Manual

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
MINISTRY OF WORKS
Pavement and Materials

Design Manual - 1999
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 – 8891 – 1 – 5
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Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway

Layout: Jan Edvardsen, ICG Oslo Norway
2 Ministry of Works
Preface
The Ministry of Works has prepared this Pavement and Materials Design Manual − 1999 for design of new roads
and rehabilitation of existing roads in order to standardise design PRAGTISES in the GOUNTRY. The road network
GOMPRISES a huge national asset that requires ADHERENGE to appropriate standards for design, GONSTRUGTION and
MAINTENANGE in order to give a high level SERVIGE. As the length of the engineered road network is steadily
growing, appropriate GHOIGE of methods to preserve this investment BEGOMES INGREASINGLY important for
optimal use of available RESOURGES.
This Manual has PARTIGULAR REFERENGE to the prevailing GONDITIONS in Tanzania and REFLEGTS the Ministry of
Works’ EXPERIENGE gained through AGTIVITIES within the road SEGTOR during the last 20 to 30 years. The Manual
supersedes the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft Road Manual of 1989 and the intention is to
update the Manual when new TEGHNIGAL information and PERFORMANGE data BEGOME available.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise DIREGTED by the Ministry of
Works. However, it is emphasised that GAREFUL GONSIDERATION to sound engineering PRAGTIGE shall be observed
in the use of the Manual, and under no GIRGUMSTANGES shall the Manual waive professional judgement in
applied engineering.
It is my SINGERE hope that this Manual will provide all involved parties with a ready REFERENGE standard and
assist in a GOST-EFFEGTIVE operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. I look
forward to iNGORPORATING the PRAGTIGES GONTAINED in this Manual into our operations, thereby making a
substantial GONTRIBUTION to the improved INFRASTRUGTURE of our GOUNTRY.
Dar es Salaam
May, 1999
Acknowledgements
This Pavement and Materials Design Manual − 1999 has been prepared as a GOMPONENT under the Institutional
Cooperation between the Ministry of Works (MoW), Central Materials Laboratory (CML) and the Norwegian PUBLIG
Roads Administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian AGENGY for International
Development (NORAD) have jointly fINANGED the PROJEGT, WHIGH forms part of a programme to establish TEGHNIGAL
standards and guidelines for highway engineering.
This Manual has been prepared by a Working Group under the supervision of a Steering Committee GOMPRISING the
following members from the Ministry of Works:
Mr. JL Ngumbulu DireGTor of Trunk Roads (Chairman)
Mr. J W Kijazi Ag. DIREGTOR of Rural Roads
Mr. DJ Mariki Ag. Chief Engineer, CML
Mr. LJ Mujjungi Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and CONSTRUGTION, Trunk Roads
Mr. GJ Kinyero Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and CONSTRUGTION, Rural Roads
The Working Group GONSISTED of the following members:

Mr. A S Idabaga MoW
Mr. ST Rwegumisa MoW
Mr. C Overby NPRA
Mr. G Refsdal NPRA
Mr. R Johansen NORGONSULT (Fecretary)
The Steering Committee and the Working Group wish to AGKNOWLEDGE the SIGNIFIGANT GONTRIBUTION from all people
giving GRITIGAL GOMMENTS and ADVIGE during the preparation of this Manual. In PARTIGULAR, the GOMPREHENSIVE input
from GONTRIBUTORS within the Ministry of Works, professional bodies, the private SEGTOR, EDUGATIONAL institutions
and other stakeholders who GOMMENTED on the draft, is gratefully AGKNOWLEDGED.
Summary of Terminology
Definitions of terms and abbreviations are presented in full in /Appendis Al/ and /Appendis A3/. SELEGTED terms,
definitions and abbreviations are tabulated below for ease of REFERENGE in the use of this manual.
Base course
Materials testing methods
Bituminous binders CBR - California bearing ratio
- Bitumen emulsion (ANIONIG, GATIONIG, inverted) GM - Grading modulus
- CUTBAGK bitumen (e.g. MC3000, MC800, MC30) ICL - Initial GONSUMPTION of
- Penetration grade bitumen (e.g. 60/70, 80/100) lime LL - Liquid limit
LS - Linear shrinkage
Bituminous layers MDD - Maximum dry
- Asphalt GONGRETE SURFAGING AC density
- Bitumen emulsion mix BEMIX (GOLD) OMC - Optimum moisture
- Dense bitumen MAGADAM DBM (hot) GONTENT PI - PLASTIGITY index
PL - PLASTIG limit
- Foamed bitumen mix FBMIX (GOLD)
TFV - Aggregate strength (10% fines
- Large aggregate mix for bases LAMBS (hot)
value) UCS - UNGONFINED GOMPRESSION strength
- Penetration MAGADAM PM (GOLD)
Bituminous seals Materials testing standards
- Emulsion fogspray AASHTO - Issued by the AMERIGAN ASSOGIATION for
- Slurry seal State Highway OfFIGIALS
ASTM - Issued by the AMERIGAN SOGIETY for Testing and
- SURFAGE treatments:
Materials
SURFAGE BS - British Standard
dressing Cape CML - Central Materials Laboratory (Ministry of
seal Works), NPRA - Norwegian PUBLIG Roads Administration
Otta seal TMH - TEGHNIGAL Methods for Highways (South AFRIGAN
Sand seal series of standards)
Cemented materials (lime or cement) Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)
- C4 Stabilised, UCS >4 MPa Problem soils
- C2 Stabilised, UCS >2 MPa - Expansive soils
- C1 Stabilised, UCS >1 MPa - Dispersive soils
- CM Modified, UCS >0.5 MPa - Saline soils/water
Climatic zones
Subbase
- Dry
Subgrade
- Moderate - Improved subgrade layers
- Wet - In-situ subgrade and fill
Design depth S15 CBR > 15%
Earthworks S7 CBR > 7%
- Fill S3 CBR > 3%
- Improved subgrade layers Surfacing
- Roadbed - Binder GOURSE, bituminous hot mix
Environmental Impact Assessment - Gravel wearing GOURSE
Fogspray (Sprayed on a SURFAGE dressing) - SURFAGE treatments
Granular materials - Wearing GOURSE, bituminous hot mix
- CRR Crushed fresh ROGK Tack coat (Sprayed on bituminous layers)
- CRS Crushed stones and oversize Traffic
- G80 Natural gravel CBR >80% - Design period
- G60 Natural gravel CBR >60% - E80 - Equivalent standard axle (8160 kg)
- G45 Natural gravel CBR >45% - Heavy VEHIGLES: > 3t un-laden weight
- G25 Natural gravel CBR >25% Very heavy goods VEHIGLES: 4 or more axles
Gravel roads Heavy goods VEHIGLES: 3 axles
- GC Grading GOEFFIGIENT Medium goods VEHIGLES: 2 axles
- GW Gravel wearing GOURSE Buses: > 40 seats
- SP Shrinkage PRODUGT (LSx%pass.75mm) - Light VEHIGLES: < 3t un-laden weight
- VEF VEHIGLE EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR (the number of E80
Materials for earthworks per heavy VEHIGLE)
- DR Dump ROGK: un-sorted ROGK
- G15 Natural gravel/soil CBR >15% Unfavourable subgrade conditions
- G7 Natural gravel/soil CBR >7% - Cavities, termites, rodents
- High water table and swamps
- G3 Natural gravel/soil CBR >3%
- Wells
- Wet spots
Centre
line
Cut back slope Roadway

Shoulder breakpoint
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
Open side drain Lane Lane Embankment side slope
7igure 1 Cross section terms
Original ground
level
Finished road level
Cutting Pavement layers Formation level

Improved
subgrade layers
Fill
In-situ subgrade
Roadbed
Subgrade
7igure 2 Cross section elements
Asphalt concrete surfacing Surface treated pavements

Wearing course
Binder course (if required)
Surfacing
Surfacing
Subgrade Subgrade
Gravel roads
Gravel wearing course

Surfacing
Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)
Subgrade
7igure 3 Pavement details

Table of Contents
PREFAGE ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
AGKNOWLEDGEMENT .....................................................................................................................................................5
Summary of Terminology........................................................................................................................... 6
List of Tables and Figures........................................................................................................................ 13
1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1.1
1.1 The Manual - BAGKGROUND.....................................................................................1.2
1.2 Purpose of the Manual............................................................................................1.2
1.3 STRUGTURE of the Manual........................................................................................1.2
1.3.1 Comment text.............................................................................................1.2
1.3.2 Ftructure of the contents......................................................................................................... 1.2
1.4 Design ASPEGTS and POLIGY............................................................................................1.4
1.4.1 Pavement design analysis..........................................................................1.4
1.4.2 Material testing methods.............................................................................1.4
1.4.3 New roads.............................................................................................................................. 1.4
1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)........................................................1.5
1.4.5 Gravel roads........................................................................................................................... 1.5
1.5 CONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE Considerations AfFEGTING Pavement Design.....1.6
1.5.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.1 Kxtent and type of drainage................................................................................................... 1.6
1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement.....................................................1.6
1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials.......................................................1.6
1.5.4 Construction under traffic............................................................................1.7
1.5.5 Maintenance strategy.................................................................................1.7
1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulder............................................................................................. 1.7
1.5.7 Use of stage construction...........................................................................1.7
REFERENGES ........................................................................................................................................1.9
2 Environment................................................................................................................................ 2.1
2.0 General.................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1 CLIMATIG Xones.......................................................................................................2.2
2.2 Moisture Regime.....................................................................................................2.3
2.2.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 2.3
2.2.1 Design moisture..........................................................................................2.4
2.3 Pavement Temperature...........................................................................................2.5
2.3.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.3.1 Bituminous materials..................................................................................2.5
2.3.2 Non-bituminous materials...........................................................................2.5
2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade Conditions.........................................................................2.5
2.4.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.4.1 Identification...............................................................................................2.6
2.4.2 Treatment............................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.5 Other PHYSIGAL Features.................................................................................................2.7
2.5.1 Topography............................................................................................................................ 2.7
2.5.2 Geology.................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.5.3 Vegetation............................................................................................................................... 2.7
2.6 Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA)................................................................2.8
2.6.1 Purpose of KIA....................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.2 Commissioning of KIA............................................................................................................ 2.8
2.6.3 Implementing KIA................................................................................................................... 2.8
REFERENGES ........................................................................................................................................2.9
3 Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage...................................................................................3.1
3.1 Standard Cross SEGTION.................................................................................................3.2
3.2 Shoulders............................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1 Bearing capacity of the shoulders................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.2 Furface treatments for shoulders........................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders............................................................. 3.3
3.2.4 Unpaved shoulders........................................................................................................... 3.3
3.3 Drainage................................................................................................................. 3.4
3.3.1 Drainage of the road surface............................................................................................. 3.4
3.3.2 Drainage of the pavement layers..................................................................................... 3.4
3.3.3 Drainage of the subgrade................................................................................................. 3.4
REFERENGES .......................................................................................................................................3.6
4 Traffic........................................................................................................................................... 4.1
4.0 General...................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.1 Magnitude of the loads...................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.2 Contact pressure................................................................................................................ 4.2
4.0.3 Load repetitions.................................................................................................................. 4.2
4.1 Design Period............................................................................................................ 4.2
4.2 Design TrafFIG Loading...............................................................................................4.3
4.2.1 Traffic counts........................................................................................................................ 4.4
4.2.2 Axle load surveys............................................................................................................... 4.4
4.2.3 Kquivalency factors............................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.4 Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes..................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.5 Traffic growth.......................................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.6 Lane distribution................................................................................................................. 4.6
4.2.7 Construction traffic............................................................................................................ 4.6
4.3 TrafFIG Load Classes (TLC)...................................................................................4.6
4.4 Presentation of Data.............................................................................................4.7
REFERENGES .......................................................................................................................................4.8
7 Subgrade..................................................................................................................................... 5.1
5.0 General...................................................................................................................5.2
5.1 Design Depth......................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys.......................................................................................5.2
5.2.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.2.1 Depth of investigations...................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.2 Materials testing frequency.............................................................................................. 5.3
5.2.3 Determination of CBRdes¿gn.............................................................................................................................................5.4
5.3 Laboratory Testing................................................................................................5.5
5.4 Subgrade Classes..................................................................................................5.5
5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers...................................................................................5.6
5.5.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.1 Design of improved subgrade.......................................................................................... 5.6
5.5.2 Material characteristics..................................................................................................... 5.6
5.6 Fill........................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7 Roadbed Preparation.............................................................................................5.8
5.8 Filter Layers...........................................................................................................5.8
5.8.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 5.8
5.8.1 Filter criteria for soils/gravel................................................................................................... 5.9
5.8.2 Draining properties of filter layers................................................................................... 5.9
5.8.3 Geo-textiles as filter............................................................................................................... 5.9

5.8.4 Cost...................................................................................................................................... 5.9
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................5.10
a Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. a.1
6.0 General................................................................................................................... 6.2
6.1 Low-Strength Soils (CBR < 3%)..........................................................................6.2
6.2 Expansive Soils.....................................................................................................6.2
6.2.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.2.1 Type of distress........................................................................................6.3
6.2.2 Identification of expansive soils.............................................................6.3
6.2.3 Classification of expansive soils............................................................6.4
6.2.4 Design on expansive soils......................................................................6.5
6.2.5 Construction on expansive soils............................................................6.6
6.3 Other Problem Soils..............................................................................................6.7
6.3.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.1 Dispersive soils........................................................................................6.7
6.3.2 Faline soils or presence of saline water................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.3 Other deleterious matter.........................................................................6.9
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................6.10
7 Pavement Materials.................................................................................................................... 7.1
7.0 General................................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1 Material Types........................................................................................................7.2
7.1.1 Crushed, fresh rock or boulders..............................................................7.2
7.1.2 Weathered rocks and laterites..................................................................7.2
7.1.3 Coral rock and calcrete............................................................................7.3
7.1.4 Volcanic tuff (scoria).................................................................................7.3
7.1.5 Felf-cementing materials....................................................................................................... 7.3
7.2 Unbound Materials.................................................................................................7.4
7.2.1 Natural gravel..............................................................................................7.4
7.2.2 Crushed materials...................................................................................7.5
7.3 Cemented Materials..............................................................................................7.6
7.3.1 Classification...............................................................................................7.6
7.3.2 Material requirements.............................................................................7.6
7.3.3 Type of stabiliser......................................................................................7.7
7.3.4 Content of stabiliser................................................................................7.7
7.3.5 Construction.............................................................................................7.8
7.3.6 Other chemical stabilisers......................................................................7.9
7.4 Bituminous Base Course Materials.....................................................................7.9
7.4.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.4.1 Classification.................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.2 Hot bituminous mixes............................................................................7.10
7.4.3 Penetration macadam...............................................................................7.12
7.4.4 Cold bituminous mixes..........................................................................7.12
7.4.5 Construction..................................................................................................................... 7.14
7.5 Deleterious Minerals...........................................................................................7.16
7.6 Surveys for CONSTRUGTION Materials...................................................................7.16
7.6.1 Borrow pits........................................................................................................................ 7.16
7.6.2 Quarries............................................................................................................................ 7.17
7.7 MANUFAGTURED Materials.....................................................................................7.17
7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers............................................................................... 7.17

7.7.2 Geo-grids for reinforcement................................................................................................ 7.18
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................7.18
8 Pavement Design – New Roads................................................................................................8.1
8.1 ObjeGTives ............................................................................................................................8.2
8.2 Pavement Types....................................................................................................8.2
8.2.1 Flexible pavements............................................................................................................ 8.2
8.2.2 Femi-rigid pavements............................................................................................................ 8.3
8.2.3 Rigid pavements................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3 STRUGTURAL Design.............................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.1 Input data............................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.2 Pavement design catalogues........................................................................................... 8.6
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................8.12
9 Pavement Rehabilitation............................................................................................................ 9.1
9.0 General...................................................................................................................9.2
9.0.1 Rehabilitation needs.............................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.2 Pavement evaluation.............................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.3 Rehabilitation design............................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.4 Rehabilitation options............................................................................................................ 9.2
9.1 Pavement Evaluation.............................................................................................9.2
9.1.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.1.1 Confidence level..................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.2 Design traffic loading............................................................................................................. 9.3
9.1.3 Pavement investigation procedure......................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.4 Kxtent of investigations.......................................................................................................... 9.6
9.1.5 Distress criteria...................................................................................................................... 9.7
9.1.6 Data interpretation................................................................................................................. 9.8
9.2 Rehabilitation Design Methods............................................................................9.8
9.2.0 General.................................................................................................................................. 9.8
9.2.1 Maximum deflection method.................................................................................................. 9.9
9.2.2 Ftructural number method.................................................................................................. 9.13
9.2.3 Mechanistic method............................................................................................................ 9.15
9.3 Rehabilitation Options.......................................................................................9.16
9.3.0 General................................................................................................................................ 9.16
9.3.1 Overlays.............................................................................................................................. 9.16
9.3.2 Partial reconstruction.......................................................................................................... 9.19
9.3.3 Full reconstruction.............................................................................................................. 9.19
9.4 Methods to Prevent REFLEGTIVE CRAGKING..........................................................9.19
9.4.0 General................................................................................................................................ 9.19
9.4.1 Conventional methods for overlays.................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.2 Fpecial methods and materials for overlays....................................................................... 9.20
9.4.3 Furface treatments.............................................................................................................. 9.20
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................9.21
10 0..................................................................................................................... Bituminous Surfacings
10.1
10.0 General................................................................................................................10.2
10.1 Priming.................................................................................................................10.2
10.1.0 General................................................................................................................................ 10.2
10.1.1 Materials and construction...................................................................10.2
10.2 SURFAGE Dressing........................................................................................................10.3
10.2.0 General................................................................................................................................ 10.3
10.2.1 Application rates for planning purposes.............................................................................. 10.3
10.2.2 Aggregate requirements.......................................................................10.3
10.2.3 Binder................................................................................................................................ 10.4
10.2.4 Traffic................................................................................................................................... 10.5
10.2.5 Fingle surface dressing - reseals........................................................................................ 10.5
10.2.6 Double surface dressing.......................................................................10.6
10.2.7 Aggregate spread rates.........................................................................10.8
10.2.8 Pre-coating of aggregate......................................................................10.8
10.2.9 Kmulsion fogspray.............................................................................................................. 10.9
10.2.10...........................................................................................Adhesion agents
10.9
10.3 Otta Seal...............................................................................................................10.9
10.3.0 General................................................................................................................................ 10.9
10.3.1 Aggregate and binder..........................................................................10.10
10.3.2 Types of Otta Feals.......................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.3 Material requirements and design of Otta Feals.............................................................. 10.10
10.3.4 Construction................................................................................................................... 10.11
10.4 Other SURFAGE Treatments.................................................................................10.12
10.4.1 Fand seals........................................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.2 Combined seals using a sand cover-seal.........................................10.13
10.5 Slurry Seals......................................................................................................10.13
10.5.0 General............................................................................................................................. 10.13
10.5.1 Materials, design and construction....................................................10.13
10.6 SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT................................................................................................10.14
10.6.0 General............................................................................................................................. 10.14
10.6.1 Materials and construction.................................................................10.14
10.7 SURFAGING for Shoulders....................................................................................10.15
10.7.0 General............................................................................................................................. 10.15
10.7.1 Felection and design of shoulder seals............................................................................ 10.15
10.8 Asphalt CONGRETE......................................................................................................10.16
10.8.0 General............................................................................................................................. 10.16
10.8.1 Required properties.............................................................................10.17
10.8.2 Feverely loaded areas...................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.3 Mix requirements........................................................................................................... 10.18
10.8.4 Construction................................................................................................................... 10.19
REFERENGES ...................................................................................................................................10.20
11 Gravel Roads............................................................................................................................ 11.1
11.0 General................................................................................................................ 11.2
11.1 Design PrinGIples.................................................................................................11.2
11.1.0 General................................................................................................................................ 11.2
11.1.1 Pavement and materials.......................................................................11.2
11.1.2 Crossfall and drainage..........................................................................11.2
11.2 Material Requirements........................................................................................11.3
11.2.0 General................................................................................................................................ 11.3
11.2.1 Karthworks.......................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.2 Gravel wearing course (GW).............................................................................................. 11.3
11.3 Improved Subgrade and Pavement Design.......................................................11.4
11.3.1 Fubgrade CBR.................................................................................................................... 11.4
11.3.2 Major gravel roads........................................................................................................... 11.4
11.3.3 Minor gravel roads........................................................................................................... 11.5
REFERENGES .....................................................................................................................................11.6
Appendices
A1 Definitions of Terms............................................................................................................ A2
A2 Units of Measurements.......................................................................................................A8
A3 Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... A9
A4 Cross SEGTION and Pavement PERFORMANGE ....................................................................................A12
A5 Handling of Bitumen PRODUGTS .....................................................................................................A13
A5.l Fafety - Generat.....................................................................................................A13
A5.2 Heating Procedures...............................................................................................A13
A5.3 Temperature for Ftorage........................................................................................A14
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations...............................................................................................A14
A5.5 Anti-Ftripping Additives..........................................................................................A15
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors................................................................................A16
A5.7 Waste Disposat and Fpittage.................................................................................A16
A6 Problem Soils − Investigation PROGEDURES ....................................................................................A17
A6.l Xspansive Foits.............................................................................................................A17
A6.2 Dispersive Foits.....................................................................................................A18
A7 Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA) ....................................................................................A21
A8 Worked Examples............................................................................................................A23
A8.l Design Traffic Loading...........................................................................................A23
A8.2 Fubgrade CBRdesign..................................................................................................................................................................................A25
A8.3 The CUFUM Method to Xstabtish Homogenous Fets of Data................................A27
A8.4 Pavement Rehabititation Design − Masimum Deftection Method..................................A28
A8.5 Pavement Rehabititation Design − Ftructurat Number Method.....................................A29
A8.6 Furface Dressing Design Inctuding Determination of ALD.....................................A31
A9 Maps
A9.l Physicat (topography)
A9.2 Geotogy
A9.3 Foits
A9.4 Vegetation
A9.5 Rainfatt
List of Tables and Figures

Summary of Terminology
Figures
l Cross section terms...................................................................................................7
2 Cross section etements.............................................................................................7
3 Pavement detaits.......................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 -
Environment
Tables
2.l Ctimatic zones .....................................................................................................................2.2
2.2 Design moisture.......................................................................................................2.4
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Figures
2.l Map showing ctimatic zones ...............................................................................................2.3
Chapter 4 − TraffiG
Tables
4.l Heavy vehicte categories ...................................................................................................4.4
4.2 Traffic toad distribution between tanes...................................................................4.6
4.3 Traffic Load Ctasses - TLC.....................................................................................4.7
Figures
4.l Design period ......................................................................................................................4.3
4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic toading..................................................4.3
Chapter 5 - Subgrade
Tables
5.l Design depth .......................................................................................................................5.2
5.2 Minimum materiats testing frequency.....................................................................5.3
5.3 Density for determination of CBR...........................................................................5.5
5.4 Fubgrade strength ctasses.....................................................................................5.6
5.5 Materiat requirements for improved subgrade tayers.............................................5.7
5.6 Required standards for fitt......................................................................................5.8
5.7 Required roadbed compaction...............................................................................5.8
Figures
5.l Design depth .......................................................................................................................5.2
5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign.................................................................................................................................5.4
5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ite vatue...............................................................................5.5
5.4 Design of improved subgrade tayers.....................................................................5.7
Chapter 6 - Problem
Soils Tables
6.l Features of espansive soits − soit descriptions ..................................................................6.4
6.2 Xspansive soits - ctassification...............................................................................6.5
6.3 Xspansive soits − methods for treatment...............................................................6.6
Figures
6.l Procedure to ctassify espansive soits .................................................................................6.3
6.2 Cross section and construction on espansive soits................................................6.7
6.3 Cross section and construction on espansive soits with soit reptacement...............6.7
Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials
Tables
7.l Naturat gravet, materiat ctasses .........................................................................................7.4
7.2 Materiat requirements − G80 and G60...................................................................7.4
7.3 Materiat requirements − G60 and G25...................................................................7.5
7.4 Crushed materiats, materiat ctasses......................................................................7.5
7.5 Materiat requirements − CRR and CRF..................................................................7.6
7.6 Cemented materiats, materiat ctasses...................................................................7.6
7.7 Materiat requirements − C2, Cl and CM................................................................7.7
7.8 Fetection of stabitiser for cemented materiats........................................................7.7
7.9 Cemented materiats, time for comptetion of the tayer............................................7.8
7.l0 Bituminous base course − materiat ctasses.........................................................7.10
7.ll Materiat requirements − DBM ..........................................................................................7.10
7.l2 Materiat requirements − LAMBF...........................................................................7.11
7.l3 Materiat requirements − penetration macadam....................................................7.12
7.l4 Requirements for foamed bitumen.......................................................................7.13
Ministry of Works 14
7.l5 Materiat requirements − FBMIX............................................................................7.14
7.l6 Materiat requirements − BXMIX............................................................................7.15
7.l7 Futphide minerats in aggregates..........................................................................7.16
7.l8 Borrow pits − minimum test pit frequency prior to opening...................................7.17
7.l9 Geo-testite separating tayers - required weight per m2..................................................... 7.18
Chapter 8 − Pavement Design − New
Roads Tables
8.l Traffic Load Ctasses - TLC .................................................................................................8.4
8.2 Pavement materiats................................................................................................8.5
8.3 List of pavement design catatogues.......................................................................8.6
8.4 Pavements with granutar base course - dry or moderate ctimatic zones.................8.7
8.5 Pavements with granutar base course - wet ctimatic zones....................................8.8
8.6 Pavements with cemented base course.................................................................8.9
8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mis in the base course..........................................8.10
8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course.............................................8.11
Chapter 9 − Pavement Rehabilitation
Tables
9.l Conditions that require scheme A or B respectivety for frequency of investigations ......9.6
9.2 Required estent of pavement investigations...........................................................9.6
9.3 Pavement distress criteria.......................................................................................9.7
9.4 Fetection of appropriate design method.................................................................9.9
9.5 Design parameters used in the deftection design charts......................................9.12
9.6 Materiat coefficients (a) for esisting pavement tayers...........................................9.14
9.7 Determination of required structurat number, FNveguived.......................................................................9.15
9.8 Materiat coefficients (a) for new pavement tayers................................................9.17
9.9 Overtay design......................................................................................................9.18
Figures
9.l Pavement evatuation and rehabititation procedure ..........................................................9.3
9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section.........................................................................9.4
9.3 Interpretation of pavement data...............................................................................9.8
9.4 Design procedure, masimum deftection method............................................................9.10
9.5 Deftection design chart, grautar base course.........................................................9.12
9.6 Deftection design chart, tightty cemented base course..................................................9.13
9.7 Determination of required strengthening FNdiff.................................................................................................9.13
Chapter 10 − Bituminous SURFAGINGS
Tables
l0.l Furface dressing − apptication rates for ptanning purposes...................................10.3
l0.2 Aggregate requirements for surface dressing...............................................................10.4
l0.3 Bitumen spray rates, singte surface dressing and reseats.............................................10.6
l0.4 Aggregate sizes for doubte surface dressing..........................................................10.7
l0.5 Bitumen spray rates - lst tayer ..........................................................................................10.7
l0.6 Bitumen spray rates - 2nd tayer...............................................................................10.8
l0.7 Recommended Otta Feat concept................................................................................10.10
l0.8 Materiat requirements for Otta Feats....................................................................10.10
l0.9 Design of Otta Feats.............................................................................................10.11
l0.l0 Aggregate requirements for sand seats...................................................................10.12
l0.ll Bitumen and aggregate apptication rates for sand seats........................................10.12
l0.l2 Aggregate requirements for sturry seats.................................................................10.14
l0.l3 Mis requirements for asphatt concrete....................................................................10.18
l0.l4 Mis proportions for asphatt concrete....................................................................10.19
l0.l5 Temperature for fietd compaction of AC tayers....................................................10.19
Figures
l0.l Xspected resurfacing frequency..........................................................................10.2
Chapter 11 – Gravel Roads
Tables
ll.l Materiat requirements - gravet wearing course (GW) .....................................................11.3
Figures
ll.l Xspected performance of gravet wearing course materiats ...........................................11.4
ll.2 Pavement and improved subgrade − major gravet roads ................................................11.5
ll.3 Pavement and improved subgrade − minor gravet roads ................................................11.5
Appendices
Tables
Al.l Definitions of Terms, CML Test Methods − with References....................................A7
A2.l Definition of prefises................................................................................................A8
A2.2 Basic units, muttiptes and sub-muttiptes..........................................................................A8
A4.l Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance..........................................A12
A5.l Masimum temperature for storage..........................................................................A14
A5.2 Cutters................................................................................................................... A14
A6.l Features of espansive soits - soit descriptions.......................................................A17
Figures
A6.l Crumb test − bottom of the gtass...........................................................................A19
A8.l CBRdesign as the 90%-ite vatue for section l...............................A26
A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ite vatue for section 3............................................................A26
A8.3 Determination of median size.................................................................................A31
A8.4 Determination of average teast dimension.....................................................................A32
Introduction
C
h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
te
Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils Pavement Design-
New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Pavement Materials Pavement

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads
Comparison of alternatives and

selection of design
Refinement of design, if
required
Ministry of Works
Chapter
1 Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments: 1.1 The Manual – Background

The need to update the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft
Road Manual of 1989 has been realised for some time. Preparation of the
new Pavement and Materials Design Manual − 1999 was GOMMISSIONED
following an extensive desk study of relevant road design manuals from
the region and other relevant guidelines with validity for GOUNTRIES with
similar environment. /1-17/. The Manual is a REFLEGTION of the Ministry of
Works’ eXPERIENGE gained in the road SEGTOR through the last 20 − 30
years.
1.2 Purpose of the Manual

The main purpose of this Manual is to ensure a standardised POLIGY in
the PROGEDURES for STRUGTURAL pavement design of new roads and
rehabilitation of old pavements.
Although the Manual is primarily a standard for the design POLIGY of the
Ministry of Works, the Manual may serve as a rEFERENGE for other
authorities that design and GONSTRUGT roads and assist in training GARRIED
out by EDUGATIONAL institutions. The Ministry of Works has aimed to
present a user-friendly format of the Manual and worked examples are
provided as deemed NEGESSARY to improve GLARITY.
1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.1 Comment text
Comment text is GLEARLY distinguished from the formal main text of this
Manual by separate GOLUMNS. The purpose of the GOMMENT text is to
provide BAGKGROUND and additional information to explain the main text
and to improve GLARITY.
1.3.2 Ctructure of the contents

The Manual is divided into 11 main GHAPTERS. Following the general
INTRODUGTION given in Chapter 1 − Introduction, the environmental
FAGTORS that AFFEGT pavements design and PERFORMANGE are dealt with in
Chapter 2 − Xnvironment. In this GHAPTER 2 a GOUNTRY map defines three
GLIMATIG ZONES established for the purpose of pavement design. The
GHAPTER furthermore offers GUIDANGE to engineers on the need for
Environmental IMPAGT Assessments (EIA) and explains the use of an EIA
when available.
Chapter 3 − Cross section, Fhoutders and Drainage presents FAGTORS
AFFEGTING the FUNGTION and PERFORMANGE of paved and unpaved shoulders
and outlines elements of Gross SEGTION layout AFFEGTING STRUGTURAL pave-
ment PERFORMANGE. The bASIG requirements for drainage of the pavement
and subgrade are furthermore DISGUSSED in the GHAPTER.
The EFFEGT of TRAFFIG loading on paved roads is DESGRIBED in Chapter 4 −
Traffic. The GHAPTER sets out methods to assess design trafFIG loading,
division into TRAFFIG GLASSES for the purpose of pavement design and gives
minimum requirements for presentation of data in PROJEGT design reports.
1.2 Ministry of Works

