Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 117:79-83. 2004.

REFEREED PAPER

RECONCILING WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

IMPACTING NITRIFICATION IN AQUAPONICS: THE PH LEVELS

RICHARD V. TYSON1 Aquaponics is an integrated system that links hydroponic

University of Florida, IFAS plant production with recirculating aquaculture (Diver,
Seminole County Extension Service 2000). The advantages of linking fish and plant culture to-
Sanford, FL 32773-6197 gether are shared startup, operating and infrastructure costs,
fish waste nutrient removal by plants, reduced water usage,
ERIC H. SIMONNE and increased profit potential by producing two cash crops
University of Florida, IFAS (Rakocy, 1999; Timmons, et al., 2002). The potential of plants
Horticultural Sciences Department and fish for production in aquaponics has been investigated
Gainesville, FL 32611-0690 (Adler et al., 1996; Anonymous, 1997,1998; McMurtry et al.,
1997; Rakocy et al., 1992,1997; Watten and Busch, 1984).
JAMES M. WHITE One of the most complex and important subsystems of re-
University of Florida, IFAS circulating aquaculture is the biofiltration and removal of fish
Mid-Florida Research and Education Center waste. Recirculating systems must incorporate both solids re-
Apopka, FL 32703-8504 moval and biological filtration into the water reconditioning
process to achieve proper water quality for fish and plants
(Harmon, 2001). Ammonia is the main excretion product
ELIZABETH M. LAMB
from fish. Both un-ionized ammonia and nitrite can be toxic
University of Florida, IFAS
to fish at very low levels (Harmon, 2001; McGee and Cichra,
Indian River Research and Education Center
2000). In the process of nitrification, certain autotrophic bac-
Ft. Pierce, FL 34945-3138
teria (primarily Nitrosomonas) oxidize ammonia to nitrite and
others (primarily Nitrobacter) oxidize nitrite to nitrate. The
Additional index words. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, aquacul- overall reaction of nitrification and cell biomass formation
ture, hydroponics, ammonium, nitrite, nitrate, trickling bio- can be written as (Haug and McCarty, 1972):
filter, perlite
Nitrosomonas
Abstract. Combining hydroponics and aquaculture into aqua- 55 NH4+ + 5 CO2 + 76 O2 → C5H7NO2 + 54 NO2- + 52 H2O
ponic systems requires reconciling water quality parameters + 109 H+
for the survival and growth of plants, fish, and nitrifying bacte-
ria. The plants and fish are grown as cash crops while bacteria Nitrobacter
are expected to oxidize ammonia (fish by-product) into nitrite 400 NO2- + 5 CO2 + NH4+ + 195 O2 + 2 H2O → C5H7NO2 +
and finally nitrate which may be used by plants. The objectives 400 NO3- + H+
of this project were to determine nitrification activity response
to pH between 5.5 and 8.5 in recirculating trickling biofilters This nitrogen transformation eliminates ammonia from the
containing perlite medium. Total ammonia nitrogen concentra-
water. Nitrate is not toxic to fish except at very high levels (96-
tion decreased from 5 to 0 mg L-1 in 12 (pH 8.5), 20 (pH 7.5), and
20-24 (pH 6.5) days after introduction of nitrifying bacteria to h LC50 > 1000mg/L NO3-N; Colt and Tchobanoglous, 1976)
the perlite biofilters. Nitrite became measurable in the biofilter and is the primary source of nitrogen for plants in hydropon-
water at 8 (pH 8.5), 16 (pH 7.5), and 20-24 (pH 6.5) days after in- ic systems (Hochmuth, 1991; Resh, 1998).
troduction of nitrifying bacteria. No nitrification occurred in Nitrate and ammonium are the most common forms of
the biofilters maintained at a pH of 5.5. These results indicate nitrogen taken up by vegetable crops (Cockx and Simonne,
that ammonia conversion to nitrate in a perlite medium trick- 2003). However, they should be regarded as two different nu-
ling biofilter startup cycle was significantly faster at pH 8.5 trients because they affect plant metabolism differently. Plant
than at pH 7.5 and 6.5. The recommended pH for aquaculture nutrient uptake is a process that is electrically neutral. Uptake
systems is from 6.5 to 8.5 and for hydroponic systems is from of NH4+ may depress uptake of the essential cations (K+, Ca2-,
5.5 to 6.5. Results indicate the optimum pH for nitrification in
Mg2+). The optimum nitrate to ammonium ratio for vegeta-
this system is 8.5, however, the reconciling pH for aquaponics
would likely be between 6.5 and 7.0 to optimize the production bles grown in hydroponics is 75:25. When ammonium is the
of the fish and plant cash crops. dominant form of nitrogen available for plant uptake, a small-
er plant will result. Thus where the nitrogen source in aqua-
ponics comes primarily from the fish, the nitrification process
is important for nitrate uptake by plants. The fish, the plants,
The authors thank Frank Chapman, University of Florida Fisheries and and the nitrifying bacteria rely on the same recirculating wa-
Aquatic Sciences Department, Gainesville, FL, and Megan Davis, Aquacul- ter for optimum growth hence water quality parameters have
ture Center for Training, Education, and Demonstration, Harbor Branch to be favorable for all three organisms in a self-sustaining
Oceanographic Institution, Ft. Pierce, FL, for their advice on this research aquaponic system. The effects of water quality on nitrifying
project. This research was supported by the Florida Agricultural Experiment
Station, and approved for publication as Journal Series No. R-10305. bacteria have not been investigated from the standpoint of
1Corresponding author. conditions that can be present in aquaponic systems.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 117: 2004. 79

