūn’s ideas on mind wandering is made explicit in one of his
poems. The first two stanzas deal with the negative effects of deluded thoughts, insisting
that they are “the deep roots of calamity” (禍根深), which “often make practitioners fall
into the river of love” (常害行人落愛河) and “lose their good karma” (失正因). The
last two stanzas, however, hail deluded thoughts as an aspect of the “true mind” (真心),
full of “glorious merit” (奇勳). While this ambiguity is in line with the philosophical
nondualism typical of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Gǔkūn’s thinking is more practical. It is
the recitation of the buddha’s name, we are told in the same poem, that has the power
of “assimilating the deluded (thoughts) within the true (mind)” (攝妄歸真) (p. 433).
As in other traditions, therefore, the key lies in the efficacy of the meditation object.
We are told that “only the Amitābha phrase can restrain the mind,”56 that “uninterrupted
recitation is the cause, and undistracted mental absorption is the effect,”57 and that
even “lax recitation” (散稱) will make “the deluded thoughts lighter and lighter, and
the sinful defilements fewer and fewer.”58
From this point of view, the mistake of many practitioners lies not so much in
seeking mental absorption without digressive thoughts as in trying to do so by
controlling the mind, and in thinking that such mental absorption is a precondition
for proper practice rather than its result. Gǔkūn urges practitioners “not to seek mental
absorption intentionally but to let it come spontaneously.” “How can you reach mental
absorption by means of control? The mind cannot be controlled.”59 The solution lies in
reciting the name of the buddha without interruption.
Gǔkūn acknowledges that even proper practice does not always make the thoughts
go away, that “even with the silent recitation of Amitābha Buddha they still do not
cease,”60 and that “while one recites the name of the Buddha, the mind keeps thinking
of other things, not stopping for a moment even after all kinds of suppression.”61 On
a practical level, he meets this challenge by using a rosary to count the number of
recitations (記數), with the additional effect of keeping the mind on the task without
interruptions. In terms of doctrine, Gǔkūn repeatedly refers to his own version of a
quote from the Lotus Sūtra, stating that “when the Buddha’s name is thrust into a
chaotic mind, the chaotic mind becomes a buddha.”62 In other words, such recitation
makes it possible to “enter the seed of buddhahood without cutting off the deluded
mind.”63 This is what makes Pure Land practices superior to other practices, especially
in our degenerated times:
In our times, with few great practitioners and much karmic affliction, how many
people are able to reach awakening and not give rise to deluded thoughts? (p. 432a)
當今之世，知識愈少，業障愈多，能開悟門，不起妄想，又能有幾人？
Gǔkūn thinks the ideal of emptying the mind of thoughts is unrealistic and therefore
destructive:
If I rely on undistracted mental absorption for a good rebirth, I have no way of