The GHAPTER establishes PROGEDURES to assess the EFFEGT of heavily loaded Comments:
axles in EXGESS of 13 tonnes.
Chapter 5 − Fubgrade defines design depth, DESGRIBES GENTRELINE soil
surveys, and sets out the required laboratory testing and material
requirements for earthworks. Subgrade strength GLASSES are defined in this
GHAPTER and the PROGEDURE for design of improved subgrade layers,
INGLUDING fill and roadbed preparation, is given.
OGGURRENGES of problem soils in the PROJEGT area are too often NEGLEGTED,
resulting in UNNEGESSARY high MAINTENANGE GOST and even GOSTLY
premature pavement rehabilitation. SUGH GONDITIONS are brought to the
designer’s attention in Chapter 6 − Probtem Foits, WHIGH DESGRIBES
IDENTIFIGATION, GLASSIFIGATION and GONSTRUGTION methods on low-strength
soils and expansive soils. Other problem soils SUGH as dispersive soil,
saline soils, ORGANIG matter in large quantities and deleterious minerals
are also dealt with in this GHAPTER.
The required properties of materials to use in the pavement STRUGTURE are
defined in Chapter 7 − Pavement Materiats. As far as possible all
unbound material types GOMMONLY used in the GOUNTRY are INGLUDED. The
GHAPTER DESGRIBES the use of GRUSHED materials, weathered ROGKS, laterite,
GORAL ROGK, GALGRETE and VOLGANIG tuff. The GHAPTER gives requirements for
GEMENTED layers and bituminous mixes PRODUGED in a hot or GOLD PROGESS
and gives limits to the GONTENT of deleterious minerals in pavement layers.
Minimum FREQUENGIES of material testing to GARRY out at the time of
PROSPEGTING are given and the laboratory test standards of Central
Materials Laboratory, Ministry of Works are referred to wherever
possible. Finally the GHAPTER gives requirements for geo-textile materials
and provides DIREGTIVES for use of geo-grids in REINFORGEMENT of
earthworks.
Pavement design for new roads is dealt with in Chapter 8 − Pavement
Design − New Roads. The pavement design uses a GATALOGUE format and
is based on a minimum subgrade strength of CBR 15%, that shall be
AGHIEVED by using improved subgrade layers where NEGESSARY. The design
is based on trafFIG loading, defined into seven TrafFIG Load Classes. The
GONSEQUENGES of heavy axle loads (above 13 tonnes) are shown in the
pavement design PROGEDURE, WHIGH puts RESTRIGTIONS on GERTAIN material
types in the base GOURSE under SUGH GONDITIONS. A deeper STRUGTURE is
NEGESSARY in SUGH heavily loaded pavements requiring the addition of one
additional improved subgrade layer. The GHAPTER DESGRIBES flexible
pavements and pavements GONTAINING one or more GEMENTED layers.
Literature rEFERENGES are made for design of GONGRETE pavements, but
detailed PROGEDURES for design of SUGH pavements are not given.
Chapter 9 − Pavement Rehabititation is based on measured properties
of materials and THIGKNESS of layers in the existing pavement,
alternatively GRITERIA for maximum SURFAGE DEFLEGTION. Based on either
design method a GATALOGUE design for overlays is provided, alternatively
partial or full REGONSTRUGTION is employed depending on the GONDITION of
the existing pavement. PROGEDURES for pavement evaluation and SELEGTION
of rehabilitation design methods and rehabilitation options are DESGRIBED.
Comments: Chapter 10 − Bituminous Furfacings DESGRIBES the design and material
requirements for SURFAGING layers of asphalt GONGRETE and SURFAGE
treatments SUGH as SURFAGE dressings, Otta Seals (using graded
aggregate), sand seals and slurry seals.
Material requirements and STRUGTURAL design PROGEDURES for gravel roads
are given in Chapter 11 − Gravet Roads. Fully engineered gravel roads
and minor gravel roads are DESGRIBED separately in the GHAPTER.
Nine APPENDIGES to the Manual INGLUDE worked examples and five
maps presenting features that are useful in pavements design.
1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.1 Pavement design analysis
Distress is primarily INDUGED by TRAFFIG loading while DIREGT
environmental INFLUENGE on pavement PERFORMANGE, SUGH as thermal
stress and ASSOGIA- ted damage, is not iNGLUDED. INDIREGT environmental
iNFLUENGE, SUGH as the temperature’s efFEGT on the stability of bituminous
layers and the moisture GONTENT’s efFEGT on the strength soils and granular
materials, is INGLUDED wherever NEGESSARY in the design PROGEDURE.
Normal MAINTENANGE is assumed to take PLAGE throughout the design
period of the pavement.
Expected axle loading of this magnitude
in the traffic stream is reflected in the The method to determine the TRAFFIG design load INGLUDES PROGEDURES to
design of improved subgrade layers,
and in the design catalogue by limiting
assess the EFFEGT of heavily loaded axles in EXGESS of 13 tonnes.
the type of material allowed in the
base course. This Manual assumes drained GONDITIONS for the pavement throughout its
design period, ensured through adequate MAINTENANGE of the drainage
system. Methods to ensure internal drainage of the pavement layers are
DESGRIBED in the manual while SURFAGE drainage and flow GALGULATIONS are not
INGLUDED. Varying risk of moisture ingress, and ASSOGIATED loss of strength, is
REFLEGTED by the manner in WHIGH GLIMATIG ZONE INFLUENGES the pavement
design. CLIMATIG ZONE afFEGTS the SELEGTION of pavement material types,
material requirements for pavement and earthworks, moisture for testing
of CBR and design of improved subgrade layers.
The Manual gives requirements for soils and materials, and nominal
GOMPAGTION requirements for pavement and earthworks layers. STATISTIGAL
AGGEPTANGE GRITERIA for assessment of field test data obtained during
GONSTRUGTION GONTROL are given in Standard SPEGIFIGATIONS for Highway
CONSTRUGTION.
1.4.2 Material testing methods

In order to ensure GONSISTENGY in road GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE
work, the material testing methods adopted in the Manual follows those
of the Central Materials Laboratory (CML) of Ministry of Works.
REFERENGES to the CML test methods are shown tabulated in /Appendis A1/.
1.4.3 New roads
The aim of STRUGTURAL design of pavements is to PROTEGT the subgrade by
provision of appropriate pavement layers to AGHIEVE a determined level of
SERVIGE - with MAINTENANGE - over a GHOSEN design period. A SUGGESSFUL Comments:
pavement design will meet these requirements at the lowest possible total
GOST over the design period. The design GATALOGUE for paved roads requires
that all subgrade is brought to a design strength of CBR minimum 15% by
GONSTRUGTING one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement
is PLAGED.
1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)

General
Pavement rehabilitation is defined as taking GONSTRUGTIVE measures to
restore the STRUGTURAL and FUNGTIONAL GONDITION of roads where distress has
GAUSED UNAGGEPTABLE pavement SERVIGEABILITY. It is normally understood to
mean measures whereby the STRUGTURAL strength of the existing pavement
is utilised to some extent in the design of the rehabilitated pavement.
Pavemenł EVALGAŁION
One of the most important steps in this PROGEDURE is the evaluation of the
existing pavement. This involves relating the symptoms of pavement
distress to their GAUSES, explaining how the distress MEGHANISM develops.
The OUTGOME of this EXERGISE is largely DEGISIVE in SELEGTION of the
method to rehabilitate a given SEGTION of distressed pavement.
Rekabiliłałion design
The Manual DESGRIBES pavement rehabilitation based on the maximum
DEFLEGTION method or the use of STRUGTURAL Number determined on the basis
of laboratory tests to assess the existing pavement and GALGULATE its
strength DEFIGIENGY. MEGHANISTIG design is not DESGRIBED in detail, but
REFERENGE is made to REGOMMENDED PROGEDURES if SUGH analysis is
required.
Rekabiliłałion opłions
Rehabilitation measures may INGLUDE the following options:
A) RE-PROGESSING of one or more of the pavement layers, or
b) overlays with one or more new pavement layers
G) GOMBINATIONS of the two - a) and b)
The rate of deterioration is often rapid
The time of intervention determines the extent and degree of towards the end of the service life and
successful prediction of the pavement’s
required rehabilitation measures. condition at the time when physical
construction work can start requires
Pavement overlay may be the GHOSEN option for pavement rehabilitation good knowledge about contract
or be an EXERGISE to strengthen an existing pavement although terminal procurement besides sound technical
judgement.
SERVIGEABILITY has in FAGT not been REAGHED yet. Measured to minimise
REFLEGTIVE GRAGKING through pavement overlays are SPEGIFIGALLY outlined.
1.4.5 £ravel roads

Design of gravel roads is limited to roads with a trafFIG VOLUME up to AADT
of 300 at the time of GONSTRUGTION. The manual sets out design standards
for fully engineered major gravel roads as well as minor gravel roads and
a GATALOGUE format is used in STRUGTURAL pavement design. A flexible app-
ROAGH is required in the design of gravel roads as GONSTRUGTION EGONOMY is
usually of vital IMPORTANGE for SUGGESSFUL EXEGUTION of these PROJEGTS.
Comments: Knowledge about past PERFORMANGE of LOGALLY OGGURRING materials for gravel
roads is essential. One may divert from the given material standards if
NEGESSARY to take advantage of available gravel SOURGES provided past
EXPERIENGE has proved they give SATISFAGTORY PERFORMANGE.
1.5 Construction and Maintenance

Considerations Affecting
Pavement Design
1.5.0 £eneral
The design PROGEDURES set out in the Manual assume that appropriate
standards of GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE PRAGTIGE will be adopted.
However, several GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE GONSIDERATIONS must be
taken into AGGOUNT in the pavement design BEGAUSE they GAN INFLUENGE the
type of pavement that is adopted or material standards and type of
SURFAGING to be used. The SIGNIFIGANT GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE
FAGTORS are:
■ extent and type of drainage

■ use of stabilisation
■ availability of equipment, materials and human RESOURGES
■ GONSTRUGTION under TRAFFIG
■ MAINTENANGE strategy
■ use of stage GONSTRUGTION
1.5.1 Extent and type of drainage

Underestimation of the need for SPEGIAL drainage provisions SUGH as SUBSURFAGE drains may be desirable,
drainage may cause early pavement but EGONOMIGALLY prohibitive. In SUGH GASES it may be possible to
distress and premature need for costly
rehabilitation. minimise the risks of pavement failures by deepening of sURFAGE DITGHES
and paying PARTIGULAR attention to MAINTENANGE of the drainage system.
1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement

Materials stabilised with lime or GEMENT have minimal sensitivity to
Stabilisation can give increased speed moisture. Stabilisation GAN therefore give benefits during GONSTRUGTION
of construction and reduced need for
replacement or processing of soils in and REDUGE the risks of failure in LOGATIONS where future upkeep of the
locations with high natural moisture drainage system is PARTIGULARLY DIFFIGULT, like in GUTS or near urban
content.
GENTRES.
1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials

The availability of SPEGIALISED equipment and materials in the GONSTRUGTION
industry needs to be GONSIDERED when SELEGTING material types in the pave-
ment design. This is PARTIGULARLY important when GONSIDERING admixture of
stabilisers and the GHOIGE of bituminous seals or mixes. SPEGIALISED
materials or equipment requiring SPEGIALISED skills shall as far as possible
be avoided in the design as these RESOURGES may not be readily available at
GOMPETITIVE PRIGES .
1.5.4 Construction under traffic
Some PROJEGTS may be PARTIGULARLY demanding with regards to the GONTROL
of PUBLIG TRAFFIG during GONSTRUGTION. CONSTRUGTION of the road while open
to trafFIG or with a minimum period of GLOSURE at a time may be
NEGESSARY. SUGH GONDITIONS GAN be DEGISIVE in the GHOIGE of material types
for pavement layers by provision of materials that GAN be TRAFFIGKED
soon after GONSTRUGTION.
1.5.5 Maintenance strategy

Certain GONDITIONS may justify PERIODIG MAINTENANGE to be GARRIED out at a
low FREQUENGY with extensive methods SUGH as overlay being employed,
as opposed to a GONVENTIONAL and more frequent resealing SGHEDULE using
Particular attention to maintenance strategy is required for project roads passing through urban or industrial cen
SURFAGE treatments. SUGH GONDITIONS GAN INGLUDE LOGATIONS that are
PARTIGULARLY hazardous for the TRAFFIG or where there is profound
INGONVENIENGE and GOST to the PUBLIG by disruption of TRAFFIG.
ASPEGTS GONGERNING MAINTENANGE strategy GAN AFFEGT the GHOIGE of sur-

FAGING type or pavement type and requires GAREFUL GONSIDERATION with due
regard for GURRENT POLIGIES.
1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulders

SURFAGING for shoulders shall be bituminous, or GONGRETE WHIGH is used
only under SPEGIAL site GONDITIONS ENGOUNTERED in urban areas.
Gravel SURFAGED shoulders are not part of standard GROSS SEGTIONS for
paved roads, and shall not be used for reasons that INGLUDE:
■ exessive MAINTENANGE is required in order to ensure
adequate PERFORMANGE
■ INGREASED risk of water ingress into the pavement layers
■ REDUGED TRAFFIG safety where shoulders are unpaved
■ edge drop from the SURFAGE to the gravel shoulders INGREASES
TRAFFIG hazards
Unpaveb skoulbers will rebuce łraffic safeły¸

1.5.7 Use of stage construction
Stage GONSTRUGTION GONSISTS of planned improvements to the pavement
STRUGTURE at fixed times through the design period. Stage GONSTRUGTION of
the pavement STRUGTURE in paved roads shall not be employed BEGAUSE
SUGH design systems GARRY risks that future upgrading does not take
PLAGE at the appropriate time thus resulting in lost benefits from the
PROJEGT.
Stage GONSTRUGTION shall be Gonsidered in the GONTEXT of designing

appropriate parts of the work to give GONSTRUGTION GOST benefits at the
time of future upgrading of the road. SUGH parts of the work INGLUDE:
■ earthworks and GULVERTS
■ horizontal and VERTIGAL alignment
■ bridges and other major STRUGTURES
Bridges and other major structures are normally designed with a longer time horizon for their useful life than the rest of
Comments:
References
1-1 AUSTROADS (1992). Pavement Dezign: A guide to the
structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Auztralia.
1-2 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
Materials and Pavement Design. Miniztry of Workz, Tranzport and
Communicationz, Roadz Department. Republic of Botzwana.
1-3 BS 6100: Part 0: 1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms.
Part 0. Introduction.
1-4 BS 6100: Subzection 2.4.1:1992. Glossary of Building and civil
engineering terms. Fubsection 2.4.1 Highway engineering.
1-5 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997):
Ftructural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads.
CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1-6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. SI
unitz and recommendationz for the uze of their multiplez and of
certain other unitz. International Standard − ISO 1000-1981.
1-7 JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study on
the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different
maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa
on Soil Mechanicz and Foundation Engineering, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
1-8 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
Ftandard 7lexible Pavement Design 7or Rural Roads with Light to
Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
1-9 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and
Pavement Design for New Roads. Miniztry of Tranzport and
Comm., Roadz Department. Republic of Kenya.
1 - 10 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORTAND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement
rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 11 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORTAND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide. CSIR,
Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 12 THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and
pavement rehabilitation. Azphalt Inztitute manual (MS-17),
USA.
1 - 13 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road
project appraisal. Overzeaz Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne,
for ODA, London, UK.
1 - 14 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-
tropical countries. Overzeaz Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne,
1 - 15 WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials
of Fouthern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South
Africa.
1 - 16 YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement
design. Fecond edition. A Wiley-Interzcience Publication, USA
and Canada.
1 - 17 CENTRAL MATERIALS LABORATORY (1997). Desk Ftudy of Pave-
ment/Materials Design Manuals. CML Report No. I 010. Miniztry
of Workz, Tanzania.
Environment
C
h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Hnvironment
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
te
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Refinement of design, if required
Ministry of Works
Chapter
Comments: 2.0 General

This manual DESGRIBES PROGEDURES WHIGH enable pavements to be
designed to withstand LOAD-ASSOGIATED distress. CIRGUMSTANGES in WHIGH
environmentally INDUGED distress is the major distress mode are not
SPEGIFIGALLY DISGUSSED although SUGH GASES have been noted elsewhere,
PARTIGULARLY in /Chapter 6 -Probtem Foits/.
The environmental fAGTORS having the greatest eFFEGT on pavement

PERFORMANGE are:
■ moisture regime in the pavement STRUGTURE
■ pavement temperature
■ unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS related to the environment
The purpose of Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA), and the
PROGEDURE for its GOMMISSIONING and implementation, is briefly DESGRIBED
in this GHAPTER. The INGLUSION of EIA has been made in order to highlight
the IMPORTANGE of EIA in all stages of road design and GONSTRUGTION, to
ensure that PROJEGTS do not AGHIEVE their own goals at the expense of loss
or INGONVENIENGE to NON-BENEFIGIARIES or future generations.
2.1 Climatic Zones

For the purpose of pavement design, Tanzania GAN be divided into three
GLIMATIG ZONES:
■ a dry zone in the interior
■ a large moderate zone
■ several wet zones, mainly at high altitudes
The length of time a pavement is The three GLIMATIG ZONES are shown on a map in Figure 2.1. The GLIMATIG
exposed to a surplus of moisture is a zones are DEMARGATED on the basis of the number of months in a year with
better indicator of the likelihood of
moisture ingress into the structure and surplus of rainfall over potential evaporation as presented in Tabte 2.1.
associated risks of failures than rainfall
alone. This parameter has been
expressed as the duration of the
Table 2.1 Climatic zones
period when rainfall exceeds the
potential evaporation from an open Climatic zone Number of months per year with
surface of water.
higher rainfall than evaporation
Dry Less than 1 month

Moderate 1 to 3 months
Wet More than 3 months

2.2 Moisture Regime Comments:
2.2.0 £eneral
The moisture regime has a major INFLUENGE on a pavement’s PERFORMANGE
as the stiffness and strength of subgrade soils and granular materials vary
with their moisture GONTENT.
The map REFLEGTS the MAGRO-GLIMATE SIGNIFIGANT to pavement moisture
GONDITIONS. Within EAGH GLIMATIG ZONE there may be LOGALISED areas with
different moisture GONDITIONS.
7igure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones

Comments: Moisture GHANGES in pavements usually ensue from one or more of the
following SOURGES:
/Ckapłer 3 - Cross Secłion, Skoulbers anb Drainage/ A. relative permeability of pavement layers and subgrade, and
B. infiltration from the SURFAGE and shoulders
Both can be controlled through appropriate design of the cross section and
internal drainage of the pavement layers
C. seepage from higher ground, and

D. FLUGTUATION in the water table
Both can be controlled by adequately installed subgrade and pavement drains.
E. transfer of moisture within the STRUGTURE due to DIFFERENGES in

moisture GONTENT or temperature
Cannot normally be controlled other than by attempting to keep the moisture
content near constant.
2.2.1 Design moisture

New roads
Nominal CBRdesign values of subgrade and pavement materials shall be
SPEGIFIED at the SPEGIMEN moistures presented in Tabte 2.2. For dry
GLIMATIG ZONES, where nominal CBRdesign values are SPEGIFIED at OMC,
there are additional requirements for minimum CBR after 4 days
soaking. These limits are presented in the RESPEGTIVE GHAPTERS where the
material requirements are set out.
Table 2.2 Design moisture
Layer
Climatic
zone Subgrade Subbase Base Gravel wearing
CBRDESIGN course course
OMC OMC OMC
Additional requirements are given for
Dry minimum CBR after 4 days soaking. Both Soaked
CBR requirements, soaked and un-soaked,
shall be met.
Moderate Soaked Soaked Soaked Soaked
Wet Soaked Soaked Soaked Soaked
'Soaked' and 'OMC' refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content
determined in accordance with CML tests 1.9 and 1.11 at BS-Heavy compaction effort.
Pavemenł rekabiliłałion
The design moisture GONTENT for the purpose of pavement
rehabilitation design is determined by estimation of likely future
equilibrium moisture GONTENTS of the subgrade and within the existing
pavement STRUGTURE.
The moisture GONTENTS presented in Tabte 2.2 shall be used where
information about the moisture regime under the existing pavement is
LAGKING or is deemed to be an unreliable INDIGATOR of future equilibrium
moisture GONTENT.
2.3 Pavement Temperature Comments:
2.3.0 £eneral
The designer at PROJEGT level shall obtain detailed data on the temperature Except for variation due to altitude, the
Tanzanian climate is broadly uniform
GONDITIONS in the PROJEGT area and observe this when SELEGTING material across the country. Temperature de-
types and design parameters for pavement layers. Temperature GONDITIONS 0
creases with elevation by 0.6 C per 100
GAN be EXPEGTED to GORRELATE GLOSELY with site altitude. metres. The influence of other local
factors on temperature are almost
insignificant.
2.3.1 Bituminous materials

BIŁGMINOGS mixes
The pavement temperature is taken into GONSIDERATION in mix designs,
having a SIGNIFIGANT efFEGT on the PERFORMANGE of bituminous mixes with
regards to:
■ load distributing properties
■ RESISTANGE to deformation
■ RESISTANGE to fatigue GRAGKING
■ rate of ageing
SGRFACE łreałmenłs
The PERFORMANGE of SURFAGE treatments depends largely on pavement /Ckapłer 7 - Pavemenł Małerials/ anb
/Ckapłer 10 — Biłuminous Surfacings/
temperature and is taken into AGGOUNT in the SURFAGING design. This give requirements for design of all
applies to the short term PERFORMANGE related to bleeding and loss of layers using bituminous material. The
aggregate, and also to the rate of binder ageing in the long term. effect of temperature in bituminous
layers can be critical in combination
with severe road gradients and low
traffic speed.
2.3.2 Non-bituminous materials
General
The efFEGT of temperature in non-bituminous layers is not SPEGIFIGALLY
taken into AGGOUNT in the pavement design.
Cemenłed layers
The pavement temperature - and GHANGES in temperature - afFEGTS the
PERFORMANGE of all GEMENTED materials by INDUGING thermal stresses in
layers, with ASSOGIATED GRAGK developments.
GRANGLAR layers
Within soils and granular layers, the movement of moisture GAUSED by
GHANGES in temperature GAN INDIREGTLY AFFEGT the strength of the layers.
2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade

Conditions
2.4.0 £eneral
Unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS are those that require SPEGIAL treatment
to be rendered suitable as foundation for the pavement. This is not due to For treatment of subgrade soils that,
the properties of the subgrade soils, but rather the environment in WHIGH due to their properties, require
special attention to become suitable
they perform. Unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS shall also be given as foundation for the pavement, refer to
/Ckapłer 6 - Problem Soils/¸
Comments: attention when they OGGUR below design depth as defined in /Chapter 5 -
Method for classification of the Fubgrade/.
subgrade into S15, S7 or SG:
/Ckapłer 5 — Subgrabe/¸
The OBJEGTIVE of SPEGIAL treatment for unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS is
to bring the subgrade to SUFFIGIENT stability and strength to meet the
design GLASSES S15, S7 or S3 for input into the pavement design
PROGEDURE.
2.4.1 Identification
Unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS INGLUDE:
■ GAVITIES made by burrowing animals, like termites or rodents, or
any other flaws GAUSING LAGK of support or non-uniform support
and potential for uneven settlement
■ LOGALISED areas with high moisture GONTENT
■ SUBSURFAGE wells
■ swamp areas
2.4.2 Treatment
The methods for treatment of unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS depend
on site GONDITIONS and may INGLUDE one or more of the following
measures:
Caviłies
■ EXGAVATION and REPLAGEMENT with fill
■ SPEGIAL GOMPAGTION TEGHNIQUES
Localised areas wiłk kigk MOISŁGRE conłenłs

■ EXGAVATION and REPLAGEMENT with fill
■ raising of the VERTIGAL alignment
■ SPEGIAL drainage measures
■ MODIFIGATION with lime or GEMENT
SGBSGRFACE wells
■ use of filter layers
■ use of geotextile filter drains or other SPEGIAL materials or methods.
Areas wiłk kigk wałer łable or swamps

■ use of geotextiles, geo-grids or other SPEGIAL materials or methods
2.5 Other Physical Features Comments:
2.5.1 Topography
The GOUNTRY has four main TOPOGRAPHIG types: Topographical map: /Appenbix A9¸1/
Soil map: /Appenbix A9¸3/
■ lowlands (mainly the GOASTAL plain below 200 metres above Rainfall map: /Appenbix A9¸5/
sea level, with isolated hills up to 300 metres in height)
■ broad nearly flat areas of inland drainage, notably the Malagarasi swamp
■ plateau
■ highlands
The highlands INGLUDE the following mountain ranges of altitudes

generally between 1500 m and 3000 m:
■ Northern Highlands - Usambara, Pare and the VOLGANIG peaks
STRETGHING from Kilimanjaro (5895 m) westwards to the
Serengeti plains
■ Central Highlands - STRETGHING from Morogoro to the Iringa area
■ Southern Highlands - Tukuyu - Mbeya - Sumbawanga
■ Western Highlands - forming MUGH of the western boundary of the GOUNTRY
The plateau rises from the GOASTAL plains to an altitude between 1000 m
and 1500 m, adjoining the highlands listed above.
EXGEPT for the mountainous and steep rolling terrain of the highlands, the
terrain is generally flat to gently rolling in the plateau and lowland.
2.5.2 £eology Geological map: /Appenbix A9¸2/

METAMORPHIG GRANITIG ROGKS of the early ARGHAEAN - more than 2000
million years old - OGGUPY MUGH of the GENTRAL plateau of Tanzania,
forming a large ‘BLOGK’ surrounded by younger fold belts, also of
PREGAMBRIAN age.
Sedimentary ROGKS of the Karoo age - 220 to 140 million years old -
OGGUR to the north-east of Lake Nyasa.
DISTINGTIVE VOLGANIG features of Neogene age are the REGENT VOLGANIG

GENTRES in northern Tanzania and near Mbeya in the south. In the north,
widespread VOLGANIG AGTIVITY that probably started 13 to 15 million years
ago, STRETGHES westwards from the Kilimanjaro peaks to Serengeti and into
Kenya. Some VOLGANIG GENTRES in this area are moderately AGTIVE today.
Younger marine deposits, ASSOGIATED with reef formation, are seen along
the GOAST line and are in PLAGES raised by LOGAL warping to form low hills
of reef limestone, GOMMONLY GALLED GORAL ROGK.
Lake beds and Neogene deposits of limestone, sand, silts and GLAYS that
are formed in basins with RESTRIGTED drainage, are widespread in the
interior of the GOUNTRY.
Vegetation map: /Appenbix A9¸4/
2.5.3 Vegetation
The vegetation of Tanzania is GHARAGTERISED by large areas of woodland,
bushland and THIGKET. However GONSIDERABLE STRETGHES of savannah,
grassland and GULTIVATION are found in several LOGATIONS and OGGUPY large
areas in the northern part of the GOUNTRY. Forests and swamps OGGUR in
GOMPARATIVELY small LOGALISED areas, and mangrove forests are found
in the tide zone along the GOAST line.
Comments:
2.6 Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
2.6.1 Purpose of EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a PROJEGT does not AGHIEVE its own
(EIA) discovers unintended
consequences of a project. Those are
goals at the expense of loss or INGONVENIENGE to nON-BENEFIGIARIES or
‘impacts’. Such impacts may affect: future generations.
- culłural keriłage
- socieły
- łke local economy
- nałural resources, now or in łke fułure 2.6.2 Commissioning of EIA
Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA) is GOMMISSIONED by the
Advice may be sought from National
Environment Management Council
Ministry of Works. The GONDUGT of EIA is a mandatory requirement in
(NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial
Tanzania developments.
/Appenbix A7/¸
EIA is not required for regravelling and similar PERIODIG
mAINTENANGE. Environmental assessment is GONDUGTED in three stages:
1. SGOPING, parallel to feasibility study (reported as pretiminary
Environmental IMPAGT Statement - EIS)
2. detailed EIA, GONDUGTED at the same time as preliminary
design (reported as futt EIS, for implementation mainly by
detailed design)
3. GONTINUED EIA (by monitoring throughout the PROJEGT)
2.6.3 Implementing EIA

Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a
project should be halted. Miłigałion MEASGRES
Usually the Environmental IMPAGT Statement (EIS) INGLUDES a set of
mitigation measures to bring potentially adverse IMPAGTS within tolerable
limits. This is done in three ways.
■ Vulnerable EGOSYSTEMS or land uses may be by-passed by
realignment of the road.
■ REGOMMENDATIONS may be made for GONDITIONS to be observed
during GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE.
■ Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be
used when potentially adverse IMPAGTS GANNOT be avoided
by either realignment or operational Gonditionalities.
Implemenłing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement AGTION Plan (RAP) requires detailed
REGORDS of persons and properties afFEGTED, negotiation of GOMPENSATION in
Displacement of illegal structures within keeping with prevailing regulations, and SATISFAGTORY GONGLUSION of the
a road reserve does not normally
require a RAP¡ but the Ministry of AGTUAL resettlement. The PRINGIPLE of fair GOMPENSATION is that
Morks should be consulted on a case- GOMPULSORY resettlement should leave the DISPLAGED persons and
to-case basis.
businesses no worse off, and preferably slightly better off, than they
were previously.
References Comments:
2-1 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Dezign: A guide to the

2-2 BROOKS, A, F BROWN, T COLES AND C. EASTMAN et al. (1997).
Guidelines for the environmental assessment of road traffic.
Guidelinez Notez nº 1. Inztitute of Environmental Azzezzment,
Lincoln (UK).
2-3 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements.
Special Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK.
2-4 HATHOUT, A S (1983). Foil atlas of Tanzania., Univerzity of
Dar ez Salaam, Geography Department.
2-5 LANTRAN, J M, J BAILLON AND J-M PAGÈS (1994). Road Main-
tenance and the Xnvironment. Contracting out road
maintenance activities: Volume 5. Guidance for taking care of
environment when preparing and carrying out road maintenance
activities. The World Bank, Economic Commizzion for Africa and
the Sahelian Operationz Review. Sub-Saharan Africa Tranzport
Program. Road Maintenance Initiative.
2-6 MINERAL RESOURCES DIVISION, TANZANIA. Fummary of the
geology of Tanzania.
2-7 PENNYANDERSON ASSOCIATES (1993). Roads and Nature
Conservation. Guidance on impacts, mitigation and enhancement.
Englizh Nature, Peterborough, UK.
2-8 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORTAND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide.
Report CR-97/105, CSIR, South Africa, for SATCC.
2-9 STEVENSON, S R (1994). Xnvironmental impact assessment
of transportation projects in Africa. Paper prezented at the All-
Africa Engineerz’ Conference on the Role of the Engineer in
Suztainable Development, 1994, Nairobi, Kenya.
2 - 10 STEVENSON, S R (1997). Xnvironmental considerations in respect
of road transport in Tanzania. Tanzania Roadz Azzociation,.
Proc. 1st Annual Roadz Convention, Dar Ez Salaam.
tropical countries. Overzeaz Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
2 - 13 WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction
materials of Fouthern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
2 - 14 WORLD BANK. Environment Department (1991). Xnvironmental
Assessment Fourcebook. Volume II, Fectoral Guidelines. World
Bank Technical paper Nº 140. Wazhington DC, USA.
2 - 15 WORLD BANK. Tranzport, Water & Urban Development Department
(1994). Roads and the Xnvironment: a Handbook. Wazhington DC,
USA.
Cross
C
Zection, h
Zhoulders
and Drainage a
Project appraisal
p
te
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross 9EGTION,
9houlders and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design