 The pH is one of the most important environmental pa- acid (Plant Food Systems) was added to lower pH as needed
rameters that can affect the activity of nitrifying bacteria. Rec- during both trials. In addition, sodium bicarbonate was add-
ommended pH ranges for hydroponic systems are between 5.5 ed when necessary to maintain recirculating water alkalinity
and 6.5 (Hochmuth, 1991) and for aquaculture systems are be- above 50 mg L-1 in experiment 1 and above 100 mg L-1 in ex-
tween 6.5 and 8.5 (Timmons et al., 2002). A wide range of pH periment 2.
optima have been reported from research on the effect of pH Experiment 1 biofilter setup began on 20 Jan. with water
on nitrification rate. In substrates from terrestrial forest envi- and perlite added to the tanks and recirculating pumps in-
ronments, increasing pH stimulated net nitrification while de- stalled. On 21 Jan., ‘Proline’ Aqua-Coat (Dechlorinator/Sub-
creasing pH depressed it (Ste-Marie and Pare, 1999). strate Conditioner; Aquatic Eco-Systems, Apopka, Fla.) was
Nitrification in aquaculture biofilters was reported to be most added at 1.3 ml per tank. Ammonium chloride was added at
efficient at pH levels from about 7.5 to 9.0 (Hochheimer and 25 mg L-1 resulting in 5.0 mg L-1 total ammonium nitrogen
Wheaton, 1998), and 7.0 to 8.0 (Masser et al., 1999). In a sub- concentration in the recirculating solution. ‘Proline’ Bio-
merged biofilter investigation, a pH increase of one unit within Booster nutrient solution was added at 0.3 ml per tank. ‘Pro-
a range of 5.0 to 9.0, produced a 13% increase in nitrification line’ Freshwater Nitrifying Bacteria (Aquatic Eco-Systems)
efficiency (Villaverde, et al., 1997). In another investigation was added to the perlite at the rate of 2.5 mL L-1 of tank water.
with four different biological filters (under gravel, fluidized The ‘Proline’ products are proprietary blends of water condi-
bed, non-fluidized bed, and gravel bed) nitrification slowed sig- tioner, nutrients, and nitrifying bacteria recommended for
nificantly or stopped when pH dropped below 6.0 (Brunty, use when beginning new biofilter startup cycles in recirculat-
1995). The pH of approximately 7.8 produced the maximum ing aquaculture. On 27 Jan., another 1.5 mL L-1 of nitrifying
growth rate of nitrifying bacteria for wastewater treatment pro- bacteria was added to each tank in an effort to speed up the
cesses (Antoniou et al., 1990). The causes of varying pH optima nitrification process. Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN = NH4+ -
may be attributed to differences in substrate, effluent, or spe- N plus NH3 – N), nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, pH, dis-
cies of nitrifying bacteria present in the system. solved oxygen, soluble salts, salinity, and temperature mea-
The most common recirculating aquaponic systems to surements were taken every 4 d beginning on 21 Jan.
date employ either a media-filled raised bed, nutrient-flow Ammonium chloride (0.125 g) was added to the 8.5 pH treat-
technique (NFT), or floating raft system (Adler et al., 1996; ment on 1 Feb., and to the other treatments on 9 Feb. One
Anonymous, 1997,1998; Diver, 2000; McMurtry et al., 1997; week after setup, aquarium heaters were installed in the box-
Rakocy et al., 1992,1997; Watten and Busch, 1984) for the es to maintain recirculating water temperatures between 26
plant growing area. Of those systems, the media filled bed has and 31 °C. Upon completion of experiment 1, boxes and
potential for providing for solids removal, biological filtra- equipment were disassembled, triple rinsed, and dryed prior