achieving it in this life. If I rely on engendering faith and resolution, that seems
more encouraging. Therefore, on seven-day retreats I always give myself the daily
assignment of 100,000 repetitions of Amitābha as a basis for inspiring resolution,
and I definitely avoid seeking undistracted mental absorption. (p. 442c)
要仗一心不亂，方得往生，今生決定不能。若仗信能生，似可勉力。是
故凡建七期，定十萬彌陀為日課，以作發之本，決不求一心不亂。
There are signs that he hopes this will eventually reduce or remove the wandering
mind if not earlier, then at least at the moment of death:
At the moment of death, when the buddha-name is recited, and the rosary buds
counted, all karmic afflictions disappear, pent-up impulses become smooth and
clear, and great merit is achieved. (p. 434c)
畢命為期，佛一出音，珠一記數，塵累每銷，滯情融朗，功愈勝矣。
Even for Gǔkūn, therefore, freedom from thoughts seems to remain an ideal. However,
in contrast to the suppression of thoughts in The Cloud of Unknowing and some Yoga
traditions and the harmonization of thoughts in Inward Training, Gǔkūn tells the
practitioner to let the thoughts pass freely, at most restraining them by counting the
buds on a rosary, and to be unconcerned with the results of one’s practice, with whether
or not the thoughts eventually go away.
Conclusion
In all the four cases we have studied, there exist dualities in which spontaneous
thoughts come out on the “wrong” side with regard to the meditative or contemplative
project. The four cases differ from each other in what they are seeking, whether it be
a personal deity like the Christian or Yogic god, an impersonal force like the Daoist
Way, a higher self like the Yogic puruṣa, or rebirth in a paradisiacal realm like the
Buddhist Pure Land of the West. The four cases also differ from each other regarding
the nature and status of the dualities, from the strict dualism of the Christian tradition
and Yoga to the so-called monistic views of early Daoism and the nondualism of Pure
Land Buddhism. In all four cases, however, meditation is most often seen as a way of
eventually putting the stream of thoughts to rest, and the constant flow of digressive
thoughts is mostly viewed as an obstacle that must be overcome.
The practical approaches to spontaneous thoughts differ both between the four
cases and within each case. The tendency to fight or suppress the emergence of such
thoughts is found in all four traditions, most pronounced in the Christian case and
least so in the Pure Land thinking of Gǔkūn, though even in his case, the use of the
rosary points in the direction of subtle suppression. However, suppression is not the
only solution in any of the traditions. In the Christian case, the “scheme” of pretending
that the thoughts are not there might perhaps qualify as a weak case of psychological
denial, while the other “scheme,” whereby the meditator gives up the fight against the
thoughts, seems to involve a reluctant acceptance of the presence of mind wandering.
The Daoist approach is also semi-accepting of spontaneous thoughts and impulses,
but insists on their moderation and regulation. More clearly accepting of spontaneous
thoughts are the attempts at meeting them with various forms of mindful observation
and analysis (in Buddhism and Yoga), with an open awareness that transforms the
thoughts by including them in the field of awareness or simply without attempting
what is seen as the futile and counterproductive endeavor of suppressing them.
In all four traditions, there is a tendency to assume that the ideal state of mind
has no mind wandering, and that the acceptance of thoughts is a preliminary tactic
rather than the end point. There are, however, also voices insisting that the presence
or absence of thoughts is not decisive, and that true liberation involves nonattachment
both to thoughts and to the absence of thoughts. Note that Neo-Confucian meditation,
which has not been discussed in this chapter, is sometimes explicit in not seeking a
state without thoughts, reflecting its opposition to what it conceives as the Buddhist
and Daoist tendencies to turn their back on the world.64
The comparison between these four traditions raises the question of the sources of
the various cross-cultural similarities. The phenomenon of mind wandering is itself no
doubt universal and may be linked to neurological and psychological features that are
common to mankind. It is less easy, however, to pin down the sources of the skeptical
attitudes toward mind wandering, as well as to the dualities between a phenomenal
dimension to which mind wandering belongs and a non-phenomenal dimension
situated at the core of the meditative quest in widely different traditions. Cultural
constructivists may see these similarities as superficial and point to the significant
differences between theistic and nontheistic approaches, between monistic, non-
dualistic, and dualistic views, and between different explanations for the emergence of
mind wandering. Perennialists, on the other hand, may insist that it is the differences
that are superficial, that all contemplative traditions (in contrast to some modern
meditative approaches) ultimately attempt to get closer to a dimension beyond all
phenomena, and that this accounts for the cross-cultural parallels in attitudes and
methodology. By combining an interest in similarities and differences, I have tried to
balance these two positions.
From a modern psychological point of view, some of the various approaches to
spontaneous thoughts in meditation may involve the suppression and possibly denial
of psychological impulses. However, the absence of or nonattachment to thoughts
aimed for by all four traditions may in no case be fully accounted for by psychological
terminology related to defense mechanisms like suppression and denial. Though
some of the contemplative methodologies involve much effort to start with, they
have in common an assumption that once you have been through a certain inner
transformation, no effort is necessary to keep thoughts (or the attachment to thoughts)
away. This kind of transformation seems to belong to a realm not readily describable
in standard psychological terms, perhaps relating to the non-phenomenal dimension
discussed by perennialists.
This is not to say, however, that there are not also points of convergence between
psychology and meditation. Both Freudian or later psychodynamic schools and many
meditative traditions see spontaneous thoughts and mind wandering as an expression
of residuals from a past that still exercises its limiting influence on us. In our case, all
the sources except perhaps Inward Training build at least partly on such a view. The
treatment of neurotic traits in psychodynamic therapy may also be seen as an untying
of knots that produce attachment. The use of free association to discover and release
such knots may have things in common with meditation techniques that allow the
passing of spontaneous thoughts rather than attempting to drive them away. In our
material, such techniques are most obviously present in many a Pure Land Buddhism.
The types of meditation that have been most popular in the West since the 1960s
generally have a more accepting attitude toward mind wandering than what has been
common in the various meditative traditions. This applies to Transcendental Meditation
and the many other mantra- or sound-based techniques that became hugely popular at
the beginning of this wave and which are still influential. It also applies to the breath-
and body-based techniques that are now most often associated with mindfulness
meditation, but also with Zen, Vipassana, and various other Buddhist-inspired labels.
As we have seen, this more accepting attitude has long roots in the traditions
themselves, where it has coexisted with more unequivocally negative and suppressive
attitudes for centuries or even millennia. Moreover, to judge by the Pure Land text,
the increasing acceptance of mind wandering was already well on its way even before
the twentieth-century modernized versions of meditation were developed and
disseminated. Further studies of the late premodern development of other practices
are necessary to determine whether or not this is a general tendency.
Some of the differences in attitude that exist within the traditions continue to make
their influence felt in modern discourses on meditation. In general, the mantra- and
sound-based techniques tend to be most unequivocally accepting of mind wandering.
While aiming to bring the practitioner to the “source of thought,” Transcendental
Meditation allows spontaneous thoughts and impulses during meditation.65 Most
other modern mantra- and sound-based techniques, including the biologically
oriented Relaxation Response66 and the Christian practice of Centering Prayer,67 are
also practiced with a high degree of acceptance of mind wandering, though without
any explicit attempt at reaching the “source of thought.” In the psychologically oriented
practice of Acem Meditation, mind wandering is not only accepted, but is seen as a
resource helping the practitioner to release inner tension and set inner resources
in motion.68 In contrast, the modern Buddhist-inspired breath- and body-based
techniques tend to see the acceptance of mind wandering as a provisional means to
ultimately enable the practitioner to “let go” of the impulses, hence keeping up the
traditional aim of reducing the impact of distractive thoughts.
To some extent, the neuroscientific discourse on mind wandering reflects these
differences. The most skeptical views of mind wandering, related to its negative
impact on mood and concentration, are often associated with studies on Mindfulness
Meditation, sometimes in combination with cognitive psychology, and some of these
studies argue that meditation reduces mind wandering and the corresponding brain
activity. The more positive views of mind wandering, related to its beneficial impact
on relaxation, heart function, and the processing of memories and emotions, are most
often associated with sound-based forms of meditation, primarily Transcendental
Meditation and Acem Meditation.69
This chapter has primarily focused on the traditional approaches to spontaneous
thoughts in meditative practice. By doing so, however, I also hope to suggest that the
modern discourses on mind wandering and its corresponding brain networks partly
reflect issues with deep historical roots, and that these roots deserve much more
thorough research.
Notes 239
of the Upanisads to strengthen his conviction as stated in the Upanisads (called