Ministry of Works
Chapter 3
Cross Cection,
Choulders and Drainage Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments: 3.1 Standard Cross Section

Required alterations to standard cross The GROSS SEGTION design for a road is normally determined by GURRENT
sections for design on problem soils are
GEOMETRIG standards applied to the PROJEGT, INGLUDING TEGHNIGAL
described in /Ckapłer 6 - Problem Soils/¸
GONSIDERATIONS SUGH as problem soils in the subgrade. Standard GROSS
/Appenbix A4/ outlines various cross SEGTIONS are given by the Ministry of Works for the various road types
section features that give technical
benefits to the performance of the
and are not INGLUDED in this manual.
pavement.
3.2 Shoulders
3.2.0 £eneral
Bitumen surfaced shoulders will Shoulders are PARTIGULARLY important when granular materials are used in
normally be part of standard cross
sections.
the base GOURSE, requiring lateral support for the layer.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are in Important FUNGTIONS of paved shoulders are:

general not recommended for
reasons that include: ■ provision of lateral support for pavement layers
- kigk bemanbs for mainłenance ło
perform abequałely
■ minimising risks of moisture ingress into load bearing parts of
- increaseb risks of wałer ingress the pavement
inło łke pavemenł layers
- bisabvanłages ło łraffic safeły, ■ REDUGING GHANGES in moisture GONTENTS in pavement layers
ofłen mabe worse by a łypical ■ improved TRAFFIG safety by allowing OGGASIONAL TRAFFIG outside
bevelopmenł of an ebge brop from
łke surface ło łke gravel skoulber the GARRIAGEWAY
Use of the same pavement STRUGTURE for the shoulders as for the ADJAGENT
GARRIAGEWAY is the preferred method. The additional GOSTS of using more
expensive materials in the shoulders may be offset by simplified
GONSTRUGTION methods provided the shoulder widths are not EXGESSIVE.
3.2.1 Bearing capacity of the shoulders

Bearing GAPAGITY of the shoulders must be ensured by appropriate
SELEGTION of materials and layer THIGKNESS where shoulders are designed
with a different pavement than the GARRIAGEWAY. Site GONDITIONS will
determine the required strength of the pavement depending on the
likelihood of heavy TRAFFIG using the shoulder, SUGH as built-up areas or
ADJAGENT to GLIMBING lanes.
Use of the same pavement STRUGTURE for the shoulders as for the ADJAGENT
GARRIAGEWAY eliminates problems in AGHIEVING SUFFIGIENT bearing GAPAGITY
of the shoulders.
3.2.2 Curface treatments for shoulders

General
A durable and water proof type of bituminous SURFAGING shall be used
on paved shoulders. Priming alone is inadequate for treatment of
shoulders and shall not be used without being followed by a bituminous
seal.
Type of SGRFACING
Type of seals with a GLOSED texture shall be the preferred type of
SURFAGING for the shoulder in order to prevent disintegration following
loss of aggregate by drying out of the SURFAGING. EGONOMIGAL types of

Chapter 3
Cross Cection,
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999 Choulders and Drainage
SURFAGING that provide a favourable texture and good durability are:
Ministry of Works 3.3

■ single SURFAGE dressing with a sand GOVER seal Comments:
■ single Otta Seal with a sand GOVER seal
Where a GONSIDERABLE amount of trafFIG is EXPEGTED to use the shoulders, Single surface dressing is not a
preferred option as it tends to dry out
e.g. in towns and built up areas GONSIDERATION shall be given to applying quickly. /Ckapłer 10 - Biłuminous
the same type of SURFAGING on the shoulders as on the ADJAGENT Surfacings/¸
GARRIAGEWAY.
COLOGR and ŁEXŁGRE of łke SGRFACE

SURFAGE treatments for shoulders should wherever EGONOMIGALLY possible Traffic safety benefits can be achieved
be designed to give the shoulders a different texture or GOLOUR than the by selecting aggregates of a different
colour for surface treatments of the
ADJAGENT GARRIAGEWAY. shoulders than the carriageway,
alternatively aggregate with a different
size, or a different type of surfacing
altogether.
3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders
LONGIŁGDINAL cracks
Longitudinal GRAGKS in shoulders are normally ASSOGIATED with: Additional maintenance effort on
manual sealing of cracks before the
■ shrinkage in earthworks or pavement layers, often in GONJUNGTION first scheduled reseal is often sufficient
to arrest cracks reoccurring once
with road widening, due to differential GHANGES in moisture GONTENTS they have emerged. However,
over the GROSS SEGTION after GONSTRUGTION expansive soils that produce very
active cracks normally require repeated
■ settlement in earthworks, PARTIGULARLY in GONJUNGTION with crack repairs if design and
road widening construction counter- measures have
been insufficient to fully prevent
■ expansive soils in the roadbed damage.
Favourable GROSS SEGTION details that minimise the movement of moisture

over the GROSS SEGTION, thus the risk of GRAGKS developing in the shoulders,
are DESGRIBED in /Appendis A4/. Good earthworks TEGHNIQUES for road
widening, in AGGORDANGE with Standard SPEGIFIGATIONS for Highway
CONSTRUGTION minimise the risk of GRAGKS GAUSED by settlement in
GONJUNGTION with road widening. Design and GONSTRUGTION measures to
minimise the risk of GRAGKS developing in the shoulders due to expansive
soils are set out in
/Chapter 6 − Probtem Foits/.
Transversal cracks
Transversal GRAGK that develop in shoulders are GOMMONLY ASSOGIATED
with thermal movements in bituminous layers, but GAN also be GAUSED by
shrinkage in GEMENTED pavement layers or SELF-GEMENTING properties of
natural gravel. There are no PARTIGULAR measures to be taken against this
form of GRAGKING than to ensure that normal PERIODIG MAINTENANGE by
resealing is duly GARRIED out.
3.2.4 Unpaved shoulders

Shoulder materials shall meet the requirements for gravel wearing GOURSE
in the event that the shoulders will not REGEIVE a bituminous seal for any
reason. This GROSS SEGTION requires PARTIGULAR attention to the internal
drainage of the pavement layers as suitable gravel for the shoulders is
likely to be nearly impermeable thus preventing drainage from the base
GOURSE /Chapter ll − Gravet Roads/.
Comments: Where the base GOURSE in the GARRIAGEWAY is made of permeable materi-
75 mm als, e.g. GRUSHED stone, the following alternative measures are required:
Base course Alt.1: PlAGE a 75 mm THIGK drainage layer of pervious material
Water
Pervious material immediately below the layer of shoulder gravel, see illustration.
Subbase
Alt.2: Install a SPEGIAL drainage FAGILITY.
3.3 Drainage
3.3.1 Drainage of the road surface
Drainage
vement under these circumstances may justify the technically preferred methodofofthe roadthe
extending SURFAGE is ensured
base course through by
the providing
shoulder andsuf FIGIENT
applying of
GROSSFALLseal.
a bituminous
the GARRIAGEWAY and shoulder in AGGORDANGE with the standard GROSS
SEGTIONS.
3.3.2 Drainage of the pavement layers

Proper drainage of granular pavement layers is essential for their
PERFORMANGE and is ensured by appropriate attention to GROSS SEGTION
details.
GRANGLAR base COGRSE
Where a granular base GOURSE and paved shoulders are used, the base
Water Granular GOURSE and subbase layers shall be extended to the full width of the
base course shoulders.
Subbase
Cemenłed or BIŁGMINOGS base COGRSE
Where EGONOMIGALLY possible the base GOURSE should be extended to the
full width of the shoulders.
Boxed-in pavemenłs
Boxed-in pavement STRUGTURES, where water may be trapped in the pave-
ment, shall not be used. Appropriate measures to ensure proper drainage
of the pavement layers shall be INGLUDED in the design where internal
drainage of the layers may be impaired for any reason. The following
GIRGUMSTANGES GARRY PARTIGULAR risks of attaining a boxed-in STRUGTURE:
■ where shoulders are designed with different materials than

the GARRIAGEWAY using unfavourable GOMBINATIONS of
materials
■ where kerbstones are extended into granular layers of the pavement
■ where un-paved shoulders made of near impermeable materials are
used
3.3.3 Drainage of the subgrade

General
Provision of sufFIGIENTLY deep open side drains or alternatively, SPEGIAL
drainage FAGILITIES SUGH as SUBSURFAGE drains will ensure proper drainage
of the subgrade. SPEGIAL GONSIDERATION to design and GONSTRUGTION details
is required where the OGGURRENGE of ROGK may trap water in the subgrade
nł bepłk of open sibe brains is essenłial for łke proper brainage of łke subgrabe¸
or pavement STRUGTURE.
Open side drains - general
Comments:
Open side drains shall at no point be less than 0.5 metres deep, General requirement min 0,5 m
measured from the bottom of the drain up to the formation level. Pavement
Open side drains in CGŁŁINGS Formation level
The general requirement for the depth of open side drains in Guttings is
minimum 1.0 metres measured from the bottom of the drain up to the
Cuttings - general requirement
Formation level. This depth GAN be REDUGED to 0.5 metres provided min 1,0 m
GEMENT or lime MODIFIGATION of the subgrade is employed. In SUGH GASES Pavement
the minimum depth of GEMENT or lime MODIFIGATION is 200 mm. The Formation level
given requirements refer to GUTTINGS in soils. For GUTTINGS in solid ROGK

the required drainage measures depend on site GONDITIONS and shall be
DEGIDED in EAGH individual GASE.
Cuttings - lime modified subgrade
The method for drainage of Guttings shall be SPEGIFIGALLY DESGRIBED in min 0,5 m
Pavement
the detailed design of pROJEGTS. The need for SUBSURFAGE drains as an
alternative to open side drains in GUTTINGS shall be assessed. Formation level
SGBSGRFACE drains
The need for SUBSURFAGE drains depends ondrainage
Proper site GONDITIONS and critical
in cuttings is often requires
for the performance of the pavement.
GAREFUL GONSIDERATION due to the high GONSTRUGTION GOST of these
FAGILITIES. Urban areas, OGGURRENGE of subsoil
The traffic wells and GUTTINGS
safety hazards areside drains may in urban areas prompt the use of subsurface drains in comb
of deep open
among TYPIGAL GONDITIONS where use of SUBSURFAGE drains shall be
GONSIDERED.
Lineb brains are ofłen useb wkere łke amounł anb speeb of wałer is kigk
Comments: References
3-2 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 15
(1994): Fubsurface drainage for roads. CSRA, Pretoria,
Republic of South Africa.
3-5 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the
Design of Road Pavements.CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for
SATCC.
3-6 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the
ODA, London, UK.
Traffic
C
h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
p
te
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
TrafFIG
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter

This GHAPTER DESGRIBES the PROGEDURE for establishing the design trafFIG
loading, SELEGTION of trafFIG load GLASS and presentation of trafFIG data.
e combinations, suspension system, tyre types, load distribution over ThetheSTRUGTURAL deterioration
pavement surface and the typeof
of paved
load, roads GAUSED by trafFIG mainly
e difficult to investigate and impossible to apply in practice for the depends on:
purpose of structural pavement design.
■ magnitude of the loads (axle loads)

■ GONTAGT pressure from the loads (mainly from tyre pressure)
■ number of load repetitions
4.0.1 Magnitude of the loads

The damage that VEHIGLES do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude
tonnes load of the axle loads as REFLEGTED in the system used for determination of
design loading, where the damaging efFEGT of an axle loading follows an
exponential FUNGTION. The trafFIG stream may however, GONTAIN heavier
loads than the range where these GALGULATION models are valid. SPEGIAL
GONGESSIONS have therefore been made for roads where a large proportion
of the design load GONSISTS of very heavy axles.
4.0.2 Contact pressure

CONTAGT pressures set up by VEHIGLES in the trafFIG stream are difFIGULT to
contact pressure estimate PRAGTIGALLY and thus GANNOT be expressed with any GONFIDENGE as
a quantity that is useful in STRUGTURAL pavement design. The main FAGTORS
afFEGTING levels of GONTAGT pressure from the trafFIG are however known.
These are primarily related to type of tyres used, tyre pressure and in-
DIREGTLY INFLUENGED by the axle loading. Potential damage to the
kPa pavement by high GONTAGT pressures is offset by the provision of material
types with sufFIGIENT strength in the base GOURSE and SURFAGING layers.
The pavement design PROGEDURE INDIREGTLY GOMPENSATES for high GONTAGT
pressures by setting limits for the material types allowed in the base
load per area
GOURSE and sur- FAGING layers for the RESPEGTIVE trafFIG load GLASSES.
4.0.3 Load repetitions

loads Depending on site GONDITIONS - a sufFIGIENTLY large number of load
t1 t2 t3 t4tn repetitions above a GERTAIN magnitude GAUSES fatigue of bound layers and
deforma- tions in granular pavement layers.
The damaging efFEGT of all axles EXPEGTED to traverse the road is
GONVERTED into Equivalent Standard Axles (E80) and added up over a
GHOSEN design period to BEGOME the basis for the STRUGTURAL pavement
design. This figure is termed the design trafFIG loading and is expressed
in millions E80. The design trafFIG loading is the GUMULATIVE trafFIG
EXPEGTED to use the heaviest loaded lane during the design period.
4.1 Design Period

The design period is defined as the number of years until a terminal
value of AGGEPTED SERVIGEABILITY is EXPEGTED to be REAGHED. The design
period starts when the GOMPLETED pavement is opened to PUBLIG trafFIG
over the entire length of a GONSTRUGTION pROJEGT or a pre-determined part
of a PROJEGT. Any PUBLIG trafFIG or GONSTRUGTION trafFIG using the
GOMPLETED pavement before the start of the design period shall be
estimated

separately and INGLUDED in the design trafFIG loading for the purpose of
pavement design Chapter 4.2 - Design Traffic Loading.
Strengthening of the pavement is normally required for the road to GARRY
further trafFIG at an AGGEPTABLE level of SERVIGEABILITY after the end of the
design period. Normal MAINTENANGE is assumed to take PLAGE throughout
the design period for the design to be valid. Premature failures may result
if normal MAINTENANGE is NEGLEGTED during the design period. The
SPEGIFIED
Design period must lengthwith
not be confused ofpavement
the design
life orperiod
surfacingshall be the
life since 20 pavement
years formay
new ora considerable residual life at the end of the design period. The pavement life m
have
rehabilitated bitumen SURFAGED pavements. However, the Ministry of Works
may, at its DISGRETION, GHANGE the design period depending on
GIRGUMSTANGES of individual PROJEGTS.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the definition of the design period in relation to

terminal SERVIGEABILITY and required MAINTENANGE during the design period.
Pavement serviceability
Reseal
Pavement rehablitation
Reseal
Terminal value
of serviceability
Design Period
Project construction, the
pavement being
completed in parts.
Completed pavement on the entire project
7igure 4.1 Design period
4.2 Design Traffic Loading

The flow GHART in Figure 4.2 shows the PROGEDURE to determine the design Worked Example
trafFIG loading. /Appendix A8¸1/
Traffic count for each direction Chapter

Vehicle equivalency
4.2.1
Proportion
factor
of E80
Chapter
made up
4.2.3
from axles heavier than 13t Chapter 4.2.4
Apply
Axle load survey for each direction Chapter 4.2.2 traffic growth Chapter 4.2.5 and lane distribution Chapter 4.2.6
Include
Classify construction
as'heavy' or not
traffic
Chapter 4.2.4
Chapter 4.2.7
Design traffic
Vehicle equivalency factor Chapter
Proportion of E804.2.3
made up from axles heavier than 13t loading
Chapter 4.2.4
Classify into Traffic Load Class Chapter 4.3
Socio -economic studies
7igure 4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic loading

Comments: 4.2.1 Traffic counts
Light traffic affects the performance of Only heavy VEHIGLES should be GOUNTED for the purpose of STRUGTURAL
surface treatments and gravel wearing pavement design. Heavy VEHIGLES are defined as those having a
courses, but has an insignificant effect
in the context of structural pavement registered un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more. Large buses having a
design. seating GAPAGITY of 40 or more are INGLUDED as heavy VEHIGLES.
TrafFIG GOUNTS shall be GARRIED out in a manner that results in a grouping of

VEHIGLE types into the GATEGORIES given in Tabte 4.1. INGLUSION of other
VEHIGLE GATEGORIES, or a further sub-division of the GATEGORIES may be
desirable for other purposes. However, manipulation of data shall not
OBSGURE the PRESGRIBED division into the four heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORIES.
Table 4.1 Heavy vehicle categories
Heavy vehicle category Definition

Medium Goods Vehicle - 2 axles, incl. steering axle, and
MGV - 3 tonnes empty weight, or more
Heavy Goods Vehicle - 3 axles, incl. steering axle, and
HGV - 3 tonnes empty weight, or more
Very Heavy Goods Vehicle - 4 or more axles , incl. steering axle, and
VHGV - 3 tonnes empty weight, or more
Buses Seating capacity of 40, or more
4.2.2 Axle load surveys

All design of bitumen SURFAGED road pavements shall be based on PROJEGT-
DEDIGATED axle load surveys. The surveys shall be GARRIED out separately
from weigh-bridge measurements undertaken for the purpose of ENFORGING
axle load limits.
The measurements shall INGLUDE minimum one survey of 7 days duration
- over 24 hours - GOVERING EAGH lane. The method for GONDUGTING axle
load surveys shall follow GURRENT PROGEDURES of the Ministry of Works.
The required minimum information from the axle load survey shall
It is not necessary to distinguish INGLUDE the following:
between single wheels, and between
dual wheels and steering axles and ■ axle loads of all heavy VEHIGLES whether they are empty or loaded
fixed axles for the purpose of ■ VEHIGLE GATEGORY
determining design load. The varying
effect on pavement structures from ■ loading in EAGH lane (DIREGTION) of the road
such differences in wheel
configuration are likely to be offset by EAGH axle in a multi-axle GOMBINATION (e.g. bogie, triple, ETG.) shall be
other inherent inaccuracies in all
pavement design methods. measured separately.
The survey point shall be equipped with sufFIGIENT GAPAGITY to weigh all
heavy VEHIGLES that are passing in one DIREGTION at a time, both empty and
loaded.
4.2.3 Equivalency factors Comments:
The damaging efFEGT of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed
by the EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR related to an equivalent standard axle (E80) of
8160 kg load:
Equivalency factor = [Axle Load (kg) / 8160] 4.5
The VEHIGLE EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR (VEF) for every VEHIGLE in the axle
load survey is determined and an average value is subsequently
GALGULATED for EAGH heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORY, for EAGH lane separately. The
average VEF for EAGH heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORY, for EAGH lane, GAN then be
applied to the results from trafFIG GOUNTS to give the GUMULATIVE E80s
trafFIG loading the pavement is SUBJEGTED to over a given period.
4.2.4 Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes

The proportion of the design trafFIG loading as a result of axles loaded to /Ckapłers 5, 8, 9 anb 10/ set out
above 13 tonnes shall be GALGULATED from axle load survey data. If this measures in the design of pavement
and improved subgrade layers to offset
proportion is 50% or higher then the design trafFIG loading is defined as the effect of a large proportion of very
Heavy, denoted by an index to the TrafFIG Load Class as input to the heavy axle loads.
pavement design GATALOGUE. One should not GONFUSE the proportion of the
design trafFIG loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tonnes with
the GOUNTED proportion of these axles in the trafFIG stream, the latter
being INGORREGT. A moderate number of very heavy axles will make up a
GONSIDE- rable proportion of the design trafFIG loading.
The PERGENTAGE of the design trafFIG load (E80) attributed to axles loaded
to above 13 tonnes shall be GALGULATED based on detailed data from
PROJEGT DEDIGATED axle load surveys. The axle load data from the lane
with the highest value of E80 shall be used.
The heavy axles’ proportion of E80 is GALGULATED as follows:
Heavy Axles’ Number of E80 from axles of 1G t and heavier in the survey
Proportion = x 100
of E80 [%] Total number of E80 from all heavy vehicles in the survey Research is not yet conclusive on
issues related to the effect of very
heavy axle loads on a variety of
pavement types.
4.2.5 Traffic growth
General
The following estimations of future growth are required:
■ growth in the number of heavy VEHIGLES There is a considerable uncertainty and
risk of making large errors in
■ growth in the number of E80 per VEHIGLE (VEHIGLE EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR )
estimations of traffic growth since a
number of individually uncertain factors
Types of łraffic are brought together in the analysis.
Mhere little information is available,
The FOREGASTING of trafFIG growth shall INGLUDE separate estimates for the 4 historical data, origin-destination
VEHIGLE GATEGORIES. It is NEGESSARY to assess future trafFIG in RESPEGT of the surveys and records from Ministry of
Morks and Statistical Bureau are
following types: among the sources of information for
assessment of traffic growth. The
■ normal trafFIG: designer may have to resort to the use
that would use the route regardless of the GONDITION of the road of growth figures for GDP in the
estimation of movement of goods.
■ diverted trafFIG:
that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of the
road, but at otherwise UNGHANGED origin and destination
■ generated trafFIG:
additional trafFIG OGGURRING due to the improvement of the road
Comments: Tołal growłk rałe
For EAGH heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORY the total E80 growth rate is GALGULATED
from the formula:
E80 growth rate = [(1+h/100) x (1+v/100) - 1] x 100
where:
h = growth rate in traffic volume for the heavy vehicle category
v = growth rate in vehicle equivalency factor (E80 per vehicle) for the heavy
vehicle category
4.2.6 Lane distribution

The design trafFIG loading shall be GORREGTED for the distribution of heavy
VEHIGLES between the lanes in AGGORDANGE with Tabte 4.2.
Table 4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes
Cross Paved Corrected design Explanatory notes

section width traffic loading – E80
Double the sum of The driving pattern on
< 3.5 m E80 in both this cross section is very
directions channeIIed
Min. 3.5 m,
The sum of E80 in Traffic in both directions use
but less
both directions the same Iane
than 4.5 m
Single
carriageway Min. 4.5 m, 80% of the sum of
To aIIow for overIap in
but less E80 in both the centre section of the
than 6 m directions road
Total E80 in the

MinimaI traffic overIap in the
6 m or wider heaviest centre section of the road
loaded
direction
More than
90% of the total
one lane in The ma¡ority of heavy vehicIes
- E80 in the studied
each use one Iane in each direction
direction
direction
4.2.7 Construction traffic

Loading from construction traffic can The GALGULATION of design trafFIG loading shall INGLUDE GONSTRUGTION
have a significant effect on pavements
designed for low traffic. trafFIG and PUBLIG trafFIG that is EXPEGTED to use the GOMPLETED pavement
before the start of the design period.
4.3 Traffic Load Classes (TLC)

After finally determining the design trafFIG loading, E80, and the heavy
axles’ proportion of E80, the values are PLAGED into their GORREGT GLASS in
AGGORDANGE with Tabte 4.3.
Table 4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC Comments:
Design traffic loading [ E80 x 106 ] Traffic Load Class (TLC)

< 0.2 TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5 TLC 05
0.5 to 1 TLC 1
1 to 3 TLC 3
3 to 10 TLC 10
10 to 20 TLC 20
20 to 50 TLC 50
Where the heavy (>13 t) axles’ proportion of E80 is 50% or higher the
TrafFIG Load Class shall be given an index, i.e.: Insufficient sample of data for these low
traffic roads < 0,2 million E80, makes it
difficult to achieve a realistic traffic
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H loading design. Hence, a traffic load
class
TLC 0,2 -H is not established.
4.4 Presentation of Data

The following information for EAGH DIREGTION of the road shall be
presented in the detailed design report for paved roads:
■ GUMULATIVE E80 over the design period
■ the proportion of the design trafFIG loading that is a result of
axles above 13t (in %)
■ assumed GONSTRUGTION trafFIG before the start of the design period
■ the TrafFIG Load Class for use in the pavement design
The above is the minimum information required. Additional information

may be NEGESSARY.
The following details shall be presented, for EAGH of the four heavy
VEHIGLE GATEGORIES GLASSIFIED:
■ weighing data for all axles on heavy VEHIGLES as obtained in the

axle load survey
■ summary of trafFIG GOUNTS
■ VEHIGLE EQUIVALENGY FAGTORS used
■ growth rate in average E80 per VEHIGLE
■ total growth rate in E80 for EAGH heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORY
The BAGKGROUND data used in estimates of growth rates and GONSTRUGTION
trafFIG shall be presented.
4-1 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987).
Annual Book of AFTM Ftandards, Vol. 4.08. Philadelphia, USA.
(1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
4-6 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AAFHO Road Test.
Report 5, Pavement Rezearch. Highway Rezearch Board Special
Report No. 61E. National Rezearch Council, Wazhington DC,
USA.
4-7 PINARD M I and KGOBOKO K (1990). Issues associated with
the choice of vehicle load limits in Fouthern Africa. Proc. TRL -
Regional Roadz Courze, Gaborone, Botzwana.
Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for
SATCC.
ODA, London, UK.
design. Fecond edition. A Wiley-Interzcience Publication, USA and
Canada.
Zubgrade
C
h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Traffic
Subgrade
Subgrade
Problem Soils
Ch
Pavement Design-
New Roads
te
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacing
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter

This GHAPTER DESGRIBES the methods for subgrade evaluation for STRUGTURAL
pavement design of new roads, GONVENTIONAL sampling and laboratory
testing. Subgrade strength is GLASSIFIED on the basis of CBR values.
Strength INDIGATORS other than CBR may be used provided they are
adequately GORRELATED to CBR values and are approved by the Ministry of
Works at PROJEGT level.
/Ckapłer 9 — Pavemenł Rekabiliłałion/ Alternative field investigation methods to determine subgrade strength
may be employed for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation or
overlay design.
5.1 Design Depth

Properties of soils below the design
depth may indirectly affect pavement The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to
performance, but are generally
unrelated to traffic loading. the depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an efFEGT
on the pavement’s PERFORMANGE in relation to trafFIG loading. Figure 5.1
shows the design depth in relation to the main STRUGTURAL GOMPONENTS of
pavement and earthworks and Tabte 5.1 gives the design depth values in
relation to design road type.
Table 5.1 Design depth
Design depth [m]

Road type General requirements Heavy load classes
TLC05-H to TLC50-H
Paved trunk roads 0.8 1.2

Other roads 0.6 1.0
Original ground level

Design depth
Finished road level
Pavement layers
Other roads
Paved trunk roads
7igure 5.1 Design depth
5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys

A desk study shall always be GARRIED out to gather available information
about previous investigations, topography, GLIMATE, geology, soils, known
material SOURGES, road type, design standard and EXPEGTED trafFIG load
GONDITIONS (i.e. whether large number of very heavy axle loads are
likely). Issues related to slope stability and foundation of STRUGTURES shall
be addressed separately.
5.2.0 £eneral
Subgrade soils and their properties, INGLUDING strength, shall be GLASSIFIED
based on soil surveys by the use of trial pits EXGAVATED along the road
line.