tion, and root zone space for plant production. Perlite is the to assembly for experiment 2.
most common plant growing medium used in hydroponic Experiment 2 biofilter setup began on 3 Mar., with water
plant production in Florida (Tyson et al., 2001). It has also and fresh perlite added to the tanks and recirculating pumps
been investigated as a soilless culture alternative to soil fumi- installed. Aquarium heaters were reinstalled. On 10 Mar.,
gation with methyl bromide in field grown tomato (Lycopersi- ‘Proline’ Aqua-Coat (Dechlorinator/Substrate Conditioner)
con esculentum Mill.) and pepper (Capsicum annuum L) was added at 1.3 mL per tank. Ammonium chloride was added
production (Hochmuth et al., 2002). However, perlite medi- at 25 mg L-1. ‘Proline’ Bio-Booster nutrient solution was added
um has not been investigated with respect to the activity of ni- at 0.3 ml per tank. On 11 Mar., ‘Proline’ Freshwater Nitrifying
trifying bacteria in an aquaponic biofilter. The type of soilless Bacteria was added to the perlite at the rate of 10 mL L-1 of
media in which plants grow has been shown to significantly af- tank water. Total ammonium nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, ni-
fect nitrifying bacteria counts (Lang and Elliott, 1997). The trate nitrogen, and pH measurements were taken every 4 d
purpose of this investigation was to determine the nitrifica- while dissolved oxygen, soluble salts, salinity, and temperature
tion activity response to pH ranging from 5.5 to 8.5 in a trick- water quality data were taken every 8 d beginning on 11 Mar.
ling biological filtration system containing perlite medium. Total ammonia nitrogen (range 1.0-8.0 mg L-1), nitrite
(low range, 0.1-0.8 mg L-1), chlorine, and alkalinity were mea-
Materials and Methods sured with LaMotte Test Kits. Nitrite (high range, 0-150 mg
L-1) was measured using a Hanna Ion Specific Meter. Nitrate
Two experiments were conducted in 2004 in a Dutch style was measured using a Cardy Ion Specific Meter (0-9,900 mg
glass greenhouse with pad and fan cooling system at the Sem- L-1). Dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, temperature,
inole Community College Horticultural Unit, Sanford, Fla. and salinity were measured using a YSI Model 85 meter. Both
Sixteen perlite medium trickling biofilters were set up in a experiments used a randomized block design with four repli-
randomized block design with four treatments (pH 5.5, 6.5, cations. Data in Table 1 were analyzed using a Statistical Anal-
7.5, 8.5). Twenty liters of tap water were added to the 80-L ysis System (SAS) software and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
plastic biofilter boxes which were kept closed during the ex- using a P value of <0.05. The pH data was measured using a
periment. Air vents in the upper section of the boxes allowed Fisher Scientific AR15 Accumet Research pH meter. The pH
for natural ventilation and gas exchange. Screen colanders data were analyzed with a Microsoft Excel program for mean
were placed above the water on plastic stools in each box and and standard deviation.
filled with 6.5 L of horticultural grade coarse perlite. Water
was recirculated through the perlite with an aquarium pump Results and Discussion
at the average rate of 1.9 L min-1. Sodium bicarbonate and po-
tassium hydroxide (Plant Food Systems, Zellwood, Fla.) were These experiments are based on typical startup charac-
added to raise pH during experiment 1 and potassium hy- teristics for bringing a new biological filter system up to full
droxide was used to raise pH in experiment 2. Phosphoric capacity (Timmons et al., 2002). Relative nitrification activity