manana) and then by nididhyasana (meditation) which includes all the Yoga
processes of concentration, try to realize the truth as one.”
7 Hirst (1996) clearly establishes Śankara’s view that the three categories are
meaningless.
8 Designating the sacred sounds of a chant on the bodily parts (known as Nyāsa) as
a preparation before the chant is common to many forms of devotional chanting of
the Sahasranamas (one thousand names) of Viṣnu, Śiva, and Lalita.
9 Purification of the body and mind through the designation of sound on the bodily
parts is common to almost all chanting practices involving Sanskrit mantras. The
first part commences with the invoking of deities to stay in different parts of the
body and the second part is more about the universal rhythm.
10 I have partly followed Paul Harvey’s translation of the hymn at http://www.
dharmadownloads.info/page6/vedic_chant.html (accessed April 2007), though I
have opted to use the word “self ” instead of “me” for the word “aham.”
11 For instance the Vedic hymn Narayana sūktaṃ describes the heart as the location
of God in the human body, and all Nyāsa processes invariably ask for establishing
a relationship with the heart through the Gayatri mantra, a vehicle for transporting
offerings.
12 The Tamil Bhakti (devotional) tradition recognizes the importance of the intensity
of love and related emotions as the means of achieving oneness with God, and that
is why Śaiva Siddhānta accords the status of Tirumurai (sacred texts) to devotional
literature on par with philosophical literature.
13 Having a dhyāna slokā (a verse for meditation) is common for all hymns used in
prayers and also for traditions such as traditional sculpting, painting, and icon
making for temples.
14 According to tantric texts and the beliefs attached to Śankara’s composition
Soundarya Lahari, the primal sounds have the power to energize the chakras (vital
points of energy) in the body.
15 My informants are from the Caiva Veḷaḷar caste groups in the Tirunelveli region of
Tamil Nadu.
16 This translation is based on the Tamil texts of Srirudram published by the
Ramakrishna mission. This book is used by most of the practitioners for memorizing
Srirudram chanting through Tamil scripts.
Chapter 13
1 This chapter has profited much from comments by Guttorm Gundersen and Gunnar
Sjøstedt.
2 Mason et al. (2007), Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, and Schacter (2008).
3 Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010).
4 Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, and Schacter (2008) and Andrews-Hanna (2012).
5 Brewer et al. (2011), Hofmann, Grossman, and Hinton (2011), and Holzel et al.
(2007).
6 Xu et al. (2014), Jang et al. (2011), and Travis et al. (2010).
7 See Bryant (2009). This part of the chapter has profited from discussions with Edwin
Bryant. Most of my references to the Yoga Sūtra, including its English translations,
Meditation and Culture.indb 239 03-07-2015 11:55:25

240 Notes
are to Bryant’s work, though the exact wording of the translations has sometimes
been modified by me, in order to fit better with the present context.
8 Bryant (2009: 317f. and 544 n. 33).
9 Bryant (2009: 52).
10 Bryant (2009: 256).
11 All translations from The Cloud of Unknowing are from Wolters (1978), while the
Middle English text is quoted from Hodgson (1958).
12 Palmer et al. (1979–99, vol. 1, pp. 62 and 58).
13 Palmer et al. (1979–99, vol. 1, p. 61).
14 a clere beholding of þi kindely witte; ch. 8.
15 þe whiles þat a soule is wonyng in þis deedly flesche, it schal euermore se & fele þis
combros cloude of vnknowyng bitwix him & God; ch. 28.
16 a nakyd sodein þouȝt of any of hem presing aȝens þi wile & þi wetyng, þof al it be no
sinne arettid vnto þee; . . . with sum maner of likyng ȝif it be a þing þat pleseþ þee or
haþ plesid þee bifore, or elles wiþ sum maner of gruching ȝif it be a þing þat þee þink
greueþ þee or haþ greued þee before; ch. 10.
17 breek doun alle wetyng & felyng of alle maner of creatures; ch. 43.
18 treed hem down vnder þi fete; ch. 31.
19 put it doune vnder þe cloude of forȝetyng; ch. 8.
20 tredyng doun of þe mynde of alle þe creatures þat euer God maad; ch. 26.
21 as ofte as þei rise, as ofte put þeim doun; ch. 31.
22 a ful grete trauayle; ch. 26.
23 nakid entente directe vnto God for him-self; ch. 24.
24 take þee bot a litil worde of o silable, . . . & soche a worde is þis worde god or þis worde
loue, . . . or anoþer as þe list: whiche þat þee likeþ best of o silable, . . . bete on þis
cloude & þis derknes abouen þee, . . . smite doun al maner þouȝt vnder þe cloude of
forȝeting; ch. 7.
25 Do þat in þee is to lat as þou wist not þat þei prees so fast apon þee, bitwix þee & þi
God; ch. 32.
26 koure þou doun under hem as a cheitif & a coward ouercomen in batayle, & þink þat
it is bot a foly to þee to stryue any lenger wiþ hem; & þerfore þou ȝeeldest þee to God in
þe handes of þin enmyes; ch. 32.
27 he haue of longe tyme vsid him þer-in; . . . þou haste douocion; . . . þou schalt haue
ouþer litil trauaile or none; . . . þan wil God worche som-tyme al by him-self; ch. 26.
28 streyne not þin hert in þi brest ouer-rudely, ne oute of mesure; . . . wirche more wiþ a
list þen wiþ any liþer strengþe; ch. 46.
29 listely wiþ a softe & a demure contenaunce, as wel in body as in soule; ch. 46.
30 boistouste of bodely felyng; ch. 47.
31 þis beestly ruednes; ch. 46.
32 Graham (1989: 100).
33 Roth (1999: 23–30).
34 Rickett (1998).
35 口之所不能言也，目之所不能視也，耳之所不能聽也; 序其成; 不見其形; 無所;
窮無所; 人不能固; 其往不復，其來不舍; 無根無莖，無葉無榮; 充形; 與我俱生;
不遠; 不離; Roth (1999: 52–57).
36 心以藏心; 心之中又有心焉; 心之心; Roth (1999: 73).
37 道乃可止; 道乃可得; Roth (1999: 55).
38 其所以失之，必以憂樂喜怒欲利; Roth (1999: 51).
39 憂悲喜怒，道乃無處; Roth (1999: 95).