5.2.1 Depth of investigations Comments:
General
Soil surveys shall be planned and GONDUGTED in a manner that GLASSIFIES Initial contingency sampling at depths
all materials AGGORDING to their suitability in load bearing layers within the outside the assumed design depth can
minimise re-sampling later in the design
zone of the design depth. A preliminary VERTIGAL alignment shall be process in the case of major changes to
assumed at the time of the soil survey in order to ensure that soil samples the final vertical alignment.
for subgrade GLASSIFIGATIONS are AGTUALLY taken at levels that fall within the
design depth of the road.
Investigations shall be extended to below design depth as required to
DETEGT problems that need SPEGIAL GONSIDERATION. These INGLUDE:
■ PRESENGE of problem soils
■ unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS
■ features ASSOGIATED with slope and embankment stability
Invesłigałions in CGŁŁINGS
EXGAVATION of sample pits may be iMPRAGTIGAL in GUTS deeper than 3 metres, The time consumption and cost of the
where SPEGIAL equipment may have to be employed. If possible, investigations in deep cuttings should
be carefully assessed against the
postponement of sampling until the time of GONSTRUGTION should be urgency of obtaining soil
GONSIDERED under characteristics for the particular
section.
SUGH GONDITIONS.
Embankmenł areas
Evaluation of subgrade strength in embankment areas shall be based on
the best possible information about likely SOURGES of earthworks fill
materials for use within the design depth.
5.2.2 Materials testing frequency

Test pits shall be EXGAVATED for the purpose of sampling the subgrade
along the road line, and materials testing GARRIED out at a minimum
average FREQUENGY as shown in Tabte 5.2.
Table 5.2 Minimum materials testing frequency
Road type Indicator CBR strength Minimum number of

testing testing CBR tests for any
homogenous section
Min. for Absolute
statistical minimum
analysis
Paved trunk
roads Min 4 per km Min 2 per km
5 3
Other paved
Min 2 per km Min 1 per km
roads (ref¸ Ckapłer
5¸2¸3)
Gravel roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per 2 km
INDIGATOR testing referred to in Tabte 5.2 INGLUDES Atterberg limits and

grading of PARTIGLES larger than 75µm. Additional investigations, SUGH as
hydrometer analysis, field measurements or SPEGIALISED tests shall be
SGHEDULED separately as required. The test methods referred to in Tabte
5.2 refer to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7, 1.9 and 1.11.
The testing frEQUENGIES in Tabte 5.2 are minimum averages and shall be
INGREASED as required AGGORDING to site GONDITIONS.
The test pit LOGATIONS may be distributed un-evenly along the road line to
GAPTURE GHANGES in soil GONDITIONS and as required for optimum use of
RESOURGES ALLOGATED for investigations.
5.2.3 Determination of CBRdesign

General
The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous SEGTION, for WHIGH the
subgrade strength is GLASSIFIED into S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of
pavement design. The PROGEDURE to determine CBRdesign is shown in the
flow GHART in Figure 5.2.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8¸ 2/ Site Compilation reconnaissanceof input dataDemarcation of homogenous sections Min 3 CBR
tests per uniform section
Design improved subgrade as required CBRdesign : Classify Yes

S3, S7, S15 Use lowest CBR value Cut ?
Yes
No
Special Min 5 CBR
assessment No tests per uniform section
of the section
Plotcurve
Determine 90%-ile value at the 0.1 X (n-1) point on the values
in ascending order Yes
7igure 5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign
HOMOGENOGS SECŁIONS
IDENTIFIGATION of SEGTIONS deemed to have homogenous subgrade GONDITIONS
is GARRIED out by desk studies of appropriate DOGUMENTS SUGH as GEOLOGIGAL
maps, followed by site REGONNAISSANGE that INGLUDES EXGAVATION of
INSPEGTION pits and initial INDIGATOR testing for GONFIRMATION of the site
observations. Due regard for LOGALISED areas that require individual
treatment is an essential part of the site REGONNAISSANGE. DEMARGATION of
homogenous SEGTIONS shall be reviewed and GHANGED as required when the
CBR
d leads to frequent changes of construction methods. Identification of test results
homogenous sectionsof the GENTRELINE
should soil
therfore take intosurvey
accountare available.
constructi bility and potential cost implications.
Słałisłical analysis
The flow GHART in Figure 5.2 shows the PROGEDURE to determine CBRdesign.
The CBRdesign for a SEGTION is the 90%-ile value of the CBR test results
for a SEGTION with homogenous strength. The method illustrated in Figure
5.3
shall be used for determination of CBRdesign of EAGH homogenous SEGTION.
Worked Example CBRdesign in CGŁŁINGS

/Appendix A8¸ 3/ The lowest CBR value ENGOUNTERED shall be used as the CBRdesign for
SEGTIONS through GUTTINGS.
CBR values plotted
in ascending order 16
14 The 90%-ile value for a section is the CBR value which 10% of the test results fall below. The use of normal distribution and standard
Example A statistical method, cumulative sums (CUSUM), can be used to establish homogenous sections. /Appenbix A8¸3/
12
CBR data
6 10
8
CBR(%)
9 8
n = 9 tests d = 0.1 x (n-1)
9 6 = 0.8
9
11 90% -ile 4
12 7.6 d=0.8
2
12 CBRdesign
14 8% 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Test
7igure 5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value
5.3 Laboratory Testing

CBR measurements in the laboratory shall be GARRIED out at minimum
three density values to give a CBR − Density relationship for the material.
4 days soaked (%)

The CBR value is determined at the nominal field density SPEGIFIED for
the RESPEGTIVE earthworks operations, as set out in Tabte 5.3.
CBR
Table 5.3 Density for determination of CBR
Layer Depth below Density for deter-

88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
% of MDD
formation level mination of CBR
[mm] [% of MDD ]
Upper subgrade 95
BS-Heavy compaction is used for all imported materials.
0 - 150
(improved layer or in-situ) BS-Heavy
The savings in earthworks as a result of upgrading of sections to a higher subgrade class can be substantial under the following co
Lower subgrade in cułłings 93
150 - 300
(improved layer or in-situ) on secłions wkere improveb subgrabe layers BS-Heavy
are consłrucłeb solely for łke purpose of provibing founbałion słrengłk for łke pavemen
on projecłs wkere earłkworks małerials are parłicularly scarce
90
Fill More than 300
BS-Heavy
The specified nominal field density and the respective acceptance criteria shall be adjusted accordingly in the contract documents f
100
In-situ More than 300
BS-Light
BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than
BS-Heavy due to its better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction
equipment under conditions with poor support for compaction.
CBR GAN alternatively be determined at a higher density to upgrade

SEGTIONS to a higher subgrade GLASS if this GAN be REALISTIGALLY AGHIEVED in
the field.
SPEGIMEN moistures to apply in determination of CBRdesign are given in
Tabte 5.4.
5.4 Subgrade Classes

The subgrade shall be GLASSIFIED AGGORDING to its CBR strength as shown
in Tabte 5.4.
Comments: Table 5.4 Fubgrade strength classes
Subgrade CBRdesign [%] Density for

class Wet or moderate Dry climatic zones determination
climatic zones (both requirements shall be met) of CBRdesign
4 days soaked value Tested at OMC 4 days soaked value [% of MDD]
S15 Min 15 Min 15 Min 7 95 BS-Heavy
S7 7 - 14 7 - 14 3 - 14 93 BS-Heavy
S3 3-6 3-6 2-6 100 BS-Light
Problem soils: Special treatment is required. /Chapter 6/
‘Soaked’ and ‘OMC’ refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in
accordance with tests CML1.9 and CML 1.11. Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/.
BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to its
better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction equipment under conditions with poor support
for compaction. The referred laboratory test methods are CML 1.9 and 1.11.
5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers

5.5.0 £eneral
All subgrade shall be brought to a strength of CBR minimum 15% by
GONSTRUGTING one or more improved subgrade layers where NEGESSARY.
a design strength with a minimum CBR of 15% by con- structing one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement is placed.
The use of improved subgrade layers has a number of advantages, SUGH
as:
■ provision of a deeper pavement STRUGTURE, having advantages under
given GONDITIONS SUGH as OGGURRENGE of heavy axle loads in the
trafFIG stream
■ PROTEGTION of earthworks below
■ provision of a running SURFAGE for the trafFIG during GONSTRUGTION
■ improved GOMPAGTION of pavement layers above
■ provision of homogenous subgrade strength
■ the improved subgrade AGTS as a filter layer between pavement
layers and poorer soils below
■ provision of a gravel wearing SURFAGE in the GASE of stage
GONSTRUGTION for future upgrading to a bitumen SURFAGED road
■ EGONOMIGAL use of LOGAL materials
5.5.1 Design of improved subgrade

Figure 5.4 shows the design of improved subgrade layers depending
on the subgrade CBRdesign determined in soil surveys and assessments
of field data.
Subgrade classes Comments:
Heavy traffic classes:
S7 S3 /Ckapłer 4 — Traffic/
S15 General requirement
Heavy traffic classes (-H)
General requirements Heavy traffic classes (-H) Climatic zones:
Moderate or dryWet climateModerate or dryWet climate /Ckapłer 2 — Environmenł/
Lower layer *) Upper layer *)
300mm 300mm300mm
150mm G15 150mm 150mm G15 G15

G15 G15 G15
Improved subgrade layer to be constructed
none 300mm
300mm
150mm G7 150mm
G7
G7 G7
*) Material requirements for none subgrade

improved none none limits for maximum compacted layer thickness are given in Table 5.5.
layers, including
7igure 5.4 Design of improved subgrade layers
5.5.2 Material characteristics

Soils
Soils used in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive,
non- dispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory
test results shall meet the requirements in Tabte 5.5.
Material standards for dump rock are presented in Table 5¸5¸
DGMP rock
Dump ROGK is un-graded waste ROGK where the GONTENT of fines is sufFIG- Formation level
subgrade layersCompacted layer
(150 +150 mm)thickness (max 1m)
iently low so that the larger PARTIGLES rest against EAGH other when PLAGED
in earthworks layers. Dump ROGK (DR) GAN be used as improved
subgrade when GONSTRUGTED in sufFIGIENTLY THIGK layers, if NEGESSARY dMAX
GONSTRUGTED together with fills in one operation, so that the maximum

PARTIGLE size does not EXGEED 2/3 of the GOMPAGTED layer THIGKNESS.
Max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness
Roadbed or previous fill layer
CONSTRUGTION of improved subgrade made of dump ROGK shall be finished

Dump rock - cross section
off by filling in the voids in the SURFAGE with subgrade
Modification soils
with lime or meeting thepreferred method where soils meeting the required standards are una
cement is the
requirements in Tabte 5.5. The filter GRITERIA are given in Chapter
/Ckapłer 7 — Pavemenł Małerials/ 5.8.
Table 5.5 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers

CBR [%], wet or moderate
Min 15 after 4 days Min 7 after 4 days
climatic zones 1)
soaking soaking
CBR [%], dry climatic zones 1) Min 15 at OMC Min 7 at OMC 1.9 and
(both requirements shall be met) Min 7 after 4 days Min 3 after 4 days 1.7
soaking soaking
CBR-swell [%] 2) Max 1.5 Max 2.0
PI [%] Max 25 Max 30 1.2 and 1.3
Max particle size, dMAX 2/3 of layer thickness 2/3 of layer thickness 1,7
Compacted layer thickness Max 250 Max 250
[mm]
1) Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/. CBR values shall be assesed at density as given in Table
5.3. ‘Soaked’ and ‘OMC’ refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content
determined in accordance with tests CML test methods 1.9 and 1.11
2) CBR-Swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort.

5.6 Fill
Soils used in fill shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and free from
any deleterious matter. Laboratory test results shall meet the
requirements in Tabte 5.6.
Table 5.6 Required standards for fill
Material G3 DR CML test

properties (Soils ) (Dumprock) method
Min CBR [%] Min 3
-
4 days soaked value at 90% BS-Heavy 1.11
CBR-swell *) Max 2.0% -
Max particle size, 2/3 of layer 2/3 of layer
dMAX 1.17
thickness thickness
Compacted layer
Max 250 mm Max 1 m -
thickness
*) CBR-Swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort.
5.7 Roadbed Preparation

After GLEARING of all topsoil the roadbed shall be SGARIFIED to a depth of
150mm, mixed and GOMPAGTED. The GOMPAGTION requirements depend on
the level of the roadbed in relation to the formation level. The
GOMPAGTION requirements are given in Tabte 5.7. The density
requirements in Tabte
5.7 are minimum values and shall be INGREASED if higher densities
have been assumed in the design of improved subgrade.
Table 5.7 Required roadbed compaction
Depth below formation Required field density

level [mm] [ % of MDD ] 1)
0 - 150 97 BS-Heavy
150 - 300 95 BS-Heavy
300 - 600 93 BS-Heavy
2)
> 600 100 BS-Light
1) Reference to CML test 1.9.
2) BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather
than BS-Heavy due to its better correspondence with the actual effect from
compaction equipment under conditions with poor support for compaction
5.8 Filter Layers

5.8.0 £eneral
Large difFERENGE between the grading of materials in ADJAGENT layers
risks ofrisk
GARRIES
mstances should be assessed carefully, taking into account potential of undesirable
prolonged access of waterinfiltration of fines
into the structure, e.g. byinto the and
flooding, matrix ofconsequences
also the the of damage due
GOARSER material, e.g. between earthworks and pavement layers. In SUGH
GASES the grading of the materials shall be assessed against the filter
GRITERIA given below and GONSTRUGTION of a filter layer shall be GARRIED out
if required.
Alternatively, geo-textiles GAN be used where GOST GALGULATIONS show this
option to be more EGONOMIGAL.
Chapter
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999 5
5.8.1 Filter criteria for soilslgravel Comments:
The GRITERIA for grading of materials in ADJAGENT layers are fulfilled when
the following two requirements are met:
d15 for the filter material
<5
d85 for the subsoil
and
< 25
d50 for the subsoil
5.8.2 Draining properties of filter layers

The GRITERIA below should be met if a filter material with better drainage Situations may arise whereby the filter
properties than the subsoil is desired, SUGH as in LOGATIONS where water layer causes ingress of moisture
instead of draining the water out of the
flows out of the subsoil. The designer should GAREFULLY GONSIDER whether subsoil. This may damage the road
a filter layer with draining properties benefits the integrity of the structure,and should therefor be
avoided.
STRUGTURE. /Ckapłer 6 — Problem Soils/¸

>5
d15 for the subsoil
and minimum 50% should be retained on the 2 mm sieve.
5.8.3 £eo-textiles as filter

The requirements for geo-textile materials depend on site GONDITIONS and
are given in /Chapter7.7.1/. Geo-textiles shall not be used as filter unless
GOST analysis has shown that alternative use of soils/gravel is
UNEGONOMIGAL.
INGREASED bearing strength of earthworks or pavement shall not be
attributed to the PRESENGE of geo-textiles in the STRUGTURE.
5.8.4 Cost
Cost GALGULATIONS shall take into AGGOUNT the benefits of filter layers of
soils/gravel in RESPEGT of the STRUGTURE’s bearing strength, by GONSIDERING
the filter layer as part of the improved subgrade or subbase depending on
the material quality of the layer and its position in the STRUGTURE.
Ministry of Works 5.e

5-4 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
Fampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
Felection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for
highways. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
USA.
5 - 10 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
5 - 11 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and
5 - 12 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
5 - 13 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for
SATCC.
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical
and subtropicat countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31.
TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.
South Africa.
Canada.
Problem Zoils
C
h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
te
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Pavement Design-
Soils New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Pavement
Pavement Materials Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter
6.0 General
Problem Soils GATEGORISES subgrade materials with low strength, or other
unfavourable properties SUGH as for:
■ expansive soils
■ dispersive soils
■ orGANIG soils
■ saline soil or pRESENGE of saline water
These soils require SPEGIAL treatment before AGGEPTANGE in the pavement
foundation. After appropriate treatment, they are RE-GLASSIFIED to fall into
one of the subgrade GATEGORIES S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of pavement
design.
6.1 Low-Strength Soils (CBR <3%)

Soils with CBRsoaked less than 3% (< 2% in dry GLIMATIG ZONES) OGGURRING
within the design depth are DESGRIBED as Low Strength Soils. Before
AGGEPTANGE as foundation of the pavement within the design depth these
soils
tu soils rather than BS-Heavy due to its better correspondence with require
the actual effectSPEGIAL treatment
from compaction that may
equipment conditionsone
underINGLUDE with or more
poor offor
support thecom- paction /Ckapłer 5 — Sub
following measures:
■ removal and REPLAGEMENT of soils
■ GHEMIGAL stabilisation or
■ MODIFIGATION with e.g. lime
■ MEGHANIGAL stabilisation
■ raising of the VERTIGAL alignment to INGREASE soil GOVER and
thereby redefine the design depth within the STRUGTURE
Further details on the RESPEGTIVE methods for treatment of these soils need
to be established in the design at PROJEGT level and will vary depending on
soil properties, site GONDITIONS, available equipment, available materials,
EXPERIENGE from other sites with similar GONDITIONS and GONSTRUGTION
EGONOMY.
The subgrade is RE-GLASSIFIED AGGORDING to the new subgrade strength

after treatment.
6.2 Expansive Soils

6.2.0 £eneral
Expansive soils are those that exhibit PARTIGULARLY large VOLUMETRIG
GHANGES (swell and shrinkage) following variations in their IN-SERVIGE
moisture GONTENTS. Expansive soils shall be assessed also when they
OGGUR below design depth. The GHOSEN measures to minimise or eliminate
the EFFEGT of expansive soils shall be EGONOMIGALLY REALISTIG and
proportionate to the risks of potential pavement damage and INGREASED
MAINTENANGE GOSTS.
This GHAPTER DESGRIBES PROGEDURES to identify and to GLASSIFY expansive

soils AGGORDING to their expansiveness and INGLUDES required GONSTRUGTION
methods to minimise pavement damages where roads are GROSSING
expansive soils. The flow GHART in Figure 6.1 shows the PROGEDURE to
GLASSIFY expansive soils For further details: /Appendis A6/.

Routine investigations
No
Expansive
Perhaps Extended investigations
Normal design
No Yes Severe consequences to the construction economy?
Expansive?
No Yes
Design and construction measures for expansive soils In-depth study
Differenłial movemenłs over łke cross secłion of łke roab causes bevelopmenł of longiłubinal cracks, firsł occuring in łke skoulbe
7igure 6.1 Procedure to classify expansive soils
6.2.1 Type of distress
PARTIGULAR problems ASSOGIATED with road GONSTRUGTION over expansive
soils are GOMMONLY the seasonal VOLUMETRIG GHANGES in these soils rather
Seasonal movement
Seasonal movement
than low bearing strength, SINGE expansive soils are often relatively strong
at equilibrium moisture GONTENT. TYPIGAL distress is from seasonal wetting
and drying whereby soils at the edge of the road wet up - and dry out - at
a different rate than those under a bituminous SURFAGING. This MEGHANISM Cross section
GAUSES differential movements over the GROSS SEGTION of the road and
ASSOGIATED GRAGK developments, first OGGURRING in the shoulder area,
subsequently developing in the GARRIAGEWAY.
6.2.2 Identification of expansive soils

General Expansive soils
Investigations shall be undertaken as DESGRIBED in this GHAPTER and at
further detail in /Appendis A.6/ following test programmes employed at
Outer zones having large seasonal variations in moisture content
an appropriate extent of details as DESGRIBED below. The stages of the

investigation programme are:
■ Routine investigations are those GARRIED out during surveys of
all PROJEGTS.
■ Extended investigations INGLUDE simple additional INDIGATOR
testing in the laboratory where expansive soils are
SUSPEGTED.
■ In-depth studies include SPEGIALISED laboratory testing and is employed
where the extended investigations have shown OGGURRENGE of
expansive soils, and the required GOUNTERMEASURES have far
REAGHING budgetary GONSEQUENGES.
ROGŁINE Invesłigałions
Routine Investigations INGLUDE analysis of routine data from ordinary
GENTRELINE soil surveys and site observations GARRIED out during normal
design work on PROJEGTS. Routine investigations INGLUDE:
■ simple GEOLOGIGAL and GEOMORPHOLOGIGAL assessments
■ field REGONNAISSANGE
■ routine INDIGATOR testing of Atterberg limits and
grading [CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.7]
■ analysis of routine test data
Simple geological and geomorphological assessments are carried out during desk studies of projects for supplementary informa
Comments: The information in Tabte 6.1 is routinely GOLLEGTED as part of proper

field REGONNAISSANGE, with TYPIGAL features of expansive soils given in
keyword form:
Table 6.1 7eatures of expansive soils − soil descriptions
The purpose of analysing routine test
results is to establish whether it is Soil Typical features of
necessary to apply Extended Investi- description expansive soils
gations or not.
SoiI type The more cIayey the soiI, the
more IikeIy to be expansive
Consistency Stiff to very stiff
when sIightIy moist to dry
Consistency when wet Soft to firm and sticky
Structure TypicaI cracked surface, sIicked-
sided fissures
CoIour OnIy a reIiabIe indicator when
combined with IocaI knowIedge
LocaI knowIedge from road projects in the area is invaIuabIe
A soil is potentially expansive and requires Extended

It is advisable to keep archive samples
from the centreline soils survey for Investigations if exhibiting both of the following properties:
Extended Investigations on projects
where expansive soils are likely to be ■ the result of the field REGONNAISSANGE INDIGATES expansive soils, and
encountered.
■ PIW is greater than 20%
PlM = Plasticity lndex tested on fraction <425 µm according to CML tests 1.2 and
1.3 and weighted for the sample’s actual content of particles <425 µm, as follows:
PlM = Pl x (% passing 425µm) / 100
Exłended Invesłigałions
Extended Investigations are GARRIED out where routine investigations
INDIGATE potentially expansive soils. They INGLUDE simple additional
laboratory tests to estimate expansiveness and shall be employed
routinely whenever SPEGIAL measures against damage from expansive soils
are proposed in the design. Extended Investigations shall INGLUDE:
■ testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
■ GALGULATION of expansiveness from given formulas
■ GLASSIFIGATION into Low/Medium/High expansiveness
In-depłk SŁGDIES
In-depth Studies are GARRIED out where the Extended Investigations have
shown OGGURRENGE of expansive soils, and the required GOUNTERMEASURES
have far REAGHING budgetary GONSEQUENGES. In-depth Studies INGLUDE
SPEGIALISED laboratory testing to quantify swell potential and are required
when extensive areas of expansive soils are ENGOUNTERED thus warranting
a relatively GOSTLY testing programme.
6.2.3 Classification of expansive soils

Expansiveness of the soil is a GONVENIENT expression to GLASSIFY PREDIGTED
heave as a result of swelling in expansive soils, although heave depends
on a number of other FAGTORS SUGH as the GONDITIONS under WHIGH the soil Comments:
performs in the road INGLUDING initial moisture GONTENT, density and
SUGTION, plus lateral support, VERTIGAL stress and stress history. The
expansiveness of the soil is however a PRAGTIGALLY measurable parameter
that makes it possible to GLASSIFY the EXPEGTED severity of the problem.
INGLUSION of other parameters BEGOMES too GOMPLEX for PRAGTIGAL
assessment of expansive soils in road design and GONSTRUGTION. The
system for relative GLASSIFIGATION expansive soils is given in Tabte 6.2
based on their
expansiveness. /Appendis A6/ gives the PROGEDURE to determine c ex..
Table 6.2 Xxpansive soils − classification
Expansiveness c Classification
ex
< 20 Low
20 – 50 Medium
> 50 High
6.2.4 Design on expansive soils

General
For calculations of expansiveness for classification into Low/Medium/Hig
Extended Investigations shall be GARRIED out before SPEGIFYING SPEGIAL /Appenbix A6/
design or GONSTRUGTION measures to minimise damage GAUSED by
expansive soils. In-depth studies shall only be GARRIED out on SPEGIFIG
agreement with Ministry of Works.
The PRESGRIBED methods for design on expansive soils are given in Tabte 6.3.
Design principles
ers is always beneficial in construction on expansive soils and should be applied whenever economically possible. The zone of severe seasonal changes in moisture content is thereby mo
Cost GONSIDERATIONS may prohibit full REPLAGEMENT of expansive soils -
n, normally by the PARTIGULARLY if they OGGUR
use of lime, to counteract over
volumetric large
changes areas - although
in expansive this possible,
soils is technically is the but requires careful appraisal of the associated construction costs as well as t
TEGHNIGALLY ideal solution. The following PRINGIPAL methods are PRESGRIBED
in the design in order to minimise seasonal movements in expansive soils
and thereby REDUGE the risk of ASSOGIATED damage to the pavement. The
methods are GOMPROMISES SPEGIFIED for the purpose of providing the most
favourable GONDITIONS possible under the GIRGUMSTANGES:
■ provide nearest possible GONSTANT moisture GONTENTS over the full
width of the GARRIAGEWAY below the embankment
■ REPLAGE the upper layer of the expansive soil, i.e. the zone
where the largest proportion of the VOLUMETRIG GHANGES
takes PLAGE
■ provide a minimum GOVER
Side drains and slope prołecłion

min. 6 m (4 m)
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive soils. If side drains
embankment
GANNOT be avoided due to site GONDITIONS then they shall be kept at a side drain
minimum DISTANGE of 6 metres from the toe of the embankment, however

a DISTANGE of 4 metres is allowed for roads other than trunk roads. Side
fill made of
Comments: expansive soils requires erosion PROTEGTION by grassing, but no trees shall
be planted on the embankment slope.
Table 6.3 Xxpansive soils − methods for treatment
Alternative methods for construction over

Expansiveness expansive soils
of the soils
Paved trunk roads Other paved roads
Low seaIed shouIders

cex < 20 side sIopes 1: 6 or fIatter *)
-
Figure 6.2
Medium - seaIed shouIders
*)
cex 20 - 50 - side sIopes 1: 6 or fIatter
min. earthworks cover 1 m min. earthworks cover 0.6 m
Figure 6.3
- excavate and repIace 0.6 m of cIay according to Fig.
6.3.
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- seaIed shouIders
- side sIopes 1: 6 or fIatter *)
High min. shouIder width 2 m
cex > 50
AIternative: AIternative:
Figure 6.2
None - seaIed shouIders
- min. shouIder width 2 m
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- side sIopes 1: 6 or fIatter*)
*)
Mhere the earthworks cover is larger than 2 metres the side slopes can be made
1:4 or flatter.
6.2.5 Construction on expansive soils

MOISŁGRE
Processing and compaction of The roadbed of expansive soil shall be kept moist and be GOVERED with
expansive soils does not improve earthworks fill without undue delays.
their swell properties, neither is their
strength significantly increased.
Attempts to adjust their moisture Compacłion
content or to achieve an optimum by
mixing, is time consuming, operationally
Attempts to densify expansive soils by PROGESSING and GOMPAGTION are not
impractical and unnecessary. Nominal required.
rolling of the roadbed is optional to
provide a working surface for con-
struction of subsequent layers. Fill for replacemenł of expansive soils
Fill materials used for REPLAGEMENT of expansive soils shall be soils
Requirements for fill materials: /Ckapłer
5 — Subgrabe/ meeting the general requirements for fill, and be as impermeable as
possible. PLASTIG soils (PI min. 15%) shall be used wherever available at
EGONOMIGAL haulage DISTANGES.
Freely draining material Comments:
Pavement layers
1:6 or flatter
Fill and improved 1:2 Side-fill

subgrade
Expansive soil
7igure 6.2 Cross section and construction on expansive soils
Embankments 2 m or higher
Freely draining material Temporary stockpile of
Pavement layers 1:4 or flatter excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
Fill and improved subgrade 1:2
>2m
Side-fill
Max. the width of the surfacing
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m

deep and replaced with fill
Embankments less than 2 m in hight

Pavement layers Freely draining material Temporary stockpile of
1:6 or flatter excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
<2m Fill and improved subgrade 1:2
Side-fill
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m deep and replaced with fill
7igure 6.3 Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil
replacement Comments:
6.3 Other Problem Soils

6.3.0 £eneral
This GHAPTER DISGUSSES a variety of soil types or soil properties that
GOULD be PROBLEMATIG depending on site GONDITIONS and the intended
FUNGTION of the soils. SUGH soils INGLUDE:
■ dispersive soils
■ saline soils or PRESENGE of saline water
■ ORGANIG matter in high quantities
■ deleterious minerals SUGH as MIGAS and sulphides
The subgrade shall be RE-GLASSIFIED AGGORDING to the new subgrade
strength after appropriate treatment of the problem soils.
6.3.1 Dispersive soils

General
Dispersive soils are GLAYS that behave as single grained, very fine The behaviour of dispersive soils is due
PARTIGLES, rather than as a GOHESIVE mass like a GLAY is EXPEGTED to to the electro-chemical composition of
perform. As single grained with very fine PARTIGLES, these soils have these clays that results in particle
repulsion rather than attraction.
almost no RESISTANGE to erosion, are SUSGEPTIBLE to pipe developments in
earthworks, GRAGK easily and have low shear strength. Their EXGESSIVELY
erodible nature is the major problem ASSOGIATED with dispersive soils for
road GONSTRUGTION
Idenłificałion
A GOMBINATION of simple INDIGATOR tests, observations of erosion patterns
in the field,
enerally poor repeatability. Indicator test, compre- hensive laboratory soil GOLOUR
test methods , terrain
and observation features
features anddispersive
to identify vegetation,
soils arewill together
described give A6¸2/¸
in /Appenbix
SUFFIGIENT INDIGATIONS that dispersive soils are present, and shall prompt
PREGAUTIONS in design and GONSTRUGTION of road PROJEGTS. Dispersive soils
GANNOT be identified by gradation and Atterberg limit tests only.
Design and CONSŁRGCŁION

The general properties of dispersive soils are usually poor and likely to
EXGLUDE them from use in the earthworks due to NON-GOMPLIANGE with the
general material standards. The following is required if dispersive soils
are ENGOUNTERED:
■ PARTIGULAR attention to erosion PROTEGTION of GUT slopes and in
drainage GHANNELS is required
■ dispersive soils in unmodified form shall not be used for fill
■ MODIFIGATION with 2% to 3% lime is required if their use in
the earthworks is unavoidable for whatever reason
6.3.2
rime. Fretting of the surface edge can be seen after a length of time in service Caline soils
and excessive ordevelopments
pothole presence of saline
can occur bearing nowater
apparent relation to other pavement defects.
Połenłial damage
PRESENGE of soluble salts in pavement or earthworks GAN GAUSE damage to
a bituminous SURFAGING due to pressures set up just under the bituminous
seal by GRYSTALLISATION of salts migrating upwards as a result of
evaporation. The problem is related to the use of thin bituminous
SURFAGINGS, primarily in SURFAGE treated pavements. Soluble salt GONTENTS
in EXGESS of 0.2% in the base GOURSE are potentially harmful in these type
See detail
of pavements.
A thin bituminous seal gets pushed up by the crystallisation forces
and blistering occurs, having a diametre of 5 to 10 cm initially,
Soluble salt GONTENTS in EXGESS of 0.5% in the subbase, or high salinity of
subsequently developing into a pothole.
groundwater or earthworks layers, may GAUSE migration of soluble salts
to the base GOURSE leading to GRITIGALLY high PERGENTAGES in this layer.
Crystallisation of soluble salts under the bituminous seal.
Locałions
Areas where damage due to soluble salts GAN OGGUR in the dry GLIMATIG
Soluble salts migrate towards the surface within granular layers
zone and in areas along the GOAST with INFLUENGE of sea water.
Idenłificałion
Soluble salts in soils and in GONSTRUGTION water is identified INDIREGTLY by
laboratory tests of ELEGTRIG GONDUGTIVITY. CONSTRUGTION water shall be
admixed to the sample at 1.5 times the required amount to obtain OMC
before the sample is taken for testing of ELEGTRIG GONDUGTIVITY.
CONSŁRGCŁION
The following GONSTRUGTION measures shall be SPEGIFIED where soluble
therefore in general give results on the conservative side. Exhaustive testing to assess the presence of damaging soluble salts is complex and will only be required under special circumsta
salts are present in the pavement materials and alternative SOURGES are not
EGONOMIGALLY obtainable:
■ allowing the layer to dry and remove GRYSTALLISED salts from the
SURFAGE before GONSTRUGTION of following layers
■ priming and GONSTRUGTION of the bituminous SURFAGING
immediately after PROGESSING of the base GOURSE
■ the use of bitumen emulsion prime instead of GUTBAGK bitumen
Chapter
6.3.3 Other deleterious matter Comments:
Organic małłer
OrGANIG soils, e.g. in swamp areas, require SPEGIAL investigations to Recommended limits of organic matter
for cemented materials: /Ckapłer 7 -
assess ground stability and potential for EXGESSIVE settlements. High Pavemenł Małerials/
GONTENTS of orGANIG matter is undesirable in pavement materials,
PARTIGULARLY when used in GEMENT or lime stabilised layers. EXGESSIVE
amounts of orGANIG matter GAUSES INGREASED demands for stabiliser to
AGHIEVE the required UNGONFINED GOMPRESSION strength.
DELEŁERIOGS minerals
High GONTENTS of MUSGOVITE MIGA or sulphides are not allowed in pave- Limits for contents of mica and sulphide
ment layers. minerals in pavement materials:
/Ckapłer 7 - Pavemenł Małerials/
The potential risks of damage due to PRESENGE of other deleterious miner-
als, SUGH as nepheline or others, and GHEMIGAL GONTAMINANTS in mine
tailings or industrial waste PRODUGTS, shall be assessed as required at
PROJEGT level depending on the intended use of the materials.

Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
6-3 GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH
LABORATORY (1993). Assessment of the expansiveness of soils.
Tranzport Rezearch Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/012/93.
Crowthorne, UK.
LABORATORY (1994). Geotechnical properties of expansive soils.
Tranzport Rezearch Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/015/94.
Crowthorne, UK.
LABORATORY (1993). The extent and engineering significance
of expansive soils. Tranzport Rezearch Laboratory, Project Report
PR/ OSC/021/93. Crowthorne, UK.
LABORATORY (1993). A new approach to the determination of
the expansiveness of soils. Tranzport Rezearch Laboratory, Project
Report PR/OSC/011/93. Crowthorne, UK.
6-7 HATHOUT, A S (1983). Foil atlas of Tanzania. Geography
department, Univerzity of Dar ez Salaam.
6-8 McCOOK, D K (1980). The identification and treatment of
dispersive clay soils. Oral prezentation to AEG 1980 Annual
meeting, Dallaz, Texaz, USA.
6 - 10 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
Ftandard 7lexible Pavement Design 7or Rural Roads with
Light to Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
6 - 11 O’CONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Xxpansive clay
road embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions.
Proc. Firzt International Sympozium on Engineering Characterizticz
of Arid Soilz, City Univerzity. London, UK.
6 - 12 OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Foluble salt damage to
thin Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Auztralian
Road Rezearch, 20(4).
6 - 14 WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials
of Fouthern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South
Africa.
6 - 15 WESTON D J (1980). Xxpansive soil treatment for southern Africa.
Proc. 4th International Conference on Expanzive Soilz, Denver, USA.
Pavemen
C
t h
Materials
a
Project appraisal
p
te
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
Pavement
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Pavement
Materials Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design

Ministry of Works
Chapter

This GHAPTER defines the PHYSIGAL properties for materials to be used in
the pavement STRUGTURE and forms an essential part of the method for
design of new roads as given by the design GATALOGUE, and rehabilitation
design for existing roads. Requirements for materials in bituminous
SURFAGINGS and gravel roads are given in /Chapter lO/ and /Chapter ll/
RESPEGTIVELY. Within the limitations given in this GHAPTER, materials used
in the STRUGTURAL layers of the pavement shall be SELEGTED AGGORDING to
GRITERIA of availability, EGONOMIG FAGTORS and previous EXPERIENGE.
Details on the method to assess data All materials are INDIGATED by means of GODES, e.g. G80, C2, CM, ETG.,
from the quality control of material WHIGH refer to materials with GERTAIN defined properties PRESGRIBED in this
properties are given in Standard
Specifications for Highway GHAPTER. For the sake of GONSISTENGY and ease of REFERENGE, the same
Construction. GODES are used in the pavement design GATALOGUE and elsewhere in the
manual where REFERENGE is being made to material types with SPEGIFIG
properties.
References to the relevant standards
are given in Standard Specifications for
As far as possible all material types GOMMONLY used in the GOUNTRY are
Highway Construction for manufactured INGLUDED, e.g. natural gravel/soils, PROGESSED or GRUSHED materials, materi-
materials such as lime, cement and als stabilised with GEMENT or lime and bituminous materials.
bitumen.
7.1 Material Types

7.1.1 Crushed, fresh rock or boulders
Materials made by GRUSHING and SGREENING of hard ROGK SOURGES of a
variety of ROGK types GAN be used in layer work and in bituminous
materials provided they meet the RESPEGTIVE material standards. Two
different qualities are used for layer work, CRR or CRS, depending on
the type of SOURGE and the refinement of the quarry PRODUGT. Crushed
materials of qualities falling below the material GLASSES CRR and CRS
shall be denoted G80 or lower as appropriate.
7.1.2 Weathered rocks and laterites
General
Weathered ROGKS and laterites are GOMMON SOURGES for pavement
materials in the GATEGORY of natural gravel and as a SOURGE for PRODUGTION
of GHEMIGALLY stabilised materials. Laterites are highly weathered
materials formed in a SEGONDARY PROGESS where the hydrated oxides of
iron or aluminium have been AGGUMULATED in sufFIGIENT GONGENTRATIONS to
afFEGT the PHYSIGAL GHARAGTER of the deposits where they OGGUR /7 - 8/.
Basic IGNEOGS rocks

One test method alone is often Weathered ROGKS of BASIG igneous origin, SUGH as basalt and dolerite, may
insufficient to describe the durability of
the rock and observations of past release additional PLASTIG fines during GONSTRUGTION and in SERVIGE, and
performance is invaluable thereby GAUSE loss of strength over time. SUGH materials may require
supplementary information where
the deposit has been used
SPEGIALISED additional laboratory testing to verify their long term
previously. It is important to consider durability. Tests of durability /7 - 3/ may INGLUDE.
quality variations within one rock
deposit where performance data are ■ GHEMIGAL tests SUGH as Sodium or Magnesium Sulphate
used in the assessment of durability.
Soundness tests (SSS or MSS)

■ investigations of mineralogy by GOUNTS of SEGONDARY minerals Comments:
■ PHYSIGAL tests by aggregate GRUSHING in wet vs. dry GONDITION
or modified ball mill tests with studies of ASSOGIATED GHANGES in
grading and Atterberg limits after testing
REFERENGE is made to the Central Materials Laboratory of Ministry of

Works for appropriate PROGEDURES to test durability.
7.1.3 Coral rock and calcrete

General
Coral ROGK is a major SOURGE for pavement materials along the GOAST,
where alternative SOURGES of hard ROGK or good gravel are generally
unavailable within short DISTANGES. CALGRETES are formed under favourable
GONDITIONS in dry and moderate GLIMATIG ZONES in a SEGONDARY PROGESS
where GALGIUM GARBONATE have been AGGUMULATED in sufFIGIENT
GONGENTRATIONS to partly or fully alter or REPLAGE the host material thereby
afFEGTING the PHYSIGAL GHARAGTER of the deposits where they OGGUR. Both
GALGRETES and GORAL ROGKS TYPIGALLY have large variations in quality within
a deposit and require GAREFUL SELEGTION and STOGKPILING.
Laborałory łesłs
The Atterberg limits of GORAL ROGKS and GALGRETES will appear ARTIFIGIALLY Drying of material during testing of
high as a result of the TYPIGAL low SPEGIFIG gravity and the high water Atterberg limits is carried out at 60 oC for
calcrete and coral rock, in accordance
absorption of the PARTIGLES often seen in these materials. Standard grading with guidelines of Central Materials
tests may give a distorted impression of the PARTIGLE distribution in the Laboratory of Ministry of Morks.
material due to varying SPEGIFIG gravity of PARTIGLES having different size
within one sample. The design limits of GORAL ROGKS and GALGRETES are
therefore modified GOMPARED to the general requirements and grading
envelopes are not given for these types of materials.
¸
7.1.4 Volcanic tuff (scoria)

VOLGANIG tuff often fail to meet pavement material standards due to low The use of special compaction
PARTIGLE strength and GAN give GONSTRUGTION problems even when meeting equipment such as grid rollers can be
beneficial under circumstances where
required material standards for layer work. This is due to poor breaking of particles is desirable.
GOMPAGTABILITY GAUSED by their open grain STRUGTURE and a rough PARTIGLE
shape. Admixture of suitable fines GAN greatly improve workability, REDUGE
the breaking of PARTIGLES during GONSTRUGTION and give AGGEPTABLE results.
7.1.5 Celf-cementing materials

Certain types of natural gravel SUGH as some PEDOGENIG materials - e.g. Petrifaction test of the soil fines and
GALGRETE and laterite - are known to exhibit SELF-GEMENTING properties in tests of CBR after wet/dry cycles or
pavement layers, possibly GAUSED by SUGTION. SUGH materials would others may be used to identify self-
cementing properties in soils /7 - 3/
require SPEGIALISED testing and evaluation before any favourable self- anb /7 - 4/¸
GEMENTING properties GAN be taken advantage of in the pavement design.
Comments: 7.2 Unbound Materials
7.2.1 Natural gravel
Classificałion
The natural gravel GATEGORY INGLUDES granular materials - without any
admixture of stabilisers - having the following GOMPOSITION:
■ 100% natural gravel, or
■ natural gravel with SUGH small proportions of GRUSHED PARTIGLES
that the material properties are almost IDENTIGAL to the UNGRUSHED
portion
Pavement materials falling into this GATEGORY are shown in Tabte 7.l.
Table 7.1 Natural gravel, material classes
Material class Characteristics

- CBR min. 80%
G 80 - the class includes crushed materials where less than 50% by
mass of particles retained on the 5 mm sieve has a crushed face
G 60 CBR min. 60%

G 45 CBR min. 45%
G 25 CBR min 25%
Małerial REQGIRMENŁS
Natural granular pavement materials shall GOMPLY with the requirements
in Tabtes 7.2 and 7.3.
Table 7.2 Material requirements - G80 and G60
Material class
Material CML test
properties G80 G60 method
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 80 after 4 days soak Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 60 after 4 days soak
CBR [%] Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met):
at 98% MDD of min 80 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 60 at OMC of BS-Heavy 1.7 and
BS-Heavy min 60 after 4 days soaking min 45 after 4 days soaking 1.11
max 0.5 max 1.0
CBR - swell [%]
measured at BS-Heavy compaction measured at BS-Heavy compaction
General Coral rock, calcrete or General Coral rock, calcrete or
Atterberg requirements other calcified materials requirements other calcified materials
limits 1) Wet or Dry Wet Dry or Wet Dry or Wet Dry or
moderate climate climate moderate climate moderate climate moderate
max LL [%] 30 40 35 45 35 45 40 45 1.2
max PI [%] 8 14 10 16 10 16 12 18 1.3
max LS [%] 4 7 5 8 5 8 6 9 1.4
Grading, sieve Grading envelope, G80
(no envelope for G60, coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials)
sizes [mm] [% passing]
63 100
37.5 80 - 100 Grading requirements:
20 60 - 95 - dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness
5 30 - 65 - Grading Modulus (GM *) ): min 2.0 1.7
2 20 - 50 *)
0.425 10 - 30 GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100
0.075 5 - 15
Particle TFVdry : min 80 kN TFVdry : min 50 kN
TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry 2.7
strength
Soluble salts Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 98% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that the Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and
utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
Table 7.3 Material requirements - G45 and G25 Comments:
Material Material class

CML test
properties G45 G25 method
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 45 after 4 days Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 25 after 4 days
soak soak
CBR [%]
at 95% MDD Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): 1.7 and
of BS-Heavy min 45 at OMC of BS- min 25 at OMC of BS- 1.11
Heavy min 25 after 4 days Heavy min 15 after 4 days
soaking soaking
max 0.5 max 1.0
CBR - swell [%]
measured at BS-Heavy compaction measured at BS-Heavy compaction
General Coral rock, calcrete or General Coral rock, calcrete or
Atterberg requirements other calcified materials requirements other calcified materials
limits 1) Wet or Dry Wet Dry or Wet or Dry Wet Dry or
moderate climate climate moderate moderate climate climate moderate
max LL [%] 40 45 45 50 45 50 45 55 1.2
max PI [%] 14 18 16 20 16 20 18 24 1.3
max LS [%] 7 9 8 10 8 10 9 12 1.4
Grading *)
min 1.5 min 1.2
Modulus (GM) *)
GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100 1.7
Particle size dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness
Soluble salts Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 95% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and
utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
Comments:
7.2.2 Crushed materials
Classificałion
The GATEGORY INGLUDES GRUSHED granular materials - without any admixture
of stabilisers - where the full range of PARTIGLE sizes from fines up to the
max. nominal size are INGLUDED. The pavement design GATALOGUE uses two
BASIG qualities of GRUSHED base GOURSE materials, as DESGRIBED in Tabte 7.4.
The GLASSES of pavement materials falling into this GATEGORY are shown in
Tabte 7.4.
Table 7.4 Crushed materials, material classes
ery high and are normally not achieved unless special techniques such as slushing with water are applied during construction. This type of material is therefore never prescribed unless
- fresh, crushed rock or large, crushed boulders,
>0.3 m diameter
CRR
- requirements are restrictive
- compaction requirements are restrictive
- the class includes crushed oversize from gravel
sources, crushed all-in sources of boulders
CRS and crushed coral rocks of selected qualities
- min. 50% by mass of particles retained on the
5 mm sieve shall have at least one crushed face
Małerial REQGIREMENŁS
Crushed granular materials for pavement layers shall GOMPLY with the
requirements in Tabte 7.5.
Comments: Table 7.5 Material requirements - CRR and CRF
Material Material class CML test

properties CRR CRS method
Crushed rock. Shall be made by crushing and Crushed stone. Made by crushing and screening of
screening of fresh quarried rock or clean, un- blasted rock, stones, boulders and oversize from natural
Material source weathered boulders of minimum 0.3 m diameter. All gravel. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm
particles shall be crushed, no soil fines allowed. shall have at least one crushed face. Max 30% of
material passing 5 mm can be soil fines.
max LL [%] 1) 30 35 1.2
max LS [%] 1) 3 4 1.4
Grading, sieve [% passing] [% passing]
sizes [mm] Coarse Type Fine Type Coarse Type Fine Type
50 100
37.5 100 90 - 100 100
28 87 - 97 100 75 - 95 90 - 100
20 75 - 90 87 - 97 60 - 90 65 - 95
10 52 - 68 62 - 77 40 - 75 40 - 70
5 38 - 55 44 - 62 29 - 60 29 - 52 1.7
2 23 - 40 27 - 45 20 - 45 20 - 40
1,18 18 - 33 22 - 38 17 - 40 15 - 33
0,425 11 - 24 13 - 27 12 - 31 10 - 24
0,075 4 - 12 5 - 12 5 - 15 4 - 12
Aggregate TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry
TFVdry : min 110 kN 2.7
strength
Soluble salt content For aggregate used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 88% Nominal value: min 100%
requirements of Aggregate Density of MDD BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise
BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
Comments:
7.3 Cemented materials
7.3.1 Classification
Cemented materials DESGRIBED in this manual INGLUDE all natural or
GRUSHED materials where a stabiliser of GEMENT or lime has been
admixed.
The GLASSES of GEMENTED materials are shown in Tabte 7.6.
Table 7.6 Cemented materials, material classes
ormally be useb as subbase in concrełe pavemenłs anb małerial słanbarbs are noł given kere¸
- UCS min. 4 MPa - used as subbase in concrete

pavements
C4
- made from source materials of quality nominally as
CRS - with modified requirements
- UCS min. 2 MPa
- made from source materials of quality nominally as
C2
G45 - with modified requirements
- UCS min. 1 MPa
C1 - made from source materials of quality nominally as
- UCS min. 0.5 MPa – modified material
CM - made from source materials of quality nominally as
7.3.2 Material requirements

Cemented materials shall GOMPLY with the requirements in Tabte 7.7.
Table 7.7 Material requirements - C2, C1 and CM.
Comments:
Material Material class

CML test
properties method
C2 C1 CM
Subbase quality soils/gravel Earthworks quality soils/gravel
Source material Nominal quality of source material - with requirements as given here
min UCS [MPa] 2,0 1,0 0,5 1.21
ICL - test Stabiliser content [ % design ] shall be minimum the initial consumption of lime (ICL) value 1.22
max PI after stabilisation [%] 1) 8 8 8 1.2 and 1.3
Before stabilisation:
min CBRsoaked [%] 30 20 - 1.11
at 95% MDD of BS-Heavy
max PI [%] 1) 20 25 35 1.2 and 1.3
min 1.5 min 1.2 -
*)
Grading modulus
1.7
*)
GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100
Particle size, dMAX d MAX to be max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness
Aggregate strength TFVdry : min 50 kN - - 2.7
Field density Nominal value: min 97% of MDD BS-Heavy
The content of organic matter should not exceed 0.5% - 1% - 2% for C2 - C1 - CM materials respectively.
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise
BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
7.3.3 Type of stabiliser High contents of organic matter will increase the demand for stabiliser to achieve the required Unconfined Com
The stabiliser shall be Ordinary Portland Cement or lime meeting the
requirements of BS-890. Hydrated lime or QUIGKLIME may be used, but a
programme DESGRIBING the safety PREGAUTION for PROTEGTION of personnel
shall be established on sites where QUIGKLIME is used.
Tabte 7.8 gives the best suited type of stabiliser to use depending
on the soil properties.
Table 7.8 Felection of stabiliser for cemented materialsused for stabilisation of some calcified materials even when the PI is low.
Lime can be successfully
% passing the PI Best

TRL-Road Note G1 /7 suited
- 7/ and South Africa TRH 1G /7 - 9/ refers for guidelines on the use of pozzolans and for further d
75 µm sieve [%] stabiliser
PI is less than 6%
or PI x (%pass. 75 cement only 1)
µm) is less than 60

Less than 25%
6 - 10 cement preferred
more than 10 cement or lime
less than 10 cement preferred
More than 25% 10 - 20 cement or lime
2)
more than 20 lime preferred
1)
Lime requires presence of clay particles to react and is therefore used for materials
with high PI. Admixture of pozzolans, such as pulverised fuel ash from coal fired power
plants, can make stabilisation with lime possible also for materials with low PI.
2)
Cement is the preferred stabiliser for materials with low PI. However, cement can be
used for stabilisation of materials with high PI provided the workability of the material is
improved by pre-treatment
The with 2%
ICL is the amount lime priorconsumed
of stabiliser to cementinstabilisation.
the initial ion exchange reaction and is a required minimum content when using cement or lime. B
7.3.4 Content of stabiliser

Large amounts of stabiliser causes excessive crack developments in the cemented layer.
The design GONTENT of stabiliser, expressed as a PERGENTAGE of the dry
weight of the soil, is determined AGGORDING to CML tests 1.19, 1.20,1.21
and 1.22 and shall not be less than the minimum GONTENT found in the test
of Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL). Where mixing on the road is
employed the GONTENT used in the field shall EXGEED the design GONTENT
from laboratory tests by 1% - point.
If a stabiliser GONTENT in EXGESS of 4-5% is required then GONSIDERATION
shall be given to SELEGTING better qualities of materials to stabilise.
7.3.5 Construction
Time limiłs
Tabte 7.9 gives the maximum allowed time from the stabiliser has GOME
inwatering
efore adding the stabiliser, thereby minimising the required time for with
GONTAGTand theafter
mixing material until
the stabiliser has GOMPAGTION andthe
come in contact with finishing
material. of the layer
is GOMPLETED.
Table 7.9 Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer
Stabiliser and material class Allowed time for completion
Cement - C4, C2, C1, CM max 4 hours

Lime - C4, C2, C1 max 8 hours
Lime - CM max 48 hours
High contents of calcium carbonate in calcretes may cause a more rapid reaction with
lime than expected. In such cases the maximum allowed time for completion shall be
altered as required after trials on site.
CGRING - general
The GEMENTED layer shall be kept moist and sealed off as soon as
possible after GOMPLETED GOMPAGTION. Curing is essential for proper gain
in the surface, there is a risk of detrimental wetting/drying cycles to take place and the method is overall unlikely to be effective in practice.
in strength by preventing drying out of the layer. Curing is also
important to prevent future loss of strength in the GEMENTED material by
GARBONISATION GAUSED by exposure to air. Curing by GONTINUOUS watering
shall be RESTRIGTED to the period from GOMPLETED GONSTRUGTION until the
GURING methods DESGRIBED below are in PLAGE AGGORDING to the time limits
given.
ble as this can cause impaired conditions for curing of the upper part of the layer.
CGRING mełkod - cemenłed base COGRSE

A bituminous GURING membrane shall be applied without undue delays
and within 24 hours after GOMPLETION of the layer. Drying out of the
curing membrane
layer must not be allowed. The GURING membrane shall be applied at a
spray rate that gives minimum 0.5 l/m of residual bitumen.
2
Bitumen emulsion is the preferred type of bituminous

cemented Guring membrane.
base course
However GUTBAGK bitumen, MC30 or MC70 prime, may be used if trials
show no adverse efFEGT SUGH as loosening of the SURFAGE of the layer.
TrafFIG shall be kept off the GOMPLETED layer for minimum 7 days after
GOMPLETED GOMPAGTION. The GURING membrane shall be PROTEGTED from
damage by trafFIG. Sanding-off after the GURING period shall be employed if
required due to site GONDITIONS.
CGRING mełkod - cemenłed SGBBASE

Granular base GOURSE material shall be PLAGED on the GEMENTED subbase
in a loose THIGKNESS of minimum 50 mm - and watered - without undue
delays and within 48 hours after GOMPLETION of the GEMENTED layer.
Drying out of the layer must not be allowed. Alternatively a temporary
granular layer of minimum 50 mm loose THIGKNESS GAN similarly be
spread and watered, and removed immediately before PLAGING the base
GOURSE.
The GEMENTED subbase shall REGEIVE a bituminous GURING membrane in the
GASES where a bituminous base GOURSE is used. The applied method shall
be as DESGRIBED for GURING of GEMENTED base GOURSES.
Chapter
7.3.6 Other chemical stabilisers
Comments:
CHEMIGAL stabilisers other than bitumen, GEMENT or lime, may only be
used on agreement with the Ministry of Works at PROJEGT level. SUGH Alternative chemical constituents
alternative stabilisers INGLUDE IONIG soil stabilisers and other GHEMIGAL
including ionic soil stabilisers and
various products from the chemical
PRODUGTS sold under various brand names. industry have been used in soil
stabilisation in some countries and
The following issues shall be GLARIFIED for EAGH PROJEGT before use of there are reports on successful use
alternative GHEMIGAL stabilisers are allowed in STRUGTURAL layers: under given conditions. These
stabilisers should be reserved for trials
■ GERTIFIGATION of the GHEMIGAL’s efFEGT on personnel and environmentunless the long-term stabilising effect of
■ required properties of the stabilised material to suit the the particular product is properly
documented.
requirements of the STRUGTURAL layer in question
■ required properties of the SOURGE materials and their availability
■ mix formula
■ routines for laboratory testing and quality ASSURANGE
■ assessments of material properties over time
■ GONTRAGTUAL obligations of suppliers
■ the possibility for GOMPETITIVE bidding
7.4 Bituminous Base Course

Materials
7.4.0 £eneral
Scope
This GHAPTER INGLUDES bitumen penetrated MAGADAM and bituminous mixes
used in the base GOURSE - whether mixed in plant or mixed on the road. There is a considerable amount of
The appropriate use of EAGH individual material type, SUGH as limitations innovative work being done in the field
of bituminous materials and this manual
with regards to trafFIG, is set out in the pavement design GATALOGUE cannot fully include specialised material
/Chapter 8.3.2/. types which may be proposed for
projects.
Alternative bituminous base GOURSE materials that are not INGLUDED here,
shall have their properties measured against the requirements for the
material types DESGRIBED in this GHAPTER prior to approval for use.
SłRGCŁGRAL fGNCŁION of BIŁGMINOGS mixes for base COGRSE

Bituminous mixes for base GOURSE FUNGTION as main STRUGTURAL layers and
the desired properties are therefore primarily high stiffness and RESISTANGE
It is considered risky to compromise
against deformation. The ability of the bituminous mix to withstand resistance against deformation of the
PLASTIG deformation is emphasised due to the severe GONSEQUENGES with bituminous base course for high res-
GOSTLY repair of SUGH type of distress. The method to minimise the risk of istance against fatigue cracking under
the prevailing temperature conditions.
fatigue GRAGKING is primarily by providing the stiffest possible support
and thereby minimising strain in the base GOURSE layer.
The largest possible aggregate size GORRESPONDING to the layer THIGKNESS is
desirable for EGONOMIGAL reasons and to provide high shear strength in the
layer.
Descripłion and SŁRGCŁGRAL FGNCŁION of penełrałion macadam

CONSTRUGTION of penetration MAGADAM involves spraying of relatively
Penetration macadam base course has
large amounts of bitumen on a layer of GOARSE aggregate without fines, been used successfully in this country
and subsequently rolling in a layer of GHIPPING as a key stone to provide on a large scale giving excellent service
INTERLOGKING and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix GAN life. The high flexibility allows
penetration macadam to be used
be used instead of key stone. The FUNGTION of the penetration MAGADAM is successfully in pavements with
fundamentally different from the bituminous mixes - being EXGEPTIONALLY marginal stiffness in supporting layers,

Comments: flexible and able to absorb DEFIGIENGIES in the strength of sub-layers,
(contd.) and at the same time providing high shear strength. Penetration
trafficked roads. Penetration macadam MAGADAM is PARTIGULARLY well suited on roads with low TRAFFIG speed
can be constructed by the use of labour SUGH as urban roads. On roads with high TRAFFIG speed a levelling layer
intensive methods and is well suited for
construction in areas with restricted of a bituminous mix will provide the required riding quality.
access by heavy plant and where it is
difficult to perform good layer-work
techniques which are often critical with 7.4.1 Classification
alternative material types.
Classes of bituminous base GOURSE materials are shown in Tabte 7.lO.
Table 7.10 Bituminous base course - material classes
Characteristics
Material class
Name Process Mixing method
Dense bitumen
DBM Hot
macadam Mixing plant,
Large aggregate mix Chapter 7.4.2
LAMBS Hot
for bases
Penetration On the road, sprayed,
PM Cold Chapter 7.4.3
macadam
FBMIX Foamed bitumen mix Cold

Mixing plant or on the
road, Chapter 7.4.4
BEMIX Bitumen emulsion mix Cold
7.4.2 Hot bituminous mixes

Dense BIŁGMEN Macadam (DBM)
Dense bitumen MAGADAM for base GOURSE layers shall GOMPLY with the
requirements in Tabte 7.ll.
Table 7.11 Material requirements − DBM
Material class
Material
properties DBM 40 DBM 30
Dense bitumen macadam Dense bitumen macadam CML
Max nominal size 40 mm 30 mm test
Grading, sieve method
sizes [mm] % passing % passing
50 100 -
37.5 95 - 100 100
28 70 - 95 90 - 100
20 - 70 - 95
14 56 - 76 58 - 82
10 53 - 70 52 - 73
5 39 - 56 40 - 56 1.7
2 24 - 40 24 - 40
1,18 19 - 35 19 - 35
0,425 9 - 25 9 - 25
0,300 7 - 21 7 - 21
0,075 2-9 2-9
Bitumen content nominally 4.0% nominally 4.5% 3.22

Type of bitumen 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
Aggregate TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry
TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
strength
Layer thickness 80 - 200 mm 60 - 150 mm
Chapter
Large Aggregałe Mix for Base COGRSE (LAMBS)
LAMBS is a hot mixed bituminous material for base GOURSE on heavily
trafFIGKED roads and areas of extreme loading,
The SUGH as design
aim in the GLIMBING lanes.
of LAMBS is to optimise the properties of available materials and plant and grading
Large Aggregate Mixes (LAMBS) obtain their strength and RESISTANGE to
deformation primarily from aggregate INTERLOGK and exhibit the following
TYPIGAL features:
■ large upper nominal PARTIGLE size (dMAX up to 50 mm) and

flexibility in grading requirements, giving good GRUSHING
EGONOMY
■ high stability and shear strength, providing good RESISTANGE
against deformation GAUSED by heavy loading
■ low required bitumen GONTENTS for good EGONOMY
LAMBS shall GOMPLY with the requirements in Tabte 7.l2. The design
method for LAMBS shall be GARRIED out in AGGORDANGE with /7 - 5/. The
design method for LAMBS requires SPEGIAL equipment for preparation of
test SPEGIMENS due to the large aggregate size. If SUGH equipment is not
available the material type DBM 40 shall be the alternative for the base
GOURSE.
Table 7.12 Material requirements - LAMBF
Material LAMBS CML test

properties Large aggregate mix for base course method
Aggregates shall be made by crushing of fresh rock
Aggregate type
or clean, large boulders with a diametre >0.3 m.
min 37.5
Max particle size, dMAX [mm]
max 50
1.7
Shape of the grading min 0.4 *)
curve, n-value max 0.7
Aggregate TFVsoaked 24hrs : min 75% of TFVdry
strength
Water absorption [%] max 3 3.13

Aggregate LS [%] max 2 1.4
Filler content, pass. 0.075 mm [%] 5-8 1.7
Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: 40/50 pen. grade
Bitumen grade 3.5
Traffic TLC 1 to TLC 10: 60/70 pen. grade
Bitumen content [%] 3.5 to 4.5 to be determined in the mix design 3.22
Mix design Shall be carried out in accordance with Ref/7- 4/
min 1.5 x ( dMAX ), preferably 2 x ( dMAX )
Layer thickness
80 - 200 mm compacted thickness
Values of ‘n’ higher than 0.7 may result in segregation and poor workabil
*)
The target grading curve is derived from the formula given below. The shape of the
grading curve shall be such that it falls within the outer limits defined by an n value from
0.4 to 0.7 as specified in Table 7¸12¸ The formulae for the n value is the following:
(100 - F) ( dn – 0.075n)
P= +F
(Dn - 0.075n)
where:
P = percentage passing sieve size d (mm)
D = max particle size ( dMAX )
F = filler content
n = a parameter to describe the shape of the grading curve

Comments: 7.4.3 Penetration macadam
Penetration MAGADAM base GOURSE materials shall GOMPLY with the
requirements in Tabte 7.l3.
Table 7.13 Material requirements − penetration macadam
Material Material class CML

test
properties PM 80 PM 60 PM 30 method
Max nominal size [mm] 80 60 30
125 100 50
Layer thickness [mm] The layer thickness of the penetration macadam should correspond with the
aggregate fraction in order to obtain stability of the layer.
Bitumen spray rate [l/m2] *)
3-4 3-4 2-3
3.5
Bitumen type 80/100 or 60/70 penetration grade
Aggregate strength TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
Grading, sieve Main fraction
sizes [mm] % passing % passing % passing
100 100 - -
75 75 - 100 100 -
63 - 80 - 100 -
50 0 - 50 0 - 50 -
37,5 0 - 25 0 - 25 100 2.3
28 0-5 0-5 80 - 100
20 - - 0 - 50
14 - - 0 - 25
10 0-5
Flakiness Index - - 35 2.4
*)
Grading, sieve Key stone
sizes [mm] % passing % passing % passing
50 100 - -
37,5 85 - 100 100 -
28 0 - 50 85 - 100 -
20 0 - 25 0 - 50 100
14 0-5 0 - 25 85 - 100 2.3
10 - 0-5 0 - 55
6.3 - - 0 - 25
5 - - 0 - 10
Flakiness Index - 35 35 2.4
*) Requirements for alternative use of a bituminous mix instead of key stone are set out in the text.
A bituminous mix GAN be used instead of key stone to provide stability

in the penetration MAGADAM. The bituminous mix shall meet the
requirements in Chapter 7.4.2 or /Chapter lO.8/ in the GASE of hot mixed
material and Chapter 7.4.4 for GOLD mixed material. The upper nominal
aggregate size of the bituminous mix shall be adjusted as required to
provide sufFIGIENT INTERLOGKING with the MAGADAM layer. The bitumen
spray rates for penetration, as given in Tabte 7.l3, GAN be REDUGED in the
GASE a bituminous mix is used instead of key stone. Site trials shall be
undertaken to prove that the proposed REDUGTION is possible without
GAUSING instability of the layer.
e of a bituminous mix instead of key stone gives the following advantages:
7.4.4 Cold bituminous mixes

uent application of a surface treatment, whereby full waterproofing of the surface is more easily achieved
General
Cold bituminous mixes have the advantage that they GAN be mixed on the
road BEGAUSE they need no heating, thus making it possible to reuse and
improve existing layers in PLAGE by in-situ milling. In order to enable
mixing and GOATING of aggregate PARTIGLES in GOLD bituminous mixes it is
NEGESSARY to use bitumen that is either:
■ emulsified to REDUGE VISGOSITY at the time of mixing, or Comments:
■ foamed in order to greatly expand its volume and
thereby FAGILITATE GOATING of the PARTIGLES
This GHAPTER sets out requirements for GOLD mixes where foamed bitumen Due to the alternative use of natural
or bitumen emulsion is used. CUTBAGK bitumen shall not be used in mixes gravel aggregates in cold mixes the
density of the mix may vary
due to potential stability problems during GURING and for environmental considerably thus rendering
reasons ASSOGIATED with the use of large amounts of solvents. conventional expression of bitumen
content as a percentage by weight
misleading, unless accompanied by the
Foamed BIŁGMEN mix — FBMIX density of the actual mix.
Foaming of bitumen is temporary expansion of the bitumen to 15-20
times its original volume by GONTROLLED INTRODUGTION of small amounts of
water in hot bitumen, GARRIED out in a SPEGIAL PROGESSING plant. Foamed
bitumen shall meet the requirements in Tabte 7.l4.
Table 7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen
Properties of the foamed bitumen Requirements
Ratio between volume of bitumen in a foamed state

and in an un-foamed state min 15
At least one of the following requirements shall be

fulfilled:
1. Time until the volume of the foam has decreased min 15

to half of its maximum volume seconds
2. Ratio between volume of bitumen in a foamed min 7.5

state and in an un-foamed state after 15 seconds
The test of foamed bitumen utilises a 10 litre cylindrical bucket.
Cold bituminous mixes for base GOURSE, made with foamed bitumen, shall
GOMPLY with the requirements in Tabte 7.l5. Aggregate for foamed Plastic aggregates may give
bitumen mixes GAN be natural gravel or GRUSHED materials. The required operational problems during mixing and
laying even if the requirement of PI
moisture GONTENT in the mix is determined in the mix design and shall be max 14% is fulfilled.
within the limits given in Tabte 7.l5 at the time of laying. /Appenbix A1- Definiłions of Terms/
includes the definition of dry density of
mixes where both bitumen and water is
present.
Comments: Table 7.15 Material requirements − 7BMIX
Material class
Material
properties FBMIX CML test
method
Foamed bitumen mix
Aggregate source Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
PI [%] 1)
max 14 before admixture of bitumen 1.2 and 1.3
CBRsoaked [%] min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy 1.11
TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry
Aggregate
strength Traffic TLC 3 and TLC 10: TFVdry : min 110 kN 2.7
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFVdry : min 80 kN
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm] % passing
37,5 100
28 80 - 100
20 60 - 95
10 42 - 78
1.7
5 30 - 65
2 20 - 50
0,425 10 - 30
0,075 5 - 15
E-Modulus [MPa] min 1600, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 oC 3.21
Marshall stability [N] min 6000 tested at 40oC
Marshall flow [mm] 2-4 3.18
Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points
max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points 1.1
the time of laying [%]
Type of bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade 3.5
Adhesion agents Approved adhesion agents shall be admixed at min 0.5% by weight of bitumen
Bitumen content Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m3 of compacted material 3.22
Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
BIŁGMEN EMGLSION mix - BEMIX