80 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 117: 2004.

Table 1. Changes in TAN, N02-N, and N03-N concentrations in perlite medium trickling biofilters as affected by water pH.

Target pH Day 0z Day 4 Day 8 Day 12 Day 16 Day 20 Day 24 Day 28 Day 32

Experiment 1 Total ammonia nitrogen (mg L-1)

8.5 5.0 a y 4.0 b 1.1 c 0c 0c 0b 0b 0b —
7.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 3.9 b 4.5 b 1.3 bc 0b 0b 0b —
6.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 4.4 a 4.9 a 2.5 b 0b 0b 0b —
5.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 4.5 a 4.9 a 4.6 a 4.1 a 3.6 a 3.0 a —
L** L** L** L** L** L** L**
Significancex Q** Q** Q** Q** Q** Q**
Experiment 2
8.5 5.0 a 3.3 b 2.0 b 0b 0c 0b 0b 0b 0b
7.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 5.0 a 4.4 a 2.8 b 0b 0b 0b 0b
6.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 5.0 a 4.3 a 3.5 a 1.8 a 0.5 b 0b 0b
5.5 5.0 a 5.0 a 5.0 a 4.6 a 3.8 a 3.0 a 2.8 a 2.6 a 2.4 a
L** L** L** L** L** L** L** L**
Significance Q** Q** Q** Q** Q** Q**
Exp*pH P valuew 0.01 0.09 0.14 0.21 0.01 0.11 0.83

Experiment 1 Nitrite nitrogen (mg L-1)

8.5 0a 0a 0.9a 5.3 a 3.7 a 1.2 a 0b 0a —
7.5 0a 0a 0b 0.3 b 2.6 b 1.6 a 0.9 a 0a —
6.5 0a 0a 0b 0.1 b 2.1 b 1.5 a 0.1 b 0a —
5.5 0a 0a 0b 0b 0c 0c 0b 0a —
L** L** L** L** Q**
Significance Q** Q**

Experiment 2
8.5 0a 0a 0.6 a 4.5 a 2.0 ab 0.2 b 0b 0a 0a
7.5 0a 0a 0b 0.5 b 2.9 a 4.3 a 2.0 ab 0a 0a
6.5 0a 0a 0b 0b 0.2 b 1.2 ab 2.8 a 3.3 a 0.3 a
5.5 0a 0a 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0a 0a
L** L** L** L* Q* Q*
Significance Q** Q**
Exp*pH P value 0.71 0.78 0.29 0.17 0.07 0.07

Experiment 1 Nitrate nitrogen (mg L-1)

8.5 3.8 a 3.0 a 1.5 a 5.0 a 2.0 a 8.3 a 7.8 a 8.8 a —
7.5 2.0 b 2.0 b 0.3 b 3.0 b 1.3 b 4.3 b 3.0 b 5.0 b —
6.5 2.0 b 2.0 b 0.3 b 3.0 b 0.3 c 3.8 b 3.0 b 4.0 c —
5.5 2.0 b 2.0 b 0.5 b 3.0 b 0c 2.8 c 1.0 c 2.5 d —
L** L** L** L** L** L** L** L**
Significance Q** Q** Q* Q* Q* Q* Q** Q**
Experiment 2