Notes 241
40 以躁為害; 躁則失之; Roth (1999: 95 and 97).

41 不以物亂官，不以官亂心; Roth (1999: 69).
42 生乃思，思乃知，過知失生; Roth (1999: 61).
43 思之而不捨，內困外薄; Roth (1999: 85).
44 The text is quoted from cbeta.org, with page numbers referring to Manji Shinsan
Dainihon Zokuzōkyō. Translations are mine.
45 In contrast to what Sharf (2002b) finds for earlier periods of Chinese history, Gǔkūn
clearly identifies Pure Land Buddhism as a separate school, referring to it as the Pure
School (淨宗). Other writers from the same period use the term Pure Land School
(淨土之宗).
46 雜念紛紛也不妨, p. 427c.
47 不必除妄想, p. 431c.
48 休將妄想嫌如賊, p. 432c.
49 千思萬想總憑他, p. 433a.
50 散亂持名大有功, pp. 432b–c.
51 妄想不必問如何, pp. 433a–b.
52 只要看伊是甚麼, p. 433a.
53 雜念紛飛實可哀，千般計策莫能排, p. 427c.
54 內心亂亂急須平, p. 447a.
55 心猿意馬最難停, p. 428b.
56 一句彌陀纔繫念, p. 428a.
57 音聲不絕是因，一心不亂是果, p. 435a.
58 妄想時時而輕，罪垢時時而減, p. 434c.
59 不期心一而自一; 豈制之令一也？心不可制, p. 435a.
60 靜念彌陀尤不息, p. 428b.
61 正念佛時，心中偏想別事；種種壓捺，莫能暫停, p. 430b.
62 佛號投亂心，亂心即成佛, p. 426c.
63 不斷凡情人聖胎, p. 427c.
64 See Shǐ Zhēntáo (2012).
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CA: Integral Publishing.

Index
absorption 18–19, 34, 63, 122, 125, cakra, see chakra

136, 139, 140, 204, 211–12, see also cāntóng qì 79, 166, 168
concentration, samādhi Casual Teachings on the Pure Land 210–12
Acem Meditation 43–4, 48–9, 215 celestial immortals 169, 170
Āgamas 8, 13, 186, 188–9 cessation 11, 13, 21–2, 44, 66, 71–3, 139,
Aghoraśiva 187–8 see also concentration, śamatha
Aleni, Jesuit Giulio 26 chakra (or cakra) 7, 132–3, 135, 139–40,
Amitābha Buddha 112, 115, 118–20, 142, 144–6, 149, 156, 180
210–11 Chamakam 193–5, 198
Ānāpānasati Sutta 12 Chán 5–7, 53, 55–75, 81–4, 88, 90, 97, 99,
Ani Lochen 179–83 102, 105, 107–8, 110–11, 113–17, 119,
Ān Shìgāo 12 122–6, 210, see also Sǒn, Thiền, Zen
Aruḷnandi Śivācārya 188 Chand, Nanak 140–1, 146
Arymurthy 156–9 Chéng Hào 76, 78–9, 83–4
attention modes, see modes of attention Chéng Yí 76, 78–9, 82, 84, 87, 98–100
autohypnosis 4, see also self-hypnosis Chéng-Zhū theory of praxis 78, 80–1,
automatic self-transcending 48–9 85–7, 89, 91, 97–9
autosuggestion 4 Chöd 8, 173, 176–85
drum for 178
Baker, Don 5–7, 162 Nyingmapa school 181–2
bare attention 63–7 outward appearance and ritual
bhakti yoga 131 objects 177
bījākṣara mantra 193 philosophical background 175–6
biomedical perspective of ritual dance 179
meditation 37–8 ritual paraphernalia of 177
Delphi-type consensus study 39–40 at Shugseb 183–4
functional brain imaging 37 texts and deities 177
mindfulness-based stress reduction thighbone trumpet 178–9
(MBSR) 38–9 transmission lineages of 176
operational definitions 39–40 wandering chödpas 179
Bly, Robert 134 choiceless awareness 46
breathing 12, 36–7, 39, 41, 44, 47–9, chŏng 163–5, 167–8
59, 60, 72, 132, 163–71, see also Chŏng Chak 167
prāṇayāma Chŏng Nyŏm 165–7
Buddhaghosa 63, 65 Chŏng Yagyong 169
buddha-name 105, 112, 122, 124 Christianity 5, 7, 8, 24–35, 103, 106, 114,
Buddhism 7–8, 13, 18, 21, 25, 29, 34, 45, 116, 126, 151, 152, 201, 205–8, 210,
64, 74, 80–4, 90–1, 103, 108, 110–11, 213, 214
114, 116–17, 124, 126, 152, 162, 166, Chwasan 171
171, 175–6, 201, 205, 210–11, 213–14 cinnabar-field breathing (Tanjŏn
hohŭp) 164, 166, 170–1