Cold mixed bitumen emulsion for stabilisation of base GOURSE layers
with minimum 3.5% residual bitumen GONTENT shall GOMPLY with the
requirements in Tabte 7.l6. Materials with smaller amounts of binder
shall be GLASSIFIED as bitumen modified and the design of SUGH materials
shall be GARRIED out in AGGORDANGE with /7 - 10/.
7.4.5 Construction
Penełrałion
re sensitive to aggregate properties such as grading, plasticity index and fines contentmacadam
and correct moisture content, and is also more prone to damage by rain.
Penetration MAGADAM base GOURSE normally requires no SPEGIAL preparat-
ion of the underlying SURFAGE. COMPAGTION shall be GARRIED out with
vibrating rollers and the number of passes shall be min 3 − max 5. The
number of passes after APPLIGATION of keystone shall be min 2 − max 4.
Hoł mixes
TAGK GOAT of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum
0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and SURFAGES where hot mixed
bituminous base GOURSE is laid. The required minimum temperature for
GOMPAGTION shall be in AGGORDANGE with /Chapter lO.8.4/.
Table 7.16 Material requirements - BXMIX
Comments:
Material class
Material CML test
properties BEMIX method
Bitumen emulsion mix
Aggregate source Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
PI [%] 1) max 8 before admixture of bitumen 1.2 and 1.3
CBRsoaked [%] min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy 1.11
Aggregate TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry
strength Traffic TLC 3: TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFVdry : min 80 kN
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm] % passing
37,5 100
28 80 - 100
20 60 - 95
10 35 - 70
5 25 - 50 1.7
2 18 - 35
0,425 10 - 25
0,075 5-8
E-Modulus [MPa] min 1200, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 oC 3.21
Marshall stability [N] min 4500 tested at 40oC
Marshall flow [mm] 2-4 3.18
Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points
the time of laying [%] max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points 1.1
Type of base bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade 3.5
Bitumen content Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m3 of compacted material 3.22
Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
Cold mixes Comments:

TAGK GOAT of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum
0.3 l/m2 residual binder
Subbase made on all materials
of cemented joints and on SURFAGES
will have a bituminoustowards other and may not require any further application of tack coat. Subbase mad
curing membrane
bituminous layers and between ADJAGENT layers PLAGED in SUGGESSION
where the same type of material is used. Priming or APPLIGATION of TAGK
GOAT shall be GARRIED out as required if problems with slippage of the
bituminous base GOURSE OGGUR.
Compacłion łrials
Detailed GOMPAGTION trials shall be GARRIED out at the beginning of
laying operations and when a new mix formula or PRODUGTION
PROGEDURE is INTRODUGED. The GOMPAGTION trial shall show GOMPLIANGE
with mix formulas and demonstrate the ADEQUAGY of the proposed
GOMPAGTION PROGEDURES. The GOMPAGTION trial shall also GONFIRM that
equipment and PROGEDURES are adequate for paving at the proposed
layer THIGKNESS while AGHIEVING SATISFAGTORY riding quality and SUFFIGIENT
density to the bottom of the layer.
Comments: 7.5 Deleterious Minerals
SGLPKIDE minerals
The maximum allowed /7 -2l/ GONTENT of sulphide minerals SUGH as pyrite,
MARGASITE, and GHALGOPYRITE, in aggregates are given in Tabte 7.l7.
Table 7.17 Fulphide minerals in aggregates
Max content of sulphide minerals

Intended use
[% ]
Bituminous materials max 2
Granular materials for base
max 1
course or subbase
Cement or lime stabilised
Zero allowed
materials
Mica
MUSGOVITE MIGA (light GOLOUR) GAUSES DIFFIGULTIES in AGHIEVING GOMPAGTION
The effect of mica is particularly
adverse when the mica plates are of granular layers and the initial density may DEGREASE in SERVIGE and
larger than 0.5 mm diameter. A content promote ingress of water. Biotite MIGA (BLAGK GOLOUR) tends to break
higher than 10% by volume means that
the mica is easily detectable at a
rather than behave like flexing plates in the soil matrix and is therefore
glance during visual inspection. of less GONGERN. Contents of MUSGOVITE MIGA above 10% by volume are
not allowed in granular pavement layers. No SPEGIFIG limit is set for
biotite MIGA.
SOLGBLE salłs
Testing of ELEGTRIG GONDUGTIVITY is the preferred, simple, method to
/Ckapłer 6 — Problem Soils/¸
INDIREGTLY determine the GONTENT of soluble salts in soils and GONSTRUGTION
water. SPEGIAL methods for design and GONSTRUGTION of pavements with
PRESENGE of soluble salts, INGLUDING the setting of appropriate design
limits, are DISGUSSED in /7-ll/.
Rapidly weałkering minerals

Rapidly weathering minerals, e.g. nepheline, or ROGK types SUGH as
Testing to identify rapidly weathering
minerals: /7-3/ anb /7-9/¸ some BASIG igneous ROGKS, require SPEGIAL testing to identify their potential
for rapid weathering and to verify SUFFIGIENT durability for use in
pavement layers.
7.6 Surveys for Construction

Materials
7.6.1 Borrow pits
Potential borrow pits shall be surveyed by trial pit EXGAVATIONS and
sampling at the stage of detailed design. The survey shall prove SUFFIGIENT
quantities for all pavement and earthworks materials. The sampling
FREQUENGY shall be minimum that given in Tabte 7.l8.
Table 7.18 Borrow pits - minimum test frequency prior to opening
Comments:
Max m3 to be represented by one test

Intended use Grading Aggregate
CBR
and PI strength
Bituminous base course 5 000 3 000 10 000
Cemented base course 5 000 5 000 20 000
Cemented subbase 10 000 10 000 -
Base course - nat. gravel 5 000 3 000 20 000
Subbase - natural gravel 10 000 5 000
Improved subgrade 10 000 10 000
Fill 20 000 20 000 -
No less than four trial pits shall be excavated in each borrow pit.
7.6.2 Quarries
All new quarry sites of massive ROGK shall at the design stage be invest-
igated by GORE drilling to establish SUFFIGIENT quantities for the PROJEGT. Existing quarries may be investigated
The extent of investigations shall be determined depending on site by proof drilling, core drilling, trial
blasting or as required depending on site
GONDITIONS and the type of PROJEGT. conditions such as the size of current
operations compared to required future
operations for the project.
7.7 Manufactured Materials

7.7.1 £eo-textiles used as separating layers
General
Geo-textiles are used for separation of materials of different grading
where there is a risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of Geo-textile used for prevention of
a GOARSER material. reflective cracking in pavement
rehabilitation works is discussed in
Ckapłer 9¸4¸ Other possible uses of
MANGFACŁGRE geo- textiles, such as in drainage
The BASIG type of geo-textile shall be non-woven, MANUFAGTURED by needle works, are not included in this manual.
PUNGHING, thermal bonding, or both. The fibres shall be GONTINUOUS or

staple fibres made of either polyester or polypropylene.
Małerial REQGIREMENŁS
Tabte 7.l9 shows the minimum weight per m2 for geo-textiles
depending on the site GONDITIONS. Both cost and quality of geo-textiles are
in general proportional to their weight
per m2, and the required quality
depends on the maximum particle
shape, particle size and compression
strength of the material to be placed
against the geo-textiles.
Comments: Table 7.19 Geo-textile separating layers − required weight per m 2
Aggregate placed adjacent Geo-textile, weight per area [glm2]

to the geo-textile
dMAX Placed on firm, Placed on soft,
Aggregate type
[mm] dry subsoil 1) wet subsoil 2)
Gravel, sand or
graded crushed max 50 min 140 min 200
material
Sorted crushed
max 200 min 200 min 320
rock
Special
Dump rock
- min 320 reinforcement shall
(DR)
be considered
1) Dry subsoil refers to moisture contents below OMC of BS-Light.
2) Soft, wet subsoil is normally silty or clayey materials in water logged areas.
Słorage
Geo-textiles made of polypropylene are Geo-textiles shall be kept away from DIREGT sunlight during storage.
particularly sensitive to the effect of
direct sunlight.
7.7.2 £eo-grids for reinforcement
General
Geo-grids within the embankment itself
Geo-grids are intended for use as REINFORGEMENT of earthworks and pave-
have doubtful effect and should only be ment layers. Geo-grids shall only be GONSIDERED in SPEGIAL GASES due to
considered when used in specially their high GOST. The TEGHNIGAL and EGONOMIGAL efFEGTIVENESS of their use
designed systems of earth
reinforcement for construction of steep shall be GAREFULLY assessed and DOGUMENTED before aPPLIGATION in the
slopes. works.
Earłkworks
Geo-grids may be GONSIDERED in SPEGIAL GASES SUGH as to prevent tensile
failure at the bottom of embankments when GROSSING soft areas.
Pavemenłs
Use of geo-grids to prevent reflective Geo-grids do not add strength to the pavement sTRUGTURE to an extent that
cracking in pavement rehabilitation make them EGONOMIGALLY justified in new pavements. No REDUGTIONS in
works is discussed in /Ckapłer 9¸4/¸
pavement layer THIGKNESS shall be made due to the use of geo-grids. Geo-
grids may be GONSIDERED under SPEGIAL GIRGUMSTANGES for use in an
interlayer system to prevent REFLEGTIVE GRAGKING through overlays.
References
7-2 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
7-3 HOSKING, J R and TUBEY, L W (1969). Research on low-grade
and unsound aggregates. RRL Report LR 293. Tranzport
rezearch laboratory, Crowthorne, London, UK.
7-4 NETTERBERG, F (1985). Pedocretes. From Engineering Geology
of Southerz Africa. NITRR report 430 Pretoria, Republic of South
Africa.
Chapter
7-5 NETTERBERG, F and M I PINARD (1991). Derivation of interim
Comments:
performance-related specifications for coarsely-graded plastic calcrete
basecourse gravels. Proc. 10th Regional Conference for Africa on
Soil Mechanicz and Foundation Engineering, Mazeru, Lezhoto.
7-6 SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
LAMBS − The dezign and uze of large aggregate mixes for bases.
ODA, London, UK.
7-8 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special
Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK.
(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction. CSRA, Pretoria,
7 - 10 SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
Draft guidelines on the use of bitumen emulsion treated materials.
7 - 11 OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Foluble salt damage
to thin Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Auztralian
Road Rezearch, 20 (4.)
7 - 12 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
7 - 13 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
Fampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
7 - 14 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 8 (1987):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
7 - 16 LIONJANGA, A V and T TOOLE and P A K GREENING (1987). The
use of calcrete in paved roads in Botswana. Ninth regional
conference for Africa, Lagoz, Nigeria.
7 - 17 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1986). Guide to stabilisation in roadworks.
NAASRA, Sydney, Auztralia.
7 - 18 O’CONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Xxpansive clay
road embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions.
Proc. Firzt International Sympozium on Engineering Characterizticz
of Arid Soilz, City Univerzity. London, UK.
7 - 20 TOOLE, T and D NEWILL (1987). A Ftrategy for assessing
marginal quality materials for use in bituminous roads in the
tropics. Proc. zeminar H, PTRC Tranzport and Planning Summer
Annual Meeting, Univerzity of Bath, London, UK.
South Africa.
Ministry of Works 7.1e

Pavement
C
Design - New h
Roads
a
Project appraisal
Ch
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
Cross Section,
te
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Pavement Design
Problem Soils
- New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
required
Ministry of Works
Chapter
ts: 8.1 Objectives

The OBJEGTIVE
t design procedures for gravel roads are set out in /Ckapłer 11 — Gravel of STRUGTURAL pavement design is to provide a road SURFAGE
Roabs/¸
WHIGH GAN withstand the EXPEGTED trafFIG loading over a SPEGIFIED time
without deteriorating below a predetermined level of SERVIGE. This is
AGHIEVED by providing a pavement STRUGTURE whereby stresses on the
subgrade - INDUGED by trafFIG - are REDUGED to AGGEPTABLE levels. Stresses
within pavement layers must in addition be kept within AGGEPTABLE limits
depending on the properties of the materials being used.
8.2 Pavement Types

8.2.1 Flexible pavements
General
A GOMMONLY used pavement STRUGTURE in the GOUNTRY is the flexible pave-
ment type whereby a SURFAGE treatment or a bituminous mix is PLAGED
over a base GOURSE made of granular materials. Other flexible pavement
types being used GONSIST of base GOURSES made of bituminous mixes or
penetration MAGADAM.
GRANGLAR base COGRSE and SGBBASE

The TYPIGAL mode of distress in fully granular pavements is deformation
arising from shear or DENSIFIGATION within the granular pavement
materials themselves - GOMMONLY the base GOURSE. The pavement type is
highly sensitive to timely PERIODIG MAINTENANGE by resealing.
Cemenłed SGBBASE and GRANGLAR base COGRSE

Theriding
use of a GEMENTED subbase improves the load bearing GAPAGITY of the
quality
pavement by REDUGING SURFAGE DEFLEGTIONS, HENGE strain in the bituminous
SURFAGING. The TYPIGAL mode of distress is by fatigue GRAGKING of the
GEMENTED subbase until its sTRUGTURAL behaviour eventually APPROAGHES
that of a granular layer. It is however unlikely that the GRAGKING will
REFLEGT to the SURFAGE and there is likely to be little rutting or longitudinal
cracking
deformation after the subbase layer has fully GRAGKED. The POST-GRAGKED
ffic
phase of the GEMENTED subbase GAN be EXPEGTED to add GONSIDERABLE
useful life to the pavement BEGAUSE the subbase will then FUNGTION as a
granular layer of good subbase quality. The use of a GEMENTED subbase
undercemented
granular base GOURSES has a number of additional TEGHNIGAL benefits
that INGLUDE:
ost-cracked phase influence phaseof water ■ INGREASED IN-SERVIGE strength of the granular base GOURSE is realised
flection
■ high GOMPAGTED density of the granular base GOURSE GAN be
deformation AGHIEVED by having a firm platform underneath and safe use of
‘slush’ TEGHNIQUES is enabled by the low sensitivity to moisture in
the subbase material
■ the strength of the subbase is maintained should the drainage
of the pavement be impaired in SERVIGE for any reason
The use of GEMENTED subbase shall be the preferred method in areas with
SGARGITY of natural gravel for subbase, provided this is EGONOMIGALLY
equal to alternative use of GRUSHED materials or importation of subbase
from outside the PROJEGT area.

BIŁGMINOGS mixes for base COGRSE
The modes of distress in bituminous base GOURSES GAN be deformation or fatigue
GRAGKING depending on site GONDITIONS and material
The consequences properties.
of deformati The subbase
on occurring used than cracking, since the useful life of the pavement can be considera
are more severe
in this pavement is either granular or lightly GEMENTED. The preferred method to
minimise the risk of fatigue GRAGKING
granular oris
uminous mix
primarily by providing the stiffest
cemented
possible support for the base GOURSE and thereby minimising strain in the layer.
Strongly GEMENTED subbase, i.e. stronger than material GLASS C2, however may bit
lead to GRAGK REFLEGTION from the subbase through the bituminous base GOURSE and riding quality
is not a desirable option. It is GONSIDERED risky to GOMPROMISE RESISTANGE against

deformation of the bituminous base GOURSE for high RESISTANGE against fatigue
GRAGKING under the prevailing temperature GONDITIONS in the GOUNTRY.
rut depth
Penełrałion macadam base COGRSE
Penetration MAGADAM is made by spraying relatively large amounts of
bitumen ( 2,0 - 4,0 l/m2) on a layer of GOARSE aggregate without fines,
cracking
and subsequently rolling in a layer of GHIPPING as a key stone to provide

INTERLOGKING and stability of the layer. Alternatively atime
bituminous
and traffic
mix GAN
be used instead of key stone. The penetration MAGADAM base GOURSES are
Roads with high traffic speed require a levelling layer made of a bituminous mix in order to ach
EXGEPTIONALLY flexible, and at the same time providing high shear
strength. Penetration MAGADAM efFEGTIVELY arrests GRAGK REFLEGTION from
underlying layers when used in overlays. The penetration MAGADAM GAN
be GONSIDE- red a freely draining layer and it is important that the internal penetration macadam granular or cemented
drainage of the pavement is in AGGORDANGE with /Chapter 3 − Cross

Fection, Fhoutders and Drainage/.
riding quality
The mode of distress in penetration MAGADAM pavements is normally
deformation in the subbase or subgrade. Disintegration of the base GOURSE
takes PLAGE if PERIODIG MAINTENANGE by resealing has been insufFIGIENT for deformation
any reason.
cracking
8.2.2 Cemi-rigid pavements
time and traffic
General
Semi-rigid pavements are those utilising GEMENTED materials in the base
GOURSE layer or both the base GOURSE and where
Pavements subbase layer.
only the base Where both base
course is cemented — with granular subbase - are sensitive to high axle loading and loss of
GOURSE and subbase are GEMENTED this pavement type is a viable option
It is particularly important that the first scheduled foris not missed or deferred due to the early development of block cra
reseal
high trafFIG GONDITIONS. Pavements with only the base GOURSE GEMENTED -
with granular subbase − have limitations in the upper ranges of trafFIG
loading.
Mode of disłress
In semi-rigid pavements most of the trafFIG stresses are absorbed by the
GEMENTED layers - little by the subgrade - and fatigue of the GEMENTED
layers is the dominant mode of distress. Initial BLOGK GRAGKING from cemented
shrinkage or thermal FORGES is likely to develop soon after GONSTRUGTION of cemented (preferred)
GEMENTED base GOURSES. These GRAGKS are normally of little GONGERN if

sealed by normal REGURRENT and PERIODIG MAINTENANGE. Later development
of trafFIG INDUGED GRAGKS may lead to ingress of water and pumping of riding quality
fines. While this pavement type normally gives good user SERVIGE up to
this point, deformation tends to AGGELERATE after water gets free AGGESS cracking
into the STRUGTURE. Loss of the bituminous SURFAGING takes PLAGE if

PERIODIG MAINTENANGE by resealing has been insufFIGIENT for any reason.
rut depth
time and traffic

Comments: 8.2.3 Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements are made of GONGRETE, where most of the trafFIG loading
The concrete may be either conventional is GARRIED by the GONGRETE slab and less by the foundation. Good
jointed slabs, a continuously reinforced
RESISTANGE against the efFEGT of trafFIG loading and high tyre pressures, are
type or roller compacted concrete.
TYPIGAL features of GONGRETE pavements. However due to the large
investment GOST, their use is normally limited to heavily trafFIGKED
interurban and urban roads. The design method for GONGRETE pavements is
not iNGLUDED in this manual, however REFERENGES is made to /8-lO/ for
further details on the PRINGIPLES of rigid pavement design.
8.3 Structural Design

8.3.0 £eneral
Pavement design GATALOGUES are provided for the following pavement
types and site GONDITIONS:
■ granular base GOURSE, dry or moderate GLIMATIG ZONES
■ granular base GOURSE, wet GLIMATIG ZONES
■ GEMENTED base GOURSE
■ bituminous mix base GOURSE
■ penetration MAGADAM base GOURSE
The design GATALOGUE aims to provide sufFIGIENT support for the layer in
the design of the subbase and subgrade and thereby REDUGING strain, HENGE
minimising the risk of fatigue GRAGKING in bituminous layers.
8.3.1 Input data

Climate
A separate design GATALOGUE is provided in RESPEGT of wet GLIMATIG ZONES
for pavements with granular base GOURSE.
Traffic
Climatic zones for the purpose of The TrafFIG Load Class (TLC) determined AGGORDING to /Chapter 4 −
pavement design: /Ckapłer 2 — Traffic/ is input to the GATALOGUE and the GLASSES are shown in Tabte 8.l.
Environmenł/¸
Table 8.1 Traffic Load Classes - TLC
Design traffic Ioading Traffic Load CIass (TLC)

[miIIion E80]
< 0.2 TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5 TLC 05
0.5 to 1 TLC 1
1 to 3 TLC 3
3 to 10 TLC 10
10 to 20 TLC 20
20 to 50 TLC 50
Heavy load condiłions
Comments:
Where more than 50% of E80 is a result of axles heavier than 13 tonnes,
Insufficient data normally makes it
the TrafFIG Load Class is given an index, i.e.: unrealistic to determine the proportion of
E80 that is a result of axles loaded
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H above 1G tonnes where the design
traffic loading is less than 0.2 million
E80. A traffic load class TLC02-H is
SGBGRADE therefore not established.
The design GATALOGUE requires that all subgrade is brought to a design
strength of CBR minimum 15% by GONSTRUGTING one or more improved Procedures to evaluate subgrade
strength and to design improved
subgrade layers - where NEGESSARY - before the pavement is PLAGED. subgrade layers:
Climate is part of the input data to design improved subgrade layers. /Ckapłer 5 — Subgrabe/¸
Pavemenł małerials
Pavement materials used in the design GATALOGUE are those shown in Tabte
8.2. where REFERENGES are given to the RESPEGTIVE GHAPTERS where material
quality requirements are set out.
Table 8.2 Pavement materials
MateriaI MateriaI MateriaI requirements,

cIass type references
Surfacing:
ST Surface treatments Chapter 10.2 to 10.4
AC Asphalt concrete Chapter 10.8
Base course:
DBM - LAMBS Bituminous hot mix Chapter 7.4.2
PM Penetration macadam Chapter 7.4.3
FBMIX - BEMIX Bituminous cold mix Chapter 7.4.4
CRR - CRS Granular, crushed Chapter 7.2.2
C2 - C1 - CM Cemented, lime or cement Chapter 7.3
G80 - G60 Granular, natural Chapter 7.2.1
Subbase:
C1 - CM Cemented, lime or cement Chapter 7.3
G45 - G25 Granular, natural Chapter 7.2.1
SGBSŁIŁGŁES of SGBBASE małerial

Substitutes of subbase materials GAN be made as listed below. The layer
THIGKNESS shall not be GHANGED when doing the substitutes. No other
substitutes of subbase material shall be made in the pavement design.
■ C1 GAN be REPLAGED by C2
■ CM GAN be REPLAGED by C1 or C2
■ G45 GAN be REPLAGED by CM, C1, G60, G80 or CRS
■ G25 GAN be REPLAGED by CM, C1, G45, G60, G80 or CRS
Comments: 8.3.2 Pavement design catalogues
The pavement design GATALOGUES are presented in the RESPEGTIVE tables
listed in Tabte 8.3.
Table 8.3 List of pavement design catalogues
TabIe reference Pavement type in design cataIogue

Table 8.4 Granular base course – Dry or Moderate climatic zones
Table 8.5 Granular base course – Wet climatic zones
Table 8.6 Cemented base course
Table 8.7 Bituminous mix base course
Table 8.8 Penetration macadam base course
The design GATALOGUES SPEGIFY SURFAGING types for rural- and interurban
Urban areas have a large number of
junctions and other areas where roads. On all major urban roads, where the base GOURSE is not of a
construction of surface treatments is bituminous type, GONSIDERATION should be given to the use of asphalt
difficult to carry out with good
workmanship. GONGRETE SURFAGING IRRESPEGTIVE of trafFIG loading due to the GOMMON
EXGESS of slow moving and turning trafFIG. This trafFIG pattern is
unfavourable for the use of SURFAGE treatments and may lead to premature
damage of thin SURFAGINGS.
Table 8.4 Pavements with granular base course − dry or moderate climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H Base course type:
) classes: /Chapter 4/
Subgrade design:
- Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/
- Material standards of improved
subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/
Granular
Surfacing design:
- Surface treatments, carriageway:
/Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/
- Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/
- Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/
Material requirements:
- Granular or cemented materials for Climatic zones:
subbase layers or base course: /Chapter
7/
/Figure 2.1/ Dry / Moderate
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
for E80 >0.2 million under conditions < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
where
more than 50% of E80 comes from TLC TLC TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC TLC TLC
axles loaded to above13 tonnes.
02 05 10 20 50
For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) AC
Surfacing
as below as below as below AC 100mm
(not applicable) 50mm
General requirements AC
ST ST ST ST 50mm
ST
Base course
For the heavy Traffic Load

150mm 150mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 125mm as as
(not
below below
applicable) CRS CRS CRR
2)
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm
General requirements
G60 G80 G80 CRS CRR CRR
For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 200mm
CM
(not applicable) as below as below as below as below
Subbase 1)
150mm
+
150mm
200mm C2
200mm
G45 200mm C1
G45 C1
G25
150mm G45
150mm
Subgrade CBR > 15%

1) If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Ckapłer 8¸3¸1
2) G80 can be used up to 2 million E80 in dry climatic zone /Figure 2¸1/
Table 8.5 Pavements with granular base course − wet climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy (- Base course type:
H ) lasses: /Chapter 4/
Subgrade design:
Granular
Surfacing design:
7/
/Figure 2.1/ Wet
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
for E80 >0.2 million under conditions < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
where
more than 50% of E80 comes from
TLC TLC TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC TLC TLC
axles loaded to above13 tonnes.
02 05 10 20 50
For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) AC AC
Surfacing
as below as below 100mm 100mm

AC
General requirements AC AC
50mm 50mm
ST ST ST ST
Base course

150mm 150mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 125mm as as
(not
below below
applicable) CRS CRR CRR
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm

G80 G80 CRS CRS CRR CRR
For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )
200mm
CM
Subbase 1)
(not applicable) as below as below as below as below

150mm
+
150mm
General requirements C2
200mm
G45 200mm
CM 200mm
C1 C1
G25
150mm G45
150mm
Subgrade CBR > 15%

Chapter
Table 8.6 Pavements with cemented base course
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy (
-H ) classes: /Chapter 4/ Base course type:
Cemented
Subgrade design:
Surfacing design:
- Granular or cemented materials for
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/ All
7/
- Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
E80 >0.2 million under conditions where < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
more than 50% of E80 comes from axles
loaded to above13 tonnes. TLC 02 TLC TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC TLC TLC
05 10 20 50
AC
Surfacing
For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) as below as below as below AC 100mm
General requirements AC
ST ST ST 50mm
ST ST
Base course

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) as as as as as
(not
below below below below below
applicable)
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm

CM C1 C1 C2 C2 C2
Subbase 1)
For the heavy Traffic Load 200mm

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) (not 150mm 150mm as as
applicable) C1 below below
CM CM
125mm 150mm
+ +
125mm 150mm
General requirements 200mm C1

150mm 150mm 150mm C1
G45
G25 G45 G45 CM C1
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter
Table 8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course
Traffic: Base course type:

- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
Subgrade design:

Bituminous mix
- Granular or cemented materials for
subbase layers: /Chapter 7/ Climatic zones:
- Bituminous base course: /Chapter 7/
/Figure 2.1/ All
No special pavement design alternatives Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
are required for the heavy Traffic Load
< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H for)
this pavement type. TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
Surfacing
AC AC
50mm 50mm
ST ST ST ST ST
Base course
LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS

DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40
DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30
FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX
Alternative material types: BEMIX BEMIX BEMIX BEMIX
200mm
150mm 175mm
125mm
100mm
80mm
60mm
1)
Subbase
125mm
+
125mm
200mm 200mm 200mm
150mm 150mm 150mm CM
G45 G45 CM
G45 G45 G45 CM
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Table 8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course
Traffic: Base course type:

- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
- Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter

5/
- Material standards of improved subgrade
Penetration Macadam
layers: /Chapter 5/

subbase layers: /Chapter 7/
- Penetration Macadam: /Chapter 7/
/Figure 2.1/ All
No special pavement design
alternatives are required for the heavy
Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-
H) for TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
this pavement type.
Surfacing
AC AC
AC AC 100mm 100mm
50mm 50mm
ST ST ST
Base course
125mm 125mm 125mm

100mm 100mm
50mm 50mm
PM60 PM60 PM8 PM80 PM80
PM30 PM30
0
1)
Subbase
150mm
+
150mm
125mm
C1
200mm C1
+
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 125mm
G45 G45 CM CM CM CM
CM
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter
USA.
8-5 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
8-7 ROLT, J (1994). The performance of a full scale road pavement
design experiment in Jamaica. In: Proc. of Inztitution of Civil
Engineerz.
Tranzport. Auguzt 1994.
Design of Road Pavements. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for
SATCC.
ODA, London, UK.
Canada.

Pavement
C
Rehabilitation h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
te
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
Pavement
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Pavement
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Pavement Rehabilitation
e.0.1 Rehabilitation needs

Strategies for rehabilitation, i.e. whether The purpose of pavement rehabilitation is GOMMONLY related to
short term or long term measures are
desired, may differ between projects inadequate SERVIGE levels for the road users in GOMBINATION with
due to funding conditions or overall EXGESSIVE GOSTS in maintaining the existing pavement sTRUGTURE.
strategies for the part of the network
where the project is located.
Rehabilitation may however be required for reasons not DIREGTLY related to
the present SURFAGE GONDITION, i.e. due to EXPEGTED DRAMATIG INGREASE of
trafFIG or as a strengthening GOMBINED with upgrading the geometry
of the road.
e.0.2 Pavement evaluation

The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine the present
pavement GONDITION so that appropriate rehabilitation measures GAN be
identified. Cost efFEGTIVE pavement evaluation involves GOLLEGTION of only
the NEGESSARY types of data, or amounts of data to establish the GAUSE of
distress and for GARRYING out rehabilitation design with sufFIGIENT
GONFIDENGE.
e.0.3 Rehabilitation design

Three rehabilitation design methods are PRESGRIBED in this GHAPTER:
■ maximum DEFLEGTION method
■ STRUGTURAL number method
■ MEGHANISTIG method
e.0.4 Rehabilitation options

Rehabilitation design only forms part of the PROGESS to establish
appropriate rehabilitation measures. Other FAGTORS SUGH as AGENGY POLIGY,
PRAGTIGAL GONSTRUGTION ASPEGTS, availability of skills, materials and other
RESOURGES, environmental mitigation and MAINTENANGE ASPEGTS shall be
taken into GONSIDERATION in SELEGTION of the appropriate rehabilitation
option. Rehabilitation options are GLASSIFIED into:
■ overlays
■ partial REGONSTRUGTION
■ full REGONSTRUGTION
9.1 Pavement Evaluation

The initial survey will rule out obvious e.1.0 £eneral
rehabilitation options, such as where full The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine why the
reconstruction or realignment is
required, and thereby exclude present pavement GONDITION prevails so that appropriate rehabilitation
collection of unnecessary information. measures GAN be identified. Pavement evaluation involves detailing
appropriate methods for pavement investigations, relating the symptoms
of distress to their GAUSES and explaining the reason for distress. The
OUTGOME of the study forms the basis to GARRY out a rehabilitation design
using appropriate design methods.
e.2 Ministry of Works

Figure 9.1 illustrates the PROGEDURE for pavement evaluation up to Comments:
GOMPLETION of the rehabilitation design.
Start Establish homogenous sections

Carry out desk study Carry out initial assessment of
based on initial assessment of
pavement condition
pavement condition
Carry out structural surveys Carry out detailed condition survey Assess each homogenous section
as required based on the if required in accordance with according to /Fig 9.2/
detailed condition survey /Fig. 9.2/
Re-assess demarcation into Carry out pavement rehabilitation Combine sections with similar
homogenous sections based on all design for each homogenous rehabilitation measures into
available data section practical lengths for construction
7igure 9.1 Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure
e.1.1 Confidence level

The GONFIDENGE level for pavement data PROGESSING shall be 90%, i.e.
that 10% of the length of the road is allowed to perform UNSATISFAGTORILY
at the end of the design period when the design is based on GURRENT
pavement data.
e.1.2 Design traffic loading

General
COLLEGTION of trafFIG loading data shall be GARRIED out in AGGORDANGE with
/Chapter 4 − Traffic/.
Pasł łraffic loading

Past trafFIG REGEIVED by the pavement shall be GALGULATED for the purpose
of estimating residual pavement life.
Design łraffic loading

Design trafFIG loading for the design period shall be PROJEGTED in
AGGORDANGE with /Chapter 4 − Traffic/.
e.1.3 Pavement investigation procedure

General
The extent of the pavement investigation depends on prevailing GONDITIONS
on site as detailed in this GHAPTER and in Chapter 9.1.4 − Xstent of
investigation, and shall be GARRIED out in the following SEQUENGE:
■ desk study (shatt atways be carried out)
■ initial assessment (shatt atways be carried out)
■ detailed GONDITION surveys (if required)
■ STRUGTURAL surveys (if required)
Figure 9.2 illustrates the PROGEDURE for pavement investigations of EAGH

SEGTION deemed to be homogenous based on initial assessment. The
PROGEDURE is shown up to the GOMPLETION of detailed GONDITION surveys
and IDENTIFIGATION of SEGTIONS that require STRUGTURAL surveys.
Comments: Traffic
projection
Start /Chapter 9.1.2/
Any possibilities of salvaging the pavement ?