8.5 1.5 a 0a 3.8 a 1.0 a 5.5 a 3.8 a 4.5 a 5.3 b 5.8 b

7.5 1.0 b 0a 3.8 a 0.5 ab 4.5 b 3.0 ab 4.5 a 6.5 a 6.8 a
6.5 0c 0a 3.0 b 0.3 b 4.0 b 2.5 bc 2.8 b 5.0 b 6.5 ab
5.5 0c 0a 3.0 b 0b 4.0 b 2.0 c 2.0 c 3.5 c 4.0 c
L** L** L** L** L** L** L** L**
Significance Q** Q**
Exp*pH P value 0.01 0.01 0.32 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.01 0.01

z
Nitrifying bacteria introduced to the biofilters.
y
Within columns, means followed by different letters are significantly different; four replicates.
xLinear and Quadratic effects were significant at the 5% (*) or 1% (**) level.
w
P values for experiment ×pH interaction.

is measured based on the time it takes after introduction of ni- similar reduction in TAN for the target pH of 7.5 took 20 d
trifying bacteria to convert ammonia to nitrate. A significant and for pH 6.5 took 20 (Exp. 1) and 24 (Exp. 2) d. TAN did
experiment x pH interaction was present in enough data sets decline at pH 5.5 but since no subsequent nitrite buildup oc-
to warrant discussion by experiment. curred, it is assumed that this loss was due to ammonia and ni-
Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) decreased from 5 mg L-1 trogen gas volatilization and not nitrification. Nitrite began to
to zero, 12 d after the introduction of nitrifying bacteria to be measured in the biofilter water 8 (pH 8.5), 16 (pH 7.5),
the biofilters maintained at a target pH of 8.5 (Table 1). A and 16-24 (pH 6.5) d after introduction of nitrifying bacteria.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 117: 2004. 81

No nitrite was measured in the biofilters maintained at a pH present in aquaponic systems. However, since the optimum
of 5.5. Nitrate readings were inconsistent but did indicate a ratio of nitrate to ammonium nitrogen in hydroponic nutri-
trend towards increased nitrate buildup over time which ent solutions is 75:25 (Cockx and Simonne, 2003), a source of
would be consistent with the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate. nitrate-nitrogen would be needed for plant uptake either
The inconsistency may be due to the wide range of the Cardy through nitrification or supplemental fertilization for opti-
Ion Specific Meter (0 to 9,900 ppm) and the low range of the mum plant growth. Since certain plant nutrients can fall be-
nitrate measured. The conservation of nitrogen through the low sufficiency standards in aquaponics (McMurtry et al.,
nitrification process from ammonia to nitrate was good. Over- 1990) without supplemental fertilization, methods to make
all, results indicate nitrifying bacteria activity in perlite medi- up this deficit without adversely impacting fish and nitrifying
um trickling biofilters increased as pH increased and was bacteria need further investigation.
greatest at pH 8.5.
Average water quality parameters during experiments 1 Conclusions
and 2 respectively were 7.4 and 7.0 mg L-1 dissolved oxygen,
521 and 493 uS/cm specific conductivity, 0.25 and 0.24 ppt Nitrification as measured by ammonia conversion to ni-
(parts per thousand) salinity, and 28.1 and 29.8 °C tempera- trate was significantly faster at pH 8.5 than at pH 7.5 or 6.5 in
ture. The use of sodium bicarbonate to raise pH in experi- a perlite medium trickling biofilter startup cycle. The recom-
ment 1 resulted in higher specific conductivity compared with mended pH for aquaculture systems is from 6.5 to 8.5 and for
experiment 2 where potassium hydroxide was used. Seasonally hydroponic systems is between 5.5 and 6.5. However, pH ex-
average greenhouse temperatures were higher during experi- tremes should be avoided when reconciling pH between fish,
ment 2 compared to experiment 1. Actual average (and stan- plants, and bacteria since high alkaline conditions reduce the
dard deviation) pH values during experiment 1 were 8.6 (0.1), solubility of certain plant nutrients and increase the presence
7.3 (0.3), 6.4 (0.2), and 5.5 (0.2), and during experiment 2 of the un-ionized (more toxic to fish) form of ammonia. It
were 8.4 (0.1), 7.4 (0.2), 6.4 (0.1), and 5.6 (0.1). Nitrification should be possible to maintain aquaponic water at a pH of 6.5-
is an acid producing process requiring adjustment of recircu- 7.0, levels more conducive to hydroponic plant nutrient up-
lating water to maintain target pH levels. The measured pH take and reduced un-ionized ammonia levels, without a signif-
was well within the target pH range of the treatments. icant buildup of ammonia in the recirculating water provided
Reconciling water quality parameters: The pH recommenda- there are a sufficient number of plants present for uptake and
tions for aquaculture systems range between 6.5 and 8.5 reduction of nutrient loads in the system water and water flow
(Timmons et al., 2002). For a pH range between 2.0 and 7.0, rate through the root zone is adequate. Even though nitrifica-
ammonia in solution is completely present as NH4+ (De Rijck tion is slower at pH 6.5 than at pH 8.5, the increased uptake
and Schrevens, 1999). However, as pH increases above 7.0, and utilization of ammonia by plants should make up for the
there is an increase in the un-ionized NH3 form of ammonia reduced nitrifying activity. Plant nutrient availability could be
and a decrease in the ionic NH4+ form. Un-ionized ammonia enhanced by supplemental fertilization of the plant growing
is the most toxic form for fish with 96-h LC50 varying by spe- medium or by foliar application of specific elements.
cies from 0.08 mg/L NH3-N for pink salmon (Oncorhynchus Reconciling differences in optimum water quality for
gorbuscha) to 2.2 mg/L for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) plants, fish, and nitrifying bacteria will be necessary to suc-
(Timmons et al., 2002). The pH tolerances of plants can cessfully integrate hydroponic and aquaculture systems. More
range from 5.0 to 7.6 depending on the species (Lorenz and information is needed on aquaponic systems containing soil-
Maynard, 1988). However, recommended pH ranges for hy- less media such as perlite and vermiculite. Also, the affects of
droponic nutrient solutions tend to be slightly acidic (5.5 to pH and hydroponic nutrient concentration of the system wa-
6.5 - Hochmuth, 1991; 5.8 to 6.4 -Resh, 1998) due to problems ter, as well as methods of plant nutrient application on nitri-
with plant nutrient solubility. At pH levels above 7.0 there can fying bacteria activity and growth and yield of plants and
be reduced micronutrient and phosphorus solubility. If aqua- aquatic organisms need to be investigated more fully.
ponic recirculating water pH is maintained at levels optimum
for nitrifying bacteria (8.5), plant uptake of certain nutrients Literature Cited
may become restricted and un-ionized ammonia levels may
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REFEREED PAPER