264 Index
cinnabar-field meditation 5–7, 129, Retransformation of Self 144

162–71 dhāraṇā 139, 204, see also concentration
cinnabar fields, significance of 164–5 dhyāna 18, 34, 55, 57, 59, 67, 75, 139,
Clinically Standardized Meditation 43–4, 193, 204, see also concentration,
48–9 meditation
Cloud of Unknowing 111, 205–8, 210, 212 Diary of Oral Exhortations, see Kǒuduó
duality principle 205 rìchāo
methods to get rid of spontaneous Dìngguān jīng 17
thoughts 206–7 doubt 18, 108–11, 121–5, 202
cognitive therapy 38–9, 41 dualism 149–56
Collaert, Adrian 26 Dunhuang Chán manuscripts 56–7, 74
Collaert, Jan 26 Dwivedi, Hazariprasad 138–9, 146
concentration amidst affairs 89–90 Dzogchen 8, 66, 224n. 34
concentration on oneness (or singleness,
the one) 86, 89, 92, 101, see also Eifring, Halvor 6–8, 11, 25, 41, 102, 200
concentrative unity Ellingsen, Øyvind 5, 7, 25, 36
concentration 11–12, 16, 18, 22, 25, 35, equilibrium-harmony problem 84–5
44–5, 50, 63, 85, 86, 89, 92, 96–7, 101, Evagrios Pontikos 206
118, 136, 145, 151, 154, 165–6, 202,
204, 215, 217, see also absorption, Fiammeri S. J., Giovanni Battista 26
cessation, dhāraṇā, dhyāna, śamatha, focused attention 36, 38, 41, 45–8, 50–1
samādhi Fújiàn community 29–35
concentrative meditation 25, 34, 44, 47, Fundamental Expedient Teachings for
49, 105, see also śamatha Calming the Mind to Enter the
concentrative unity 89, 97, 101, see also Way 57, 61
concentration on oneness
cúnxiǎng 32–4 Geertz, Clifford 147–8, 151
Gethin, Rupert 65–6
Dahn World 170–1 Gold, Daniel 5, 7, 131
Dàhuì Zōnggǎo 102, 110–1, 117, 125–6 Gómez, Luis 74
Daoism 5–23, 25, 33–5, 79–84, 88, 90–1, gōng’àn, see keyword
94, 96–9, 103, 114–18, 124, 126, 129, gōngfū 30
131, 145, 162–9, 201, 205, 208, 210, guided meditation 41, 152, 156
213 Guīfēng Zōngmì 56–7, 59, 60, 73
Chinese forms of 162–7 Record of the Transmission of the
cúnxiǎng 32–4 Dharma Treasure 57
karma and rebirth 21 guru śabda 135
mysticism 201, 205
no-self 21 Hānshān Déqīng 7, 102–27
oblivion 13–14 alternative methods for
qì 14–15 meditation 111–14
sitting in oblivion 13–14 buddha names 105, 112, 122, 124
time, importance of 80 early experience of sūtra recitation,
visualization 15–16, 34–5 buddha invocation, and keyword
Dàoxìn 57–63, 67, 72 investigation 117–19
Dàoxuān 56 encounter with the Confucian and
dar-al islam 147 Daoist classics 117–19
Das, Maluk 139–40 generation of doubt in Chán
Dayala, Guru Data 144 investigation 122–4