Section
YES with only localised distress ? NO
Establish the cause of the localised distress, if necessary carry out additional field testing.
NO YES
NO Carry out detailed condition surveys: Determine

Section with no distress ? rutting subgrade CBR
roughness /Chapter 5/
YES surface defects
Traffic projection
/Chapter 9.1.4/
/Chapter 9.1.2/
NO
Section with only surface defects ?

YES
Determine the need for structural surveys: Design full pavement

DCP reconstruction without any
Recommend corrective measures. Further investigation of the section is normally not necessary.
deflection further investigation of the
sampling (lab. testing) section.
/Chapter 9.1.4/ /Chapter 9.3.3/
7igure 9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section
Desk SŁGDY
A desk study shall always be GARRIED out to gather available information
about the road SEGTION, WHIGH may INGLUDE:
■ as-built data INGLUDING GONSTRUGTION REGORDS and information
about geometry and drainage
■ MAINTENANGE REGORDS
■ data from previous trafFIG GOUNTS and axle load surveys
■ data from previous investigations SUGH as measurements of
DEFLEGTION, DCP, rutting, roughness, SURFAGE DEFEGTS, sampling,
rutting, roughness, GRAGKS, and others
■ data on GLIMATE, geology and topography
Iniłial assessmenł
Initial assessment of the road shall be GARRIED out before the SGHEDULES for
GONDITION surveys or STRUGTURAL surveys are being established. Initial asses-
sment INGLUDES visual INSPEGTION and examination of data obtained in the
desk study. The OBJEGTIVES of the initial assessment are those given
below.
A. Initial assessment shall establish the length of SEGTIONS with :
■ no SIGNIFIGANT problems
■ LOGALISED distress GLEARLY related to SPEGIFIG problems SUGH as
poor drainage, expansive subgrade soils, or others
■ distress obviously related to the SURFAGING only
■ possibilities of inadequate STRUGTURAL strength
■ obviously no possible salvage of the existing pavement HENGE
full REGONSTRUGTION is the only possible rehabilitation
measure
B. Initial assessment shall provide:
■ a REGORD of observation data and any initial measurements
GARRIED out during the visual INSPEGTION
■ quantified data on SERVIGEABILITY of SEGTIONS with obviously
no possible salvage of the existing pavement. These
INGLUDE measurements of driving speed, PSI or estimated
International Roughness Index
C. Initial assessment shall give REGOMMENDATIONS on:

■ remedial AGTION for the LOGALISED distress
■ remedial AGTION for the SURFAGE distress
■ a further field test programme for SEGTIONS with possibilities
of inadequate STRUGTURAL strength or with distress where the
existing pavement may be salvaged
HOMOGENOGS SECŁIONS
Homogenous SEGTIONS shall initially be established on the basis of pave-
ment GONDITION after the initial assessment. The DEMARGATION of
homogenous SEGTIONS shall be revised and GHANGED if required after the
detailed GONDITION survey and STRUGTURAL surveys aremethod,
A statistical GARRIED out. sums (CUSUM), can be used
cumulative Worked Examplesections for each type
to establish homogenous
/Appendix A8¸ 3/
Dełailed condiłion SGRVEYS
Detailed GONDITION surveys shall be GARRIED out where the existing pave-
ment may be salvaged and where distress is not obviously related to the
either SURFAGING only or lOGALISED problems. Detailed GONDITION surveys
INGLUDE measurements of the following parameters:
■ rutting
■ SURFAGE DEFEGTS The required test frequencies: Ckapłer 9¸1¸4 — Exłenł of invesłigałions¸
■ potholes
■ GRAGKS, all GRAGKS and wide GRAGKS >3 mm
■ loss of stones (ravelling)
■ PATGHES
■ roughness
■ shoulder GONDITIONS
■ drainage GONDITIONS
SŁRGCŁGRAL SGRVEYS
STRUGTURAL surveys shall be SGHEDULED AGGORDING to Chapter 9.1.4 − Xstent
of investigations and INGLUDE GOLLEGTION of one or more of the following
data:
■ DYNAMIG Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
■ maximum SURFAGE DEFLEGTION with Benkelman beam (8175 kg axle)
or equivalent equipment approved by the Ministry of Works,
GORRELATED BAGK to Benkelman beam measurements
■ pit logs and laboratory tests of samples SUGH as moisture
GONTENT, grading, Atterberg limits, CBR, or others as
required
Comments: e.1.4 Extent of investigations
The GONDITIONS that require the investigation FREQUENGY of SGHEME A
or B RESPEGTIVELY are given in Tabte 9.1. The extent of investigations
for the purpose of pavement evaluation are given in Tabte 9.2.
Table 9.1 Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency

of investigations
- AII trunk roads
Scheme A - Other important main roads, e.g. strategic routes

or major Iinks in towns, deemed to be of particuIar
importance
Scheme B - Other roads
Table 9.2 Required extent of pavement investigations
Min test
frequency [m]
Test
Scheme Scheme
A B
Rut depth, measured both sides in

outer wheeI path onIy 50 100
Detailed
condition Surface defects such as patches,
surveys cracks, Ioss of stones, or others ContinuousIy
Roughness, InternationaI Roughness measured
Index (IRI)
500 1000
DCP, the side with highest rutting
vaIues min 3 per
homogenous
section
Structural
surveys Maximum surface defIection,
measured on the side with highest 100 200
rutting vaIues, in outer wheeI path onIy
Test pits excavated to design depth as
defined in /Ckapter 5¸1/¸Pit Iog, 1000 2000
testing of CBR, indicators, moisture
content
The test frequencies are the minimum acceptabIe. AdditionaI tests may be required
depending on site conditions and in the case of anomaIies in the tested vaIues. The
demarcation of homogenous sections may be revised after anaIysis of the test resuIts.
Roughness shall be measured with the MERLIN apparatus or alterna-

tive HIGH-GAPAGITY equipment of a type approved by the Ministry of
Works. Alternative equipment shall be GALIBRATED against the MER-
LIN.
e.1.5 Distress criteria Comments:
Distress GRITERIA for use in pavement evaluation are given in Tabte 9.3.
The following is the meaning of the terms ‘sound’, ‘warning’ and
‘severe’ in the GONDITION rating:
■ sound: adequate GONDITION
■ warning: UNGERTAINTY exists about the ADEQUAGY of the GONDITION
■ severe: inadequate GONDITION
Table 9.3 Pavement distress criteria
Condition rating
Parameter Traffic class TLC 1 or lower Traffic class TLC 3 or higher
Sound Warning Severe Sound Warning Severe
< 10 10 - 20 > 20 <5 5 - 15 > 15

Rutting, 90%-iIe over a
Rutting caused by shoving within bituminous Iayers shaII be assessed separateIy. Rutting is a more severe
section [mm] defect than what is refIected above when combined with a cracked surface. Figure 9¸3 gives the
procedure to interpret these data
PothoIes < 0.01% 0.01% > 0.2% < 0.01% 0.01% > 0.1%
- 0.2% - 0.1%
AII cracks < 20 20 - 50 > 50 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
Surface defects Wide cracks
[% of >3mm [in % < 20 20 - 50 > 50 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
carriageway
area]
of aII cracks]
Loss of <5 5 - 15 > 15 <5 5 - 10 > 10

stones Loss of stones on pavements with a surface treatment over a base course made of unbound materiaIs
(raveIIing) shaII be rated ‘severe’ wherever the affected area exceeds 5%
Patches 0.3% 0.2%

< 0.3% > 1.0% < 0.2% > 0.6%
[% of carriageway area] - 1.0% - 0.6%
Roughness, IRI [m/km] <3 3-6 >6 <3 3-6 >6
Max defIection [mm]
90% -iIe over a section [mm]
- granuIar base course < 0.7 0.7 - 1.3 > 1.3 < 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 > 1.0
- IigthtIy cemented base < 0.55 0.55 - 1.15 > 1.15 < 0.35 0.35 - 0.85 > 0.85
Comments: e.1.6 Data interpretation
The PROGEDURE for interpretation of data is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
Major mode of distress

RUTTING: SOUND WARNING or SEVERE
WARNING or SEVERE
CRACKING: WARNING or SEVERE SEVERE
SOUND or WARNING
If rutting is due to shoving in the asphalt:

carry out special investigations.
Consider whether full reconstruction Consider whether full reconstruction
applies /Chapter 9.3.3/ applies /Chapter 9.3.3/
NO Good correlation rutting / deflection, or

roughness / deflection?
YES
NO Design traffic loading is less than

10 million E80?
YES
Structural number method /Chapter 9.2.2/, or (for confirmation) Maximum deflection method /Chapter 9.2.1/
Mechanistic method /Chapter 9.2.3/
Rehabilitation design method
Select appropriate rehabilitation option /Chapter 9.3/ and

consider options to prevent reflective cracking if applicable /Chapter 9.4/
Comments: 7igure 9.3 Interpretation of pavement data
9.2 Rehabilitation Design Methods

Various forms of distress may be
related, and its primary cause may be
e.2.0 £eneral
obscured on roads where a stage has This GHAPTER gives an overview of available pavement rehabilitation
been reached whereby numerous forms design methods and INDIGATES their limitations and requirements for input
of distress are evident. The parts of a
road which has not yet reached a data. The designer has the following methods at hand for GARRYING out
completely failed stage are likely to give pavement rehabilitation design:
valuable information on the primary
cause of distress and thereby clues to ■ maximum DEFLEGTION method empiricatty derived
determine the most appropriate
rehabilitation option. ■ STRUGTURAL number method empiricatty derived
■ MEGHANISTIG method theoreticatty/empiricatty derived
The appropriate method shall be applied depending on pavement type,

GONDITION and other parameters as DESGRIBED in Tabte 9.4.
Output from pavement rehabilitation design methods only forms part

of the final DEGISION on appropriate rehabilitation remedies for a
SEGTION or an entire pROJEGT. Other fAGTORS SUGH as aGENGY POLIGY,
PRAGTIGAL GONSTRUGTION ASPEGTS, availability of skills, materials and
Chapter 9
other RESOURGES, environmental mitigation and MAINTENANGE ASPEGTS

shall be taken into GONSIDERATION.
Table 9.4 Felection of appropriate design method
Base course Main mode Rehabilitation design method

material type of distress Maximum StructuraI Mechanistic
defIection number
(not
Cracking
GranuIar or appIicabIe)
IightIy cement v v
Deformation
v *)
Cracking or
Cemented or (not v v
deformation,
bituminous appIicabIe)
or both
*) The maximum defIection method onIy appIies for traffic Ioad cIass TLC 10 or Iower and
where deformation originates from the subgrade.
e.2.1 Maximum deflection method

Descripłion of łke mełkod
The maximum DEFLEGTION method is based on EMPIRIGALLY derived relation-
ships between pavement PERFORMANGE and SURFAGE DEFLEGTION under loading.
The method requires different PERFORMANGE GRITERIA for different pavement
types and is INAPPLIGABLE for GERTAIN pavements. DEFLEGTION measurements
will only give information about the pavement’s STRUGTURAL response at the
time the measurement were GARRIED out. This means that moisture
Gonditions, and temperature
Deflectioninmeasurements
the GASE ofgive
THIGK bituminous
useful information tolayers, afmode
explain the FEGT of distress in existing pavements and are often justified even thou
the results SIGNIFIGANTLY and GAN be misleading to the designer.
Applicabiliły and limiłałions of łke mełkod

The DEFLEGTION method shall not be used as the only rehabilitation design
method, but to supplement other methods in a multi-analysis APPROAGH
and shall not be used unless all the following GONDITIONS prevail:
■ distress originates from the subgrade, and
■ the base GOURSE in existing pavement is a granular or
lightly GEMENTED type, i.e. not GEMENT stabilised, and
■ there is remaining STRUGTURAL life in the existing pavement, and
An exłensively crackeb cemenłeb layer may be classifieb as a granular layer¸
■ future design trafFIG is less than 10 million. E80
Extensively GRAGKED GEMENTED layers may be GLASSIFIED as granular layers.
The relationship between maximum DEFLEGTION and rut depth measurements
taken along the length of a road gives an INDIGATION of the GAUSE and
MEGH- anism of the distress. A good GORRELATION will usually INDIGATE that
distress may be ASSOGIATED with an over-stressed subgrade. A poor
GORRELATION is INDIGATIVE of distress originating in one or more of the upper
layers of the pavement. In this GASE the maximum DEFLEGTION method may
not apply.
Similarly, a poor GORRELATION between maximum DEFLEGTION and road rough-
ness measurements will usually INDIGATE distress in the upper layers of the
pavement, while a good GORRELATION is INDIGATE of problems in the subgrade.

Comments: Design PROCEDGRE
Figure 9.4 (DESGRIBES the PROGEDURE for pavement rehabilitation design
using the maximum DEFLEGTION method.)
Establish
Determine traffic homogenous sections. (TheMeasure
loading: CUSUM method
and calculate
in /Appendix
design deflection
A8.3/ for each homogenous secti
past E80 may be used).
future E80 (design traffic
loading)
Determine expected pavement lifePast

(total
E80E80) YES
larger than expected pavement life?
/Fig. 9.5/ Maximum deflection method does not apply.
NO
No strengthening is required based on the maximum deflection meth

Residual life larger than design traffic loading?
YES
Calculate residual capacity:
= expected capacity - past E80
NO
Select
Determine required strengthening, SN diff overlay alternative as appropriate.
/Table 9.9/
Determine target deflection./Fig. 9.7/
/Fig. 9.5 or /Fig. 9.6/
7igure 9.4 Design procedure, maximum deflection method
The deflection recovery (rebound)

Deflecłion INPGŁ dała
method offers an easier measuring Input data is maximum DEFLEGTIONS measured with Benkelman beam (dual
procedure with less risk of damage to wheels, 8175 kg axle load) or data GOLLEGTED with other types of
equipment. How- ever, on newly
constructed pavements (less than G equipment, GORRELATED BAGK to equivalent Benkelman beam DEFLEGTIONS.
years in service) this method does not The transient method shall be used where the existing pavement or
give results that correspond sufficiently
well with the design method. overlay was GONSTRUGTED less than 3 years before the measurements, the
Correction of deflection data for DEFLEGTION REGOVERY (rebound) method GAN otherwise be used.
temperature is not necessary for
investigation of pavements with The maximum DEFLEGTION method requires that the measured DEFLEGTION is
granular base course and such
corrections do not improve the the maximum DEFLEGTION over a year. The time of measurements in
accuracy of the maximum deflection relation to rainy seasons shall therefore be GAREFULLY assessed and the
method /9-6/¸ Design methods using
radius of curvature are not provided, need for repeated measurements at a different time shall be GONSIDERED.
however collection of curvature data
can give useful information to explain
the cause of distress. Design deflecłion
The design DEFLEGTION is the 90%-ile DEFLEGTION value for a homogenous
A statistical method, cumulative sums SEGTION with a minimum of 20 measurements.
(CUSUM), can be used to establish
homogenous sections for deflection Design deflection = (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
data.
/Appenbix A8¸3/¸
Chapter 9
Traffic Comments:
Required trafFIG parameters for input in the design method are the
following:
■ estimated past GUMULATIVE trafFIG loading GARRIED by the
pavement SINGE GONSTRUGTION or its last STRUGTURAL rehabilitation (in
millions E80)
■ design trafFIG loading (future) determined AGGORDING to /Chapter 4
− Traffic/.
Expecłed pavemenł life

The pavement’s EXPEGTED life is the GUMULATIVE number of E80s the
pavement is EXPEGTED to be able to GARRY, i.e. past GUMULATIVE trafFIG
loading plus the estimated residual pavement life until GRITIGAL GONDITION
is REAGHED.
In specialised investigations of
RESIDGAL life pavements without remaining structural
life it is possible to study the
The residual life of the pavement is the difFERENGE between EXPEGTED relationship between rutting and
pavement life and past GUMULATIVE trafFIG loading. deflection and respectively roughness
and deflection in order to establish
Residual life (E80) = expected life (E80) – past cumulative traffic loading (E80). distress criteria for that particular
pavement structure. Such
If the past GUMULATIVE trafFIG loading is larger than the EXPEGTED investigations and rehabilitation designs
are only supplementary to the design
pavement life, i.e. negative residual life, then the maximum DEFLEGTION method using structural number.
method shall not be applied.
If the residual life is larger than the future design trafFIG loading,
then strengthening of the pavement is not required.
Desired pavemenł life

The desired pavement life is the total trafFIG loading the pavement would
need to GARRY in order to endure the design period without overlay. I.e.
the GUMULATIVE past trafFIG loading plus the design trafFIG loading.
Targeł deflecłion
The target DEFLEGTION is the maximum DEFLEGTION value that would give
a pavement life sufFIGIENT to GARRY the GUMULATIVE past trafFIG loading
plus the design trafFIG loading (desired pavement life) without overlay.
Design ckarłs
Design GHARTS giving the relationship between DEFLEGTION and pavement
life (trafFIG loading) are presented in Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6 where
the design line for a 90% GONFIDENGE in AGHIEVING life is marked. The
two figures are valid for pavements with a granular base GOURSE and
lightly GEMENTED base GOURSE RESPEGTIVELY.
In Figure 9.5 the use of the design GHART is shown by aid of an example.
The key parameters are as given in Tabte 9.5 with letter symbols
referring to positions in the GHART.
Ministry of Works e.11

Comments:
Table 9.5 Design parameters used in the deflection design charts
Reference Parameters Value in Notes

to Fig. 9.5 example
A (input) Design defIection, derived from fieId
0.77 mm Input parameter for FIGURE 9.7
measurements
B (input) Past cumuIative traffic Ioading 2 x 106
-
E80
T (input) Design traffic Ioading (future) 8 x 106
-
/Chapter 4 - Traffic/ E80
C Current pavement state, the crossing If the point C faIIs above the design Iine, then
point between the Iines drawn straight - there is no residuaI Iife in the pavement, and
from A and B, as shown in the design method is inappIicabIe.
D Expected pavement Iife, determined
4 x 106
by continuing the trend-Iine from C, as -
E80
shown in FIGURE 9.5
(D - B) ResiduaI Iife ResiduaI Iife (D-B) Iarger than the design traffic
2 x 106
Ioading (T), means that strengthening of the
E80
pavement is not necessary.
E = (B+T) Desired pavement Iife 10 x 106
-
E80
F Target defIection, determined by
foIIo- wing the trend-Iines using E as 0.53 mm Input parameter for FIGURE 9.7
input parameter, as shown in FIGURE
9.5
Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.
7igure 9.5 Deflection design chart, granular base course
Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.
TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 Comments:
167
Critical condition. 90% confidence in achieving life
154
142
129
Deflection [ mm x 102 ]
116
103
90
77
64
51
39
26
13
0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0 10 15 20 30
Equivalent standard axles, E80 [ x 106 ]
7igure 9.6 Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course
REQGIRED słrengłkening
The required strengthening is determined by using Figure 9.7 with the An example of a target deflection of
target DEFLEGTION and the measured design DEFLEGTION as input data. SNdiff 0.5G mm and a measured design
deflection of
shall be determined by interpolation in the GHART. 0.77 mm is shown in Figure 9.7. This
gives a required strengthening of CNdiff
= 1.00, corresponding to a required
asphalt concrete overlay of 60 mm
determined from Table 9.9.
0.8
Target deflection [ mm ]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Design deflection, measured [ mm ]
7igure 9.7 Determination of required strengthening, FNdiff
e.2.2 Ctructural number method

General
The STRUGTURAL number method is based on EMPIRIGAL GORRELATION between
The structural number method is
tested material properties and EXPEGTED pavement PERFORMANGE. directly linked to the design
catalogue for construction of new
Laboratory tests and in-situ measurements are required to determine roads.
material strength, expressed as the material GOEFFIGIENT. The following
methods are APPLIGABLE for these measurements:
Comments:
■ CBR and INDIGATOR testing of samples taken from the road
■ in-situ strength measured with DCP
■ measurement of layer tHIGKNESSES in the existing pavement with
DCP GOMBINED with EXGAVATION of test pits
SŁRGCŁGRAL NGMBER of łke exisłing pavemenł, SNexisł

The materials in the existing pavement STRUGTURE shall be given a material
Worked Example GOEFFIGIENT (a) after assessments in AGGORDANGE with Tabte 9.4. The STRUGTURAL
/Appendix A8¸ 5/ number (SNexist) is defined as the pRODUGT between the THIGKNESS (t) of
EAGH pavement layer (n) and its GORRESPONDING material GOEFFIGIENT (a),
nd millimetres in dividing by 25.4 when layer thicknesses are given in millimetres, because the material coefficients (a) are universally expressed as inch-1.
added for the entire pavement STRUGTURE or part of the pavement STRUGTURE.
SN = ( a1
x + aS x + a3 x +….+ an x tn ) / 25.4
t1 tS t3
where layer THIGKNESS (t) is measured in mm
Table 9.6 Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers
Type of material and condition of the layer Material coefficient (a)

Surfacing:
AsphaIt Concrete (AC), generaIIy un-cracked and with IittIe deformation in the wheeI
paths 0.40
PortIand cement concrete Iayers, generaIIy un-cracked
AsphaIt Concrete (AC) that exhibit some cracking but with IittIe deformation in the
wheeI paths
0.30
PortIand cement concrete Iayers, generaIIy stabIe but has some cracks, however
containing no pieces smaIIer than 1 m2.
AsphaIt Concrete (AC) that exhibit appreciabIe cracking, with some deformation in
the wheeI paths, but is essentiaIIy stabIe 0.18
AppreciabIy cracked and fauIted PortIand cement concrete Iayer
Surface treatments with totaI thickness min 30 mm 0.20
PortIand cement concrete Iayer, deIiberateIy broken into pieces Iess than 0.5 m
0.16
across
Base course:
Bituminous Iayers other than AC, generaIIy un-cracked and with IittIe deformation 0.30
Penetration macadam without infiItration of fines into the Iayer 0.20
Cement stabiIised base course, generaIIy without refIected cracking to the surface 0.18
Cement stabiIised base course, with extensive pattern cracking refIected to the surface 0.16
Bituminous Iayers other than AC, appreciabIy cracked and with some deformation
0.14
GranuIar Iayer of crushed or naturaI materiaI, PI max 8, CBR min 80
Low grade base course, subbase or earthworks layers:
FuIIy cracked cemented subbase or granuIar Iayers of naturaI graveI or with
0.12
smaII proportions of crushed particIes, CBR min 60
NaturaI graveI of nominaIIy subbase quaIity, CBR min 25 0.10
NaturaI graveI in improved subgrade Iayers, CBR min 10 0.08
REQGIRED słrengłk and słrengłk deficiency
The GALGULATION of strength DEFIGIENGY (SNdiff) shall minimum be GARRIED
out for the top of subbase level and for the top of subgrade level in the Worked Example
existing pavement. CALGULATIONS are only required within the design depth, /Appendix A8¸ 5/
REFERENGE is made to /Chapter 5.1/ for determination of design depth. The
GALGULATION giving the highest SNdiff BEGOMES the value for WHIGH the
rehabilitation design is GARRIED out.
The required STRUGTURAL number (SNrequired) shall be determined using Tabte
9.7 with input CBR expressing support GONDITIONS at the GALGULATED level
in the existing pavement STRUGTURE. The existing pavement’s strength
DEFIGIENGY (SNdiff) at the GALGULATED level in the STRUGTURE is the difFERENGE
between the required STRUGTURAL number (SNrequired) and the STRUGTURAL
number of the existing pavement (SNexist) above the GALGULATED level.
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist
Table 9.7 Determination of required structural number, FNreguired
Required structural number, SNrequired

Sub- Traffic load classes
grade
CBR TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
> 30 1.10 1.25 1.60 1.90 2.35 3.00 3.50

15 - 29 1.35 1.50 1.80 2.20 2.75 3.80 4.20
10 - 14 1.60 1.80 2.10 2.50 3.00 4.10 4.50
7-9 1.90 2.00 2.30 2.75 3.30 4.30 4.70
5-6 2.10 2.20 2.50 2.90 3.50 4.50 5.00
3-4 2.40 2.80 3.10 3.40 4.00 5.00 5.50
e.2.3 Mechanistic method

MEGHANISTIG methods are THEORETIGALLY derived through linear ELASTIG
theory and are based on a set of built-in distress GRITERIA. The South
AFRIGAN MEGHANISTIG design shall be used where a MEGHANISTIG method is
applied /9-3/.
The South AFRIGAN MEGHANISTIG method requires that the following infor-
mation about the existing pavement is gathered:
■ pavement type (test pit log and laboratory tests)
■ pavement state (SURFAGE DEFLEGTIONS: stiff/flexible)
■ layer state (test pits: WET/DRY/GRAGKED)
■ layer THIGKNESS (test pit log) The South African mechanistic method is presently the nearest available to local verifica
■ layer moduli (laboratory tests: values are given in table)

Correlation is made to a GATALOGUE of pavement behaviour states on the
basis of the above information about the existing pavement.
9.3 Rehabilitation Options
e.3.0 £eneral
be structurally sound. Resealing does not add significant structuralThe following
strength options
to the pavement. are available
However, resealing mayfor pavement
arrest or slow downrehabilitation:
deterioration by waterproofing and preventi
■ overlays with a new SURFAGING
■ overlays with a new SURFAGING and base GOURSE
■ partial REGONSTRUGTION by reworking the existing pavement and
adding new pavement layers as required
■ full REGONSTRUGTION by downgrading of the existing pavement
to subgrade for the new pavement
WHIGH method is the appropriate for a road SEGTION depends on the following:
■ GONDITION of the existing pavement
■ strength requirements for the new pavement
■ types of material in the existing pavement
■ available materials for GONSTRUGTION of the new pavement
■ required SURFAGE levels of the new road
■ GONSTRUGTION PRAGTIGALITIES
e.3.1 Overlays
Applicabiliły
Overlays are used for the following purposes:
■ to add sufFIGIENT sTRUGTURAL strength so the pavement GAN GARRY
the future trafFIG in the design period
■ to restore the riding quality of the pavement
Overlays shall not be used under the following GONDITIONS:
■ on severely GRAGKED pavements where there is a risk of early
GRAGK REFLEGTION through the new layers. Methods to minimise
the risk of GRAGK REFLEGTION are given in Chapter 9.4
■ on pavements with deformation (shoving) in bituminous layers
unless repair or removal of the deformed material is GARRIED out
Chapter 9.3.2
■ where there is UNGERTAINTY about the PERFORMANGE of the overlay
due to DEFEGTS in the existing base GOURSE or in PATGHES in the
existing pavement
Małerials
Material types SELEGTED for overlays shall meet the requirements given in
the design GATALOGUE Chapter 8 − Pavement design - New Roads and in
Chapter 7 − Pavement Materiats. Material GOEFFIGIENTS (a) for pavement
and subgrade materials are given in Tabte 9.6.
Overlay design
When an overlay is pLAGED, restoring of the drainage system shall always
be INGLUDED.
The general requirement for layer THIGKNESSES is that dMAX shall not eXGEED
2
/S of the GOMPAGTED layer THIGKNESS. Tabte 9.9 gives alternative overlay
designs for varying degrees of required strengthening.
Table 9.8 Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers Comments:
Material
Type of material
coefficient (a)
Surfacing:
AsphaIt Concrete surfacing (AC) 0.40
Base course:
Bituminous base course, BEMIX, FBMIX, DBM, LAMBS 0.30
Penetration macadam, PM 0.25
Cement or Iime stabiIised materiaIs, C2 0.20
Cement or Iime modified materiaIs, CM 0.11
GranuIar, crushed base course materiaIs, CRR 0.15
GranuIar, crushed base course materiaIs, CRS 0.14
NaturaI graveI base course, G80 0.13
NaturaI graveI base course, G60 0.12
Subbase:
Cement or Iime modified materiaIs, CM 0.11
GranuIar, crushed materiaIs used for subbase, CBR>45 0.11
NaturaI graveI subbase, G45 0.11
NaturaI graveI subbase, G25 0.10
Subgrade:
NaturaI graveI for improved subgrade, G15 0.09
All SELEGTION of SURFAGING type and base GOURSE material type shall meet
the requirements for the RESPEGTIVE trafFIG load GLASS given in /Tabtes 8.4/
to 8.8 in /Chapter 8 − Pavement Design - New roads/.
Overlays wiłk GRANGLAR base COGRSE

Tabte 9.9 provides an option to use graded GRUSHED ROGK as base GOURSE
(CRR) in overlays. This option shall be used with dISGRETION and Use of granular base course in overlays
PARTIGULAR attention to the following: carries risk of failure unless the existing
surface is reprocessed, i.e. by
■ the underlying SURFAGE must be freely drained, PARTIGULARLY where undertaking partial reconstruction
Ckapłer 9¸3¸2¸
depressions or ruts are present, in order to avoid water being
trapped in the new base GOURSE layer
■ the layer THIGKNESS given in Tabte 9.9 shall not be
GOMPROMISED by unevenness in the existing SURFAGE,
GONSIDERATION shall be given to REPROGESSING of the existing
pavement (partial REGONSTRUGTION) if the existing SURFAGE is
deformed
Comments: Table 9.9 Overlay design
Overlay alternatives
SN diff *) Select the nearest of the given values for SN diff
*)
Asphalt concrete overlay
Granular base
Bituminous mix Penetration 3)
for base course 1) macadam 2) course
< 0.50 Apply a surface treatment or do nothing depending on site conditions.
ST
PM 30
0,50 AC 40 mm 50 mm
ST
AC PM 30
0,75 50 mm 50 mm
ST
ST
STBit. PM 60 150 mm
1,00 AC 60 mm 80 mm
100 mm
CRR
Only TLC 10 or lower

AC 50 mm
PM 30 50 mm
alternatively: ST
ST
PM 80
Bit. 150 mm
1,25 AC 80 mm 125 mm
CRR
ST
AC 50 mm
AC 50 mm
Bit. 60 mm
PM 60 1 0 mm
100 mm 0
ST
alternatively: alternatively:
ST ST
1,50 Only TLC 10 or lower PM 80 200 mm
AC 120 mm 125 mm CRR
100 mm
Bit.
AC 50 mm
AC 50 mm
Bit. 80 mm PM 60 1 0 mm
0
alternatively: alternatively: AC 50 mm
ST ST
1,75 PM 30 50 mm
200 mm
AC 140 mm PM 60
120 mm 100 mm CRR
Bit.
50 mm
AC
125 mm
PM 80
alternatively:
ST AC 50 mm
PM 60
100 mm
AC 200 mm
CRR
2,00 Bit. PM 60
100 mm
50 mm
AC
125 mm
PM 80
50 mm
alternatively:
100 mm
2,25 ST
PM 60
AC 100 mm
PM 60
Bit. 100 mm
1)
The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on
traffic load class according
50 mm
to /Table 8¸7/ in /Ckapłer 8 — Pavemenł Design - New
Roabs/¸
2)
Best suited for roads 130
with
mm
low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with
high traffic speed a levelling course made of a bituminous mix may be necessary to
provide satisfactory riding quality.
G)
Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8¸4/ and /8¸5/ in /Ckapłer 8 — Pavemenł
Design - New Roabs/ with regards to traffic loading and climate.
Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.
Chapter 9
e.3.2 Partial reconstruction Comments:
General
Partial REGONSTRUGTION is REPROGESSING or removal of material from the
existing pavement to let the existing pavement form either base GOURSE
or subbase in the new pavement. Whether the existing pavement forms a
new base GOURSE or a new subbase depends on:
■ the material properties of the existing pavement layers
■ the GONDITION of the existing pavement
■ the strength requirements for the new pavement
■ any required adjustments of road levels
The pavement design GATALOGUE, /Tabtes 8.4/ to /8.8/ in /Chapter 8 −
Pave- ment design - New Roads/ shall be used for SELEGTION of pavement
layers.
Reprocessing łke old pavemenł ło base COGRSE in łke new

pavemenł The base GOURSE, GONSISTING of the REPROGESSED old pavement,
shall fulfil the requirements for base GOURSE in AGGORDANGE with the design
GATALOGUE.
REPROGESSING the old pavement to subbase in the new pavement.