FRUIT DEVELOPMENT PERIOD IN STRAWBERRY DIFFERS AMONG CULTIVARS, AND

IS NEGATIVELY CORRELATED WITH AVERAGE POST BLOOM AIR TEMPERATURE

CRAIG K. CHANDLER1 AND STEVEN J. MACKENZIE Abstract. A study was conducted in Queensland, Australia dur-
University of Florida, IFAS ing the winter of 2000 to determine the length of time from an-
Gulf Coast Research and Education Center thesis to mature fruit [i.e., the fruit development period (FDP)]
13138 Lewis Gallagher Road for strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) grown in an open
field, plasticulture system, identical to the system used for
Dover, FL 33527
strawberry production in Florida. This information could be
useful for developing a model that growers could use to pre-
MARK HERRINGTON dict their peak harvest periods. From 15 June to 17 Aug., open
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland flowers of several cultivars were tagged. Then the dates on
Maroochy Research Station which these tagged flowers became mature fruit were record-
Nambour, QLD 4560 Australia ed. These data were used to calculate the FDP for each fruit.
FDP ranged from 24 to 44 days, was dependent on cultivar,
Additional index words. Fragaria × ananassa, fruit harvest, and negatively correlated with the 4-week post bloom mean air
temperature.
flower position
The winter strawberry industries in Florida and Queens-
land, Australia produce fruit on over 7,000 and 1,000 acres,
This research was supported by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion and the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland,
respectively. Fruit are produced from late fall to early spring,
and approved for publication as Journal Series No. R-10334. but the highest yields occur during a 3- to 4-week period in
1Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]. late winter. In 2004, the Florida industry harvested 3.5 million

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 117: 2004. 83