Index 265
keywords as meditation objects 107–11 Inward Training 208–10, 212, 214

linguistic utterances for Islam (or Muslim) 5, 7, 129, 132–3, 141,
meditation 119–24 147–61, 205
mantras 113–14 Islamization 148–9, 160, see also
meditative methodology 124–7 Sumarah
ridding mind of thoughts 103–4
self-generated object, meditation Jaman Buda 147
using 125 Javanism 7, 129, 147, 160
spontaneous thoughts 104–7 Jñāna Parochi 140
sūtras 112–13
syncretism 114–17 Kabir 133–6, 138–42, 144–6
hatha yoga (haṭhayoga) 131, 139, 146 guru 135–6
Havnevik, Hanna 5, 8, 175 Kāl/Niranjan 141–2
Heart of Buddhist Meditation, The 63–4 śabda 135
Hézé Shénhuì 59, 71, 75 yogic terms 136–7
Hindi sants 5, 7, 129, 131–46 kalimah shahadat 148
Dwivedi’s views 138–9 karma 13, 16–17, 20–1, 23, 66, 68, 119,
growth of 137–44 149, 197, 211
Kabir 133–7 karma yoga 131
Lingayats 133 karmic imprints (saṁskāra) 203–4, 206
nāda practice 136 kejawen 147, 149
panth leaders 138 keyword (huàtou, gōng’àn) 102, 105,
piety and worship 132 107–26, see also kōan
Hŏ Chun 163–4, 167 ki 163–70, see also qì
Holen, Are 5, 7, 25, 36, 41 Kim Sisŭp, 165–6
Huáng Gàn 100–1 knowing the mind 81–2
huàtou, see keyword kōan 56, 75, 107, 170, see also keyword
Huìnéng 58–60, 71, 75 Kohn, Livia 5–7, 11, 34
Hussein, Zahid 156–9 Korean gods and spirits 162
Kǒuduó rìchāo 29, 31–3
Ignatius of Loyola 24–35 Kriṣṇa Yajur Veda 186–9, 194
imaginative gaze 27 kuṇḍalinī 139, 144–6
immortals (shinsǒn) 163, 164, 170–1 Kushwah, Thakur Mansingh 144–6
impermanence 20–1, 23, 62 Kwŏn Kŭkchung 166
inner observation 16, 19–20, 23, see also Kwŏn T’aehun 170
insight meditation, open monitoring,
Vipassana Laghu Nyāsa 189–91, 193
inner world 36–7, 145 Ledi Sayādaw 63
insight meditation 7, 9, 11–23, 105 logic relaxation 25, 39–40
see also inner observation, open Lǚ Dàlín 82–3
monitoring, Vipassana Lù Xiàngshān 82–4, 87
body, sensations, mind, and
qualities in 12 Machig Labdron 175–7, 181–5
Buddhist notions 20–2 Madhuropāsanā 139
in China 16–20 Mahā Nyāsa, 189–90
within Chinese Buddhism 13 Mahāsī method, 63–4, 66–7, 223n. 27
inner observation 19–20 Mahāsī Sayādaw 63–4, 67, 75, 223n. 26
perfect observation 16–17 Mahāyāna 58, 60, 66, 73, 75, 108, 175–6,
stability-cum-observation 17–19 178, 211

266 Index
Malik Sahib, see Kushwant, Thakur mind wandering 37, 41–7, 50, 114,
Mansingh 200–3, 206, 211, 213–15, see also
Mallery, Karel van 26 spontaneous mental activity/thoughts
mantra 44–5, 47–9, 51, 62, 102, 111–4, Míngběn, see Zhōngfēng Míngběn
116–7, 119–21, 123–4, 126, 139–41, Mingun Jetavana Sayādaw 63
149, 154, 186–7, 195, 204, 214 mòcún 33–4
Matos, Bento de 30 modes of attention 37, 41, 43, 45, 47–50
meditation, see also biomedical perspective modernity, meditation and, 5–6, 36–50
of meditation; Chán; Chöd; insight monism 7, 103, 144, 148–56, 187–8, 191,
meditation; yoga 193, 208, 213
biomedical classification 47 mòxiǎng 30, 33–4
chanting as 25, 64, 120, 186–99 mòzhào, see silent illumination
clinical effects 49–50 muscular relaxation 39
concentrative 25, 34, 44, 47, 49, 105 Muslim, see Islam
(see also śamatha, focused attention) Muthukumaraswamy, M. D. 4–5, 8, 186
dimensions for describing 48–9
focused attention 36, 38, 41, Nadal, Jerome 26–9, 33
45–8, 50–1 (see also concentrative Annotations and Meditations on the
meditation) Gospels 26, 28
guided 41, 152, 156 Namakam 194–5, 198
Jesuit practices 5–7, 9, 26–35 Namgung Tu 168–9
mindfulness 7, 12, 22, 25, 37–9, 41–2, Nanak, Yogiraj, see Chand, Nanak
45–7, 49, 51, 53, 55–75, 171, 204, Nath, Gorakh 132
214–15 Nath yogis 7, 132, 136–7
in modern contexts 5–6, 36–50 Neo-Confucianism 6–7, 32, 53, 76–101
modes of attention 37, 41, 43, Niranjan 136, 141–2
45, 47–50 nirguṇa bhakti 132, 138
monism and dualism 7, 149–56, nirodhasamāpatti 66
187–8, 191, 193 nirvikalpa samādhi 139
as a national practice in Java 158–9 non-conceptual awareness 66, 224n. 33
negative valuation of 56 nondirective meditation 28, 37, 41, 43–51
Neo-Confucian practices 6, 53, 76–101 nondualism 43, 85, 103, 106, 153,
nondirective 28, 37, 41, 43–51 211, 213
pragmatic classification 49 no-self 4, 20–1, 23
recorded instructions 41 Nyanaponika Thera 63–4, 66
self-administered 40–1
spontaneous mental activity 41–2 oblivion, see sitting in oblivion,
(see also mind wandering) Zuòwàng lùn
Meykaṇṭatēvar 188 observing self 11
Milindapañha 65 open monitoring 41, 45–8, 50–1, see also
mindfulness 7, 12, 22, 25, 37–9, 41–2, inner observation, insight meditation,
45–7, 49, 51, 53, 55–75, 171, 204, Vipassana
214–15, see also sati/smṛti Ǒuyì Zhìxù 102, 116
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
(MBCT) 38–9, 41, 47, 49 Paltu Sahib of Ayodhya 143
mindfulness-based stress reduction pañcākṣara mantra 186
(MBSR) 38–9, 41, 47, 49 pamong 150, 152–3
mindlessness 7, 55–75 Passeri, Bernardino 26
Path of Purification 63, 65

Index 267
perfect observation 11, 16–17 designating sacred sounds on the bodily

Platform Scripture of the Sixth parts 189–91
Patriarch 58–9, 70, 73, 113, see also monism and pluralism in 187–9
Huìnéng Namakam and Chamakam 194–5, 198
pluralism 187–9, 191 Nyāsa component of 189–94
Polanco, Juan 26 pancākṣara mantra 186
prāṇayāma 132, 139, 140, 144, 146, principles of 187
see also breathing ritual practice 186
pratyāhāra 139 roles of sound and meaning in
Pure Land Buddhism 6, 8, 29, 114–17, chanting 194–9
119, 126, 201, 205, 210–14 sequence with Mantra puṣpaṃ 195
purification 18, 20, 144, 151, 155, 189–90, sixteen-step process 195
193, 195, 204 Srirudram, chanting 187–9, 194–9
Vedānta vs. 189
qi 11, 14–16, 19, 21, 23, 80, 90–1, 163, vedic chanting 186–7
see also ki śaktipāt practice 144, 146
Qi Gong 48–9 samādhi 18, 22, 57, 59, 125, 139, 204,
quiet-sitting/quietude 7, 11, 15, 18, 34, see also absorption, concentration
53, 57, 59, 69, 76–101 śamatha (or samatha) 11, 22, 63, 67, 105,
alternative to 96–101 see also concentration, focused
method for regulating the breath 79 attention
sitting position 79 saṁskāra, see karmic imprints
southern transmission 82 sants, see Hindi sants
types 80–1 Sapta Darma movement 160
sati/smṛti 61, 63–7, 75, see also
Radhasoamis 142–4 mindfulness
Relaxation Response 36, 43–4, 48–9, 214 satipaṭṭhāna 63, 65–6, 154
relaxed meditation 152, 156 Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta 12–13, 65
reverence 7, 53, 76–101 savikalpa samādhi 139
and examination of principles 92–6 Saxonia, Ludolphus de 28–30
quiet-sitting and 87 Scripture on the Discernment of the Buddha
Ricci, Matteo 26 of Immeasurable Life 61
ridding the mind of thoughts 20, 103–4, self-cultivation 76, 78, 80–2, 84–5, 87–8,
112–13, 165, 167, 207, 209–11 93, 95–97, 99–100, 113, 118–19, 163
Rinzai 56, 75 self-hypnosis 39, see also autohypnosis
Rocha, João da 27 self-referential activity/processes
Rorty, Richard 66, 74 37, 42–3, 46–8, 50–1
Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature 74 self-transformation 1, 3–4
sexual yoga 143, 177, 183
śabda 135–6, 139–46 shadow puppet drama (wayang kulit) 148
saguṇa bhakti 132, 137 Sharf, Robert H. 5, 7, 55, 105
Sahaj Sādhanā 138–9 shén 90, 163, see also shin
Sahib, Malik, see Kushwah, Thakur Shénhuì, see Hézé Shénhuì
Mansingh shikantaza 56, 75
Sahib, Tulsi 138, 146 shin 163–4, see also shén
Śaiva Siddhānta 4–5, 8, 173, 186–99 Shin, Junhyoung Michael 29
adherents of 188 shinsǒn, see immortals
Ajapa japa 187, 199 Shuōwén jiězì 16
connecting with God 191–4 silent illumination (mòzhào) 56, 117

268 Index
Sīmǎ Chéngzhēn 16–17 Tiāntāi Zhìyǐ 13, 105–6

Singh, Shiv Dayal 141, 144 Tiānzhǔ jiàngshēng chūxiàng jīngjiě 27–9
sitting in oblivion (zuòwàng) 13–14, 16, Tiānzhǔ jiàngshēng yánxíng jìlüè 28–9
18, 23, see also Zuòwàng lùn T’oegye Yi Hwang 167–8
six senses (six robbers) 22 Tongŭi pogam 163
Smārta Brahmins 188 tradition, meditation and, 5–6
Sòng niànzhū guīchéng 27–8 Transcendental Meditation 43–4, 48–9,
Sŏn 55, 74, see also Chán, Thiền, Zen 214–15
Sōtō 56, 74–5, 175 transformation of self 1, 3–4
Spiritual Exercises, see Ignatius of Loyola Treatise on Cutting off Discernment 69–70
spontaneous mental activity/ Treatise on No Mind 67–9
thoughts 8, 41–3, 103–7, 124, 126, Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the
173, 200–15, see also mind wandering Mind 71–3
psychoanalysis view 200 Tridharma 152
stability-cum-observation 11, 17–19, 23
Standaert, Nicolas 5, 7, 24 Vedic chanting, see Śaiva Siddhānta
Stange, Paul D. 5, 7, 147 Vijñāna Bhairava 106, 111
Subud 160 Vijnani, Yogendra 144
Sudarno Ong 152–6 Vipassana (or vipassanā, vipaśyanā)
sudden enlightenment 58–9, 82, 85, 99 11, 22, 38, 45, 47, 49, 63, 67, 75, 105,
suffering 20–1, 23, 118, 202, 204 154, 214, see also inner observation,
Sufism 7, 129, 131–3, 145, 148–9, 151, insight meditation, open awareness
153–5 visual imagery 39
sujud 150, 153, 156, 160 visualization 7, 9, 11, 15–16, 19, 22–3, 25,
Sukinohartono 150 29, 34–5, 40, 49, 62, 64, 176–7, 190,
Sumarah 5, 7, 129, 148–160 193, 195, 197–8, 205
defined 151 Visuddhimagga, see Path of Purification
followers 153
Solonese practices 156 wayang mythology, 160
Suwondo’s sessions 153–5 Wierix, Hieronymus 26
Sunan Bonan 148 Wierix, Jan 26
Sunan Kalijaga 148, 149, 156, 158, 160 Wierix II, Antoon 26
śūnya(ta) 73, 136 witness consciousness 11, 12, 16, 20, 22, 63
surat śabd yoga 144–6 Won Buddhism 171
Suprapto Suryodarmo 155
Suwondo Hardosaputra 152–6 xīn-zhòu 121
syncretism 102, 114–17, 124, 126, Xūyún 102
147, 152
Yajur Veda, see Kriṣṇa Yajur Veda
Tai Chi 48–9 Yang, Rur-bin 6–7, 76
Taittria Saṃhita 187 Yáng Shí 82–3
Taittria Upaniṣad 194 Yi Kwangchŏng 171
Tan’gun 7, 170–1 Yi Kyugyŏng 170
Tantra 8, 74, 120, 138–9, 143, 148, 156, Yi Sugwang 168
160, 176–7, 180, 189, 192 Yoga 7–8, 25, 38, 44, 47–9, 64–66, 103,
tarekat 148–9 126, 131–3, 137–46, 149, 154, 177,
Theravāda 62–4, 66–7, 75, 152 180, 183, 185, 192–3, 201–204, 210,
Thiền 55, see also Chán, Sǒn, Zen 212–13
Three Teachings 90, 114–17, 124, 152, 162 Yoga Sūtra 106, 201–10

Index 269
attitude toward spontaneous Zen 38, 47, 49, 55–6, 60, 74–5, 81, 166,
thoughts in 202 169, 210, 214, see also Chán, Sǒn,
duality between puruṣa and Thiền
prakṛti 202 Zēng Guófān 230n. 64
karmic imprints 203 Zhìyǐ, see Tiāntāi Zhìyǐ
means of stilling the fluctuations of Zhōngfēng Míngběn 102, 111, 117–18,
the mind 204 121, 125–6
qualities of existence 203 Zhōngguó jīběn gǔjí kù 33
samādhi state 204 Zhōu Dūnyí 77, 85–6, 93
terms and conditions for Yogic Zhōuyì cāntóngqì, see Cāntóng qì
realization 202–3 Zǐbó Zhēnkě 102
theistic approaches to Zhū Quán 168
meditation 204–5 Zhū Xī 32, 34, 76–7, 79–84, 87, 91, 93,
Yuán Liǎofán 102, 117, 126 96–101, 166
Yùfēng Gǔkūn 210–13 Discussion on Observing the Mind 81
Yúnqī Zhūhóng 102, 115–16 Zōngmì, see Guīfēng Zōngmì
Yúnjí qīqiān 17 Zuòwàng lùn 16–18, see also sitting in
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13

contemplative traditions tend to see mind wandering as an obstacle to meditative

Yoga Sūtra: Undisturbed flow

Yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind.

of consciousness without any disturbance from spontaneous thoughts and mind

The states of mind produced by these [impediments] are eliminated by meditation.

Upon being harassed by negative thoughts, one should cultivate counteracting

The following sūtra indicates that cultivating counteracting thoughts is not to be

The Cloud of Unknowing: Hard work

Inward Training: Measured harmony

Pure Land: Between opposites

If I rely on undistracted mental absorption for a good rebirth, I have no way of

of the Upanisads to strengthen his conviction as stated in the Upanisads (called

Meditation and Culture.indb 239 03-07-2015 11:55:25

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40 以躁為害; 躁則失之; Roth (1999: 95 and 97).

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Beatty, Andrew (1999), Varieties of Javanese Religion: An Anthropological Account,

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(ed.), Sudden and Gradual: Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought, 321–77,

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Chwasan (Yi, Kwangchŏng) (2004), Commentary on the Method of Sitting Meditation in

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Hollenback, Jess (1996), Mysticism: Experience, Response, and Empowerment, University

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Jackowicz, Stephen (2006), “Ingestion, Digestion, and Regestation: The Complexities of

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Koentjaraningrat (1985), Javanese Culture, Singapore: Oxford University Press.

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Taylor, Rodney L. (1979), “Meditation in Ming Neo-Orthodoxy: Kao P’an-lungs Writings

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Wayman, Alex (1974), “The Mirror as a Pan-Buddhist Metaphor-Simile,” History of

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absorption 18–19, 34, 63, 122, 125, cakra, see chakra

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cinnabar-field meditation 5–7, 129, Retransformation of Self 144

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keywords as meditation objects 107–11 Inward Training 208–10, 212, 214

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perfect observation 11, 16–17 designating sacred sounds on the bodily

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Sīmǎ Chéngzhēn 16–17 Tiāntāi Zhìyǐ 13, 105–6

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