The subbase, GONSISTING of the REPROGESSED old pavement, shall fulfil the
requirements for subbase in AGGORDANGE with the design GATALOGUE.
e.3.3 Full reconstruction

Full REGONSTRUGTION is when the existing pavement is REPROGESSED to
improved subgrade in the new pavement, whether or not reworking is
GARRIED out.
The pavement design GATALOGUE, /Tabtes 8.4/ to /8.8/. in /Chapter 8 −

Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for SELEGTION of SURFAGING,
base GOURSE and subbase. The subgrade, GONSISTING of the old pavement,
shall meet the requirement for subgrade /Chapter 5 − Fubgrade/.
9.4 Methods to Prevent Reflective

Cracking Specialised methods are generally
expensive, often require specialised
e.4.0 £eneral materials, equipment and skills, and the
success of the installation is not
SPEGIAL materials and methods may be used for the purpose of guaranteed.
minimising REFLEGTION of GRAGKS from the underlying SURFAGE below
asphalt GONGRETE overlays. SPEGIAL binders are also available for use in
SURFAGE treatments for MAINTENANGE reseals. SPEGIAL methods or materials
shall only be GONSIDERED in the GASES when alternative GONVENTIONAL
rehabilitation options INGUR GONSIDERABLE additional GOST or are unlikely to
be SUGGESSFUL.
e.4.1 Conventional methods for overlays

Conventional options to minimise GRAGK REFLEGTION through overlays shall
always be GONSIDERED and INGLUDE the following:
■ partly or full removal (milling) of the GRAGKED layer is often a
preferred option where the GRAGKS do not extend deep into
the pavement
■ overlays using penetration MAGADAM prevents GRAGK REFLEGTION
■ removal of the GRAGKED layer in individual LOGATIONS - and
PATGHING - before overlay is GOST efFEGTIVE where the total
Chapter 9
GRAGKED area is small
Ministry of Works e.1e

Chapter 9
Comments: ■ INGREASING the THIGKNESS of the asphalt overlay will delay the
GRAGK REFLEGTION through new layers, but GARRIES risks of not
being GOST EFFEGTIVE if the time until GRAGK REFLEGTION proves to
be shorter than EXPEGTED
■ individual sealing of GRAGKS may be EFFEGTIVE in GASES where
TRAFFIG is low, GRAGKS are few and GONSIDERED not very
AGTIVE
■ provision of a THIGK granular overlay (new base GOURSE) before
PLAGING the asphalt SURFAGING
e.4.2 Cpecial methods and materials for overlays

General
There is no standard measure to arrest GRAGK REFLEGTION that is suited for
every situation and SUGGESSFUL solutions require good knowledge of EAGH
GASE in order to ensure that the most appropriate method is SELEGTED. The
GOST efFEGTIVENESS - and likelihood of SUGGESS - when applying SPEGIALISED
materials or methods shall be GAREFULLY assessed and DOGUMENTED before
APPLIGATION in the works. No added STRUGTURAL strength shall be attributed
to the PRESENGE of SUGH layers in the pavement.
The success of grids for reinforcement Inłerlayer sysłems

in pavement rehabilitation depends on There is a GONSIDERABLE number of SPEGIALISED systems available for
whether the grid, and surrounding
materials, can mobilise sufficient stress
prevention of GRAGK REFLEGTION in overlays. These INGLUDE the use of:
before strain at existing cracks causes ■ geo-textiles impregnated with binder
reflection through the overlay. The
possibility of crack reflection at the ■ REINFORGEMENT by the use of grids
edge of the grid should also be
considered, and whether or not the grid ■ GOMBINATIONS of geo-textiles and grids
will obstruct recycling of the pavement
at a later time. ■ interlayer systems with thin sand asphalt
■ SURFAGE treatment with modified or GONVENTIONAL binder before
PLAGING the overlay
■ a membrane made of polyester threads or glass fibre in
GOMBINATION with a bituminous binder
■ SPEGIALISED binders or mix designs, or SPEGIAL materials SUGH as
fibres, in the overlay mix
■ REPROGESSING of the existing asphalt SURFAGE by the aid of heating
Any SPEGIALISED method under GONSIDERATION shall be assessed together
with GONVENTIONAL alternatives to SELEGT the most GOST efFEGTIVE and
TEGHNIGALLY appropriate option. Any MODIFIGATION of the overlay mix itself
shall not GOMPROMISE the ability of the layer to withstand PLASTIG
deformation under trafFIG.
e.4.3 Curface treatments

SPEGIALISED SURFAGE treatments utilising SPEGIAL binders SUGH as bitumen
Multi-layer reseals by the use of high with rubber or polymer modified binders may be used for the purpose of
bitumen spray rates can effectively seal
cracks provided the cracks are not ENHANGING the ability of a MAINTENANGE reseal to arrest GRAGK REFLEGTION.
active and their widths are not The designer shall GONSIDER whether alternative multi-layer reseals by the
excessive. However, some bleeding of
the surface may have to be tolerated in
use of GONVENTIONAL binders, or INGREASED resealing FREQUENGY, are likely
such cases. to give similar results as SPEGIALISED binders, and make estimations of
WHIGH is the more GOST EFFEGTIVE solution.

References Comments:

ztructural dezign of road pavementz. Sydney, Auztralia.
9-3 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH
12 (1997): Bituminouz pavement rehabilitation dezign.
9-4 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
Sampling methodz for road conztruction materialz. CSRA,
9-5 EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The uze of hot
zurface treatment to rehabilitate cracked azphalt concrete zurfacingz
in Malayzia. Proc. the zeventh REAAA Conference, Singapore, June
1992.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for
pavement rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
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Road Building, Kuala Lumpur, Malayzia.
9 - 14 THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Azphalt overlayz and
pavement rehabilitation. Azphalt Inztitute manual (MS-17), USA.
9 - 15 KENNEDY CK, LISTER NW (1978). Prediction of pavement
performance and the dezign of overlayz. TRRL Laboratory report
833. Crowthorne, UK.
ztructural dezign of bitumen-zurfaced roadz in tropical and
zubtropical countriez. Overzeaz Road Note No. 31. TRL,
Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.
9 - 17 WESTON D J (1980). Expanzive zoil treatment for zouthern
Africa. Proc. 4th International Conference on Expanzive Soilz,
Denver, USA.
9 - 18 YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principlez of pavement
dezign. Second edition. A Wiley-Interzcience Publication, USA
and Canada.
Ministry of Works e.21
Bituminous
C
Zurfacings h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
te
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
New Roads
r
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Rehabilitation
Bituminous
9urfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
required
Ministry of Works
Chapter

This GHAPTER establishes PROGEDURES for design and GONSTRUGTION of
SURFAGING layers made of bituminous materials whether these are to be
used in the GONSTRUGTION of new roads, or rehabilitation or MAINTENANGE
of existing roads. Figure lO.l iNDIGATES the EXPEGTED RESURFAGING
FREQUENGY when using various types of SURFAGING, i.e. the EXPEGTED period
from the time a SURFAGING is applied until RESURFAGING is required.
Years
Type of surfacing 012 3456 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
*) It is beneficial to apply an early reseal *)
Asphalt Concrete
with surface treatment on asphalt
concrete in order to prevent cracks Double Surface Dressing
developing from the surface as a result Double Otta Seal
of hardening of the binder.
Single Otta Seal with a Sand Cover Seal
Single Surface Dressing with a Sand Cover Seal
Double Sand Seal
7igure lO.l Xxpected resurfacing frequency
The INDIGATED RESURFAGING FREQUENGIES in Figure lO.l are shown as ranges
BEGAUSE the AGTUAL SURFAGING life will vary and depends on a number of
FAGTORS SUGH as:
■ workmanship
■ aggregate size, i.e. THIGKNESS of the seal
■ binder quality
■ type of base GOURSE
■ GLIMATE
■ trafFIG
10.1 Priming
10.1.0 £eneral
The purpose of priming is to prepare a GOMPLETED SURFAGE of unbound
Priming must not be confused with
applying a membrane of bitumen base GOURSE materials to REGEIVE a bituminous SURFAGING and to PROTEGT the
emulsion for curing of cemented base base GOURSE from any damage until the SURFAGING is in PLAGE. This is done
courses, where the purpose is to seal
off the layer, but with no penetration of
by spraying a light GUTBAGK bitumen to bind the SURFAGE of the base
the bituminous material into the GOURSE and to penetrate into the SURFAGE.
surface.
/Ckapłer 7¸3 — Cemenłeb Małerials/¸
10.1.1 Materials and construction
Małerials
Standard GUTBAGK bitumen for priming are MC30 and MC70, of WHIGH
MC30 penetrates more easily than the latter. MC30 shall be used unless
EXGESSIVE absorption into the SURFAGE or base GOURSE PARTIGLES is observed,
thus requiring the heavier MC70 prime. MC70 shall be used if a delay of
more than one month is EXPEGTED before the bituminous sURFAGING is
PLAGED.
CONSŁRGCŁION
Required prime spray rates will Spray rates of prime shall be determined on site as required. The SURFAGE
2
normally be between 0.7 l/m and 1.0 shall be GLEANED of loose material by the use of sweeping or blowing with
2
l/m , in special cases of an absorbent GOMPRESSED air as required. Light dampening with water prior to priming
may be BENEFIGIAL, but no EXGESSIVE or repeated watering shall be
allowed.
Crusher dust or a suitable sand shall be spread at a rate of 0.005 mS/m2
where temporary passage of trafFIG is NEGESSARY or if there is a risk of the
prime being PIGKED up on tyres when applying subsequent layers.
10.2 Surface Dressing

10.2.0 £eneral
SURFAGE dressing is a sprayed bituminous seal GHARAGTERISED by the use of
single sized aggregate (GHIPPING) of a relatively refined quality. Double Worked Example
SURFAGE dressings are used in GONSTRUGTION of new roads and for reseals of /Appendix A8¸ 6/
roads where deterioration of the existing SURFAGE has made use of a single
seal insufFIGIENT. The design PROGEDURE for SURFAGE dressing is based on
Hanson´s PRINGIPLES, i.e required bitumen spray rate is a FUNGTION of the
Average Least Dimension (ALD) of the aggregate. CORREGTIONS for
sed under special prevailing sitei.e.GONDITIONS
circumstances, are surfaces
when resealing subsequently
that are cracked
GARRIED out as DESGRIBED
or extremely hungry. Thisin this can salvage a pavement having a surface in poor condition, th
method
GHAPTER.
10.2.1 Application rates for planning purposes

APPLIGATION rates of GHIPPING and binder for SURFAGE dressing
shall be determined as DESGRIBED in this GHAPTER based on
information about site GONDITIONS and aggregate properties. The
material GONSUMPTION given in Tabte lO.l GAN be assumed for
planning purposes until SUGH PROJEGT details are available.
Table lO.l Furface dressing - application rates for planning purposes
Double seals Single seals - reseals

2nd
2nd:
10 mm : 7 mm
1st 14mm 10 mm
1st :
20 mm : 14 mm
Aggregate spread rates [m3Im2]:
2nd layer 0.009 0.007
1st layer 0.015 0.011 0.012 0.010
Hot spray rates of 80I100 penetration grade bitumen [lIm 2]:
Light traffic
3.0 (total) 2.3 (total) 1.6 1.3
AADT < 200
Medium traffic
2.5 (total) 1.9 (total) 1.3 1.0
AADT 200-1000
Heavy traffic
2.1 (total) 1.7 (total) 1.1 0.8
AADT > 1000
Conversions from hot spray rate in volume (litres) to tonnes for payment
purposes shall be made for the bitumen density at a spraying temperature
of 180oC. For planning purposes a hot density of 0.90 kg/l shall be
assumed until reliable data for the PARTIGULAR bitumen are available.
10.2.2 Aggregate requirements

The aggregate for SURFAGE dressing shall be durable and free from orGANIG
matter or any other GONTAMINATION. Tabte lO.2 gives the material
requirements for the aggregate. The Average Least Dimension (ALD) of
ALD can be expected for aggregates meeting the requirements forthe aggregate
grading shall
and Flakiness be determine as DESGRIBED in /Appendis A8.6/ and
Index:
expressed in mm.
4 mm
Table lO.2 Aggregate requirements for surface dressing

– Nominal size 14
mm: ALD range 7¸5 ło 10 mm Material Nominal aggregate size
mm property
– Nominal size 10 Sieve size 20 mm 14 mm 10 mm 7 mm
mm: ALD range 5¸5 ło 7 mm
size 7 mm: [ mm ]
m ckipping, anb smaller, neeb noł ło be bełermineb for surfacing besign purposes¸ Grading, [ passing ]
%
25 100
20 85 - 100 100
14 0 - 30 85 - 100
10 0-5 0 - 30 85 - 100 100
6.3 - 0-5 0 - 30 80 - 100
5 - - 0-5 0 - 40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 < 0.5 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.5
0.075 < 0.3 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 1.0
Flakiness Index max 20 max 25 max 30
TFVdry AADT > 1000: min 160
AADT < 1000: kN
min 120
kN
TFV soaked 24 hrs min 75% of the corresponding TFVdry
10.2.3 Binder
Type of binder
Penetration
n of successive layers in order to prevent prolonged bleeding of the gradetobitumen
surfacing. Closure of types
traffic to prevent early 80/100 or 150/200
loss of chipping shall be
may be necessary used
if the for
softer cutback bitumen is una
SURFAGE dressing unless SPEGIFIG site GONDITIONS require use of other
grades of bitumen. Bitumen types that GONTAIN solvents, SUGH as MC3000
GUT- BAGK bitumen, are only required for SURFAGE dressing laid under GOLD
GONDITIONS at temperatures below 15 0C. SUGH GONDITIONS are only
EXPEGTED to OGGUR in regions at high altitude.
Correcłion of spray rałes for łke łype of binder

Bitumen spray rates shall be INGREASED by 10% in the APPLIGATIONS where
MC3000 GUTBAGK bitumen is used in SURFAGE dressing. The 10% INGREASE
of spray rates when using MC3000 is made to GOMPENSATE for loss of
solvents in GUTBAGK bitumen. SUGH GORREGTION of the bitumen spray rates
shall not be GARRIED out for penetration grade bitumen SUGH as 80/100 or
150/200.
CONSŁRGCŁION and spray rałe MEASGREMENŁs

The
sources will have different density and this information is available fromspraying temperature of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall be
delivery certificates.
170oC to 185oC. All storage and handling of bitumen shall be in
AGGORDANGE with /Appendis A5/.
Bitumen has a GONSIDERABLY different density when GOLD GOMPARED to Comments:
spraying temperature and it is important to use the hot density in all
GONVERSIONS between tonnage and hot spray rate. Conversions from hot
spray rate in litres - to tonnes - shall be made at the bitumen’s density at
a spraying temperature of 180oC for the purpose payment and for GONTROL
of spray rates where GONTROL is GARRIED out by weighing of sample trays. If
GONTROL of spray rates are GARRIED out by the use of a GALIBRATED DIPSTIGK in
the distributor tank then the hot spray rate shall be applied DIREGTLY in the
GONTROL. If the temperature/density relationship for the bitumen is un-
available then a REDUGTION in density by of 0.0006 kg/l shall be applied
for EAGH oC INGREASE in temperature from that of the known density.
10.2.4 Traffic
The base bitumen spray rates are given as a FUNGTION of the AADT,
WHIGH shall be the trafFIG VOLUME immediately after the SURFAGE dressing
is opened to trafFIG. The following is assumed in the sURFAGING design:
■ SURFAGED width is minimum 6 m
■ the road has one lane in EAGH DIREGTION
■ AADT is made up of trafFIG figures approximately equal in
EAGH DIREGTION, i.e. not a larger difFERENGE than a 60/40%
distribution
■ there is minimum15% heavy VEHIGLES in the trafFIG flow
For roads with a SURFAGED width of less than 6 m, the trafFIG figure AADT
+ 50% shall be used as input in the SURFAGING design. For roads with more
than one lane in EAGH DIREGTION (dual GARRIAGEWAY) and for roads where
trafFIG VOLUMES in EAGH DIREGTION are more unequal than a 60/40%
distribution, the trafFIG data shall be assessed separately and GONSIDERATION
given to the use of different spray rates for the RESPEGTIVE lanes.
CORREGTION of the bitumen spray rates shall be GARRIED out as PRESGRIBED in
Chapter lO.2.5 and Chapter lO.2.6 for roads with less heavy trafFIG than
15% and for SPEGIAL load GONDITIONS SUGH as GLIMBING lanes.
Heavy vehicles are defined as having
Areas that will REGEIVE EXGESSIVE GONSTRUGTION trafFIG shall be assessed an un-laden weight of more than G
tonnes, or buses with a seating
SPEGIALLY and may require REDUGED bitumen spray rates. SPEGIAL
capacity of 40 or more /Ckapłer 4 —
GONDITIONS, SUGH as SEGTIONS of new road WHIGH will remain un- Traffic/¸
trafFIGKED for a long time after the seal is PLAGED GONSTRUGTED, shall be
assessed separately and may require INGREASED bitumen spray rates or
preferably APPLIGATION of an emulsion fogspray Chapter lO.2.9.
10.2.5 Cingle surface dressing - reseals

General
Single SURFAGE dressing is suitable for MAINTENANGE resealing and shall Use of single surface dressings on
not be used in GONSTRUGTION of new roads with unbound base GOURSE unbound base course materials carry a
considerable risk of early maintenance,
materials unless on SPEGIFIG agreement with the Ministry of Works at and places excessive demands for
PROJEGT level. workmanship in order to give
satisfactory performance. The designer
should rather consider combination
BIŁGMEN spray rałes — single SGRFACE dressing and reseals seals that utilise sand seal in the final
layer. Alternatively Otta seals can be
The hot bitumen spray rates for single SURFAGE dressings are given in used where budget constraints do not
Tabte lO.3 with GORRESPONDING GORREGTIONS for site GONDITIONS. The allow for double surface dressing.
GORREGTIONS of spray rates in Tabte lO.3 are GUMULATIVE and shall be
ARITHMETIGALLY added where more than one GORREGTION apply.
Table lO.3 Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals
Worked Example AADT 1) Basic hot bitumen spray rate [lIm2]

/Appendix A8¸ 6/ < 50 0.19 x ALD 2)
50 - 100 0.17 x ALD 2)
100 - 250 0.16 x ALD 2)
250 - 500 0.14 x ALD 2)
500 - 1500 0.13 x ALD 2)
> 1500 0.12 x ALD 2)
1) Assumed a two lane road, min 6 metres wide. Ckapłer 10¸2¸4 refers for correction of
traffic figures for different cross sections.
2) ALD is measured in mm. Assume ALD=5 mm if chipping with nominal size of 7 mm is
used.
Correction of bitumen
spray rates [lIm2]
Site conditions
14 mm 10 mm
aggregate aggregate
Underlying surface:
- Soft or fatty bituminous surface - 0.3 - 0.2
- lean, bituminous surface 0 0
- Coarse, absorbent (hungry) surface + 0.3 + 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehicles + 0.2 + 0.1
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5% - 0.2 - 0.1
Dusty aggregate ( > 0.5% pass. 0.425 mm ) + 0.2 + 0.1
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption ) + 0.2 + 0.2
Pre-coated aggregate *) - 0.1 - 0.1
*) In cases where the aggregate is pre-coated, no correction shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. Corrections when using emulsion fogspray are described in
Ckapłer 10¸2¸9¸
10.2.6 Double surface dressing

General
Design of double SURFAGE dressing is GARRIED out by determining the
bitumen spray rates separately for the two layers.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8¸ 6/
Aggregałe sizes in DOGBLE SGRFACE dressing
Appropriate GOMBINATIONS of aggregate sizes are given in Tabte lO.4 and
shall be used in double SURFAGE dressing. Bitumen spray rates − 1st layer
in double SURFAGE dressings.
The hot bitumen spray rate for the 1st layer in a double SURFAGE dressing
is given in Tabte lO.5. with GORRESPONDING GORREGTIONS for site GONDITIONS.
ations of nominal aggregate sizes are used. This can in turn cause construction problems and need for excessive bitumen spray rates if loss of chipping is to be avoided.
Table lO.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing Comments:
Nominal aggregate sizes [mm]

Layer
Coarse surfacing type1) Fine surfacing type 2)
2nd layer 10 7
st
1 layer 20 14
1) The coarse surfacing type is preferred on roads with high traffic, or if the base course
material has a soft surface causing considerable embedment of the aggregate into the
base course. The use of the coarse type will in such cases carry less risk of achieving
incorrect bitumen spray rates causing either heavy bleeding or loss of stones.
2) The fine surfacing type forms a thinner seal, best suited where traffic volumes are low. It
is cheaper to construct than the coarse type due to lower consumption of materials. On
roads with very low traffic the coarse type will require considerable quantities of
bitumen to perform satisfactorily, rendering the fine type more economical.
The GORREGTIONS in Tabte lO.5 are GUMULATIVE and shall be ARITHMETIGALLY

added where more than one GORREGTION apply.
Table lO.5 Bitumen spray rates − lst layer
AADT 1) Basic hot bitumen spray rate [lIm2]

< 50 0.17 x 2)
ALD
50 - 100 0.15 x 2)
ALD
100 - 250 0.13 x 2)
ALD
250 - 500 0.12 x 2)
ALD
500 - 1500 0.11 x 2)
ALD
> 1500 0.10 x 2)
ALD
1) Assumed a two lane road, min 6 metres wide. Chapter 10.2.4 Refer to
correction of traffic figures for different cross sections.
2) ALD is measured in mm.
spray rates [lIm2]
Site conditions
20 mm 14 mm
aggregate aggregate
Underlying surface:
- Soft or fatty bituminous surface, wet prime - 0.4 - 0.3
- Lean, bituminous surface, dry prime 0 0
- Coarse, absorbent (hungry) surface + 0.3 + 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehicles + 0.3 + 0.2
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5% - 0.3 - 0.2
Dusty aggregate ( > 0.2% pass. 0.075 mm ) + 0.2 + 0.2
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption ) + 0.2 + 0.2
Comments: BIŁGMEN spray rałes — 2nd layer in DOGBLE SGRFACE dressings
The hot bitumen spray rate for the 2nd layer in a double SURFAGE dressing
is given in Tabte lO.6. The GORREGTIONS in Tabte lO.6 are GUMULATIVE and
shall be ARITHMETIGALLY added where more than one GORREGTION apply.
Table lO.6 Bitumen spray rates − 2nd layer
Basic hot bitumen spray rate [lIm2]

AADT 1)
10 mm aggregate 7 mm aggregate
< 50 0.16 x ALD (in mm) 1.0
50 - 100 0.15 x ALD (in mm) 0.9
100 - 500 1.0 0.8
500 – 1500 0.9 0.7
> 1500 0.8 0.6
1) Assumed a two lane road, min 6 metres wide. Ckapłer 10¸2¸4 refers for correction of
traffic figures for different cross sections.
spray rates [lIm2]
Site conditions
10 mm 7 mm
aggregate aggregate
Carriageway with less than 15% heavy
+ 0.2 + 0.1
vehicles
Dusty aggregate ( > 0.2% pass. 0.075 mm ) + 0.1 0
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water
+ 0.1 + 0.1
absorption )
*)
Pre-coated aggregate - 0.1 - 0.1
*) In cases where the aggregate is pre-coated, no correction shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. Corrections when using emulsion fogspray are described in
Ckapłer 10¸2¸9¸
10.2.7 Aggregate spread rates

The required aggregate spread rate shall be visually determined on site.
It is easier to correct under-application
Tabte lO.l gives a GUIDANGE to the spread rates for planning purposes. It
of chipping by hand during and after the is important not to over-apply aggregate, PARTIGULARLY in the first layer of a
operation than to correct over- double SURFAGE dressing where a GORREGT spread rate gives an aggregate
application. Site staff has generally a
tendency to over- apply chipping rather GOVER of about 90% of the SURFAGE.
than the reverse. Mhere dusty or soft
qualities of aggregate are used it is
particularly important not to over-apply 10.2.8 Pre-coating of aggregate
chipping as this will cause increased
accumulation of dust in the fresh seal General
thus increasing the risk of aggregate A GONSIDERABLE ASSURANGE of a good result is attained by PRE-GOATING the
loss.
aggregate in single reseals, or the final layer of double seals. PRE-GOATING
Bitumen emulsion diluted with water to eliminates problems with stone retention due to dusty aggregates and
give a bitumen content of 20% is a usually makes GONTROL of the aggregate spread rate easier, thereby EGONO-
suitable pre-coating agent, however
alternative agents may be used
mising on the materials. The agent used for PRE-GOATING shall have a hard
provided their effectiveness is proven. binder base, i.e. diesel or paraffin alone shall not be used. PRE-GOATING
agents shall have no adverse efFEGT on environment or personnel.
Chapter
Design and CONSŁRGCŁION Comments:

The PRE-GOATING rate shall be 10 to 15 litres per mS of aggregate and the
aggregate shall be slightly wet before mixing in the GASES where emulsion The pre-coating agent can be admixed
by use of a mixing plant or by simple
is used. The aggregate shall be left in STOGKPILE until the PRE-GOATING agent mixing at the stockpiling site using
has set sufFIGIENTLY for the aggregate to be spread without difFIGULTIES and ordinary loading equipment.
provide initial bond to the bitumen film.
10.2.e Emulsion fogspray

In GONSTRUGTION of new SURFAGE dressings APPLIGATION of emulsion Emulsion fogspray in new construction
is not used where the aggregate is pre-
fogspray as a final GOAT gives ENHANGED stone retention and an coated.
opportunity to GORREGT the bitumen GONTENT in the seal. The PROGEDURES
DESGRIBED in Chapter lO.6 − Furface Xnrichment shall apply. 50% of the
bitumen applied in the fogspray shall be GONSIDERED efFEGTIVE in the
design of the SURFAGE dressing and the bitumen spray rates of the final
layer of GHIPPING shall be REDUGED AGGORDINGLY.
10.2.10 Adhesion agents

An AGTIVE adhesion agent of a renowned MANUFAGTURE shall be admixed to Some adhesion agents start to lose
the bitumen or aggregate AGGORDING to the MANUFAGTURER ’s SPEGIFIGATIONS their effect when coming into contact
with hot bitumen. For further details on
if the GHIPPING is wet. In SUGH GASES the road shall be GLOSED to trafFIG handling of adhesion agents: /Appenbix
until the fresh seal has dried GOMPLETELY and the bond between aggregate A5/¸
and bitumen is established. Adhesion agents shall not be used if the The use of an adhesion agent in
GHIPPING is PRE-GOATED. The MANUFAGTURER ’s SPEGIFIGATIONS for use of EAGH combination with deliberate wetting of
the chipping can be an effective method
PARTIGULAR PRODUGT shall be adhered to. to reduce any problems with dusty
chipping.
10.3 Otta Seals

10.3.0 £eneral
Descripłion
The Otta Seal is a sprayed bituminous SURFAGING using graded aggregates
ranging from natural gravel to graded GRUSHED ROGK instead of the single
The Otta Seal method has no different
sized GRUSHED GHIPPING used in GONVENTIONAL SURFAGE dressings. The limitation with regards to traffic volume
AGGEPTANGE of a broad variety of aggregate qualities, but still giving good than the conventional surface dressing
with single sized chipping.
results in a bituminous seal, is the TYPIGAL feature of Otta Seals. This is
AGHIEVED by using soft binders and high APPLIGATION rates of both binder
and aggregate. Priming of the base GOURSE is UNNEGESSARY when using Otta
Seals, but may be desired for operational reasons.
New CONSŁRGCŁION
The Otta Seal GAN be GONSTRUGTED in a single or double layer and may be
followed by a sand GOVER seal. Single Otta Seals without a sand GOVER
The combination of a single Otta Seal
seal shall not be used as permanent seals in new GONSTRUGTION unless with a sand cover seal is particularly
limited SERVIGE life is desired SUGH as for temporary seals e.g. on economical for roads with low and
diversions. medium traffic volumes. Double Otta
Seals are warranted for roads with
higher traffic.
Mainłenance
Otta Seals of any type, INGLUDING single Otta Seals, GAN be used for
MAINTENANGE resealing.
Single Otta Seals are normally used for

10.3.1 Aggregate and binder
Aggregates for Otta Seals GAN be natural gravel, GRUSHED gravel or GRUSHED
ROGKtoor
pes and gradings. Natural gravel however often requires screening stones.
remove Theparticles
oversize material shall be free
and sometimes fromthelumps
to reduce of GLAY
fines content or material.
in the other
deleterious matter. The required aggregate properties are INGLUDED in
Tabte lO.8.
Binder for Otta Seals shall be in the VISGOSITY range from MC800
GUTBAGK bitumen to 150/200 penetration grade bitumen, i.e. 80/100 shall
never be used. SELEGTION of GORREGT binder type for the prevailing
GONDITIONS shall be made in AGGORDANGE with Tabte lO.8. Adhesion
agents shall be admixed to the binder at minimum 0.5% when the
aggregate is natural gravel, or as required depending on adhesion
properties when GRUSHED aggregate is used.
10.3.2 Types of Otta Ceals

The REGOMMENDED types of Otta Seals for various types of work and
Ołła Seal using nałural grabeb gravel as aggregałe (małerial > 19 mm was screeneb by kanb)¸
trafFIG VOLUMES are given in Tabte lO.7.
Table lO.7 Recommended Otta Feal concept
Traffic volume and type of work Otta Seal types

Temporary seal (diversions, haul roads, etc.)
Maintenance resealing (all traffic classes to Single Otta Seal
which sprayed surfacings are applicable)
Single Otta Seal + sand
Shoulders, all types of roads
cover seal
Carriageway, AADT max 500 at the time of Single Otta Seal + sand
e-up łke grabeb aggregałe useb in Ołła Seal¸ Nołe łke bense surface construction
małrix¸ cover seal
Carriageway, AADT more than 500 at the
Double Otta Seal
time of construction *)
*) The limitations in traffic volume are similar to that applied to any alternative sprayed
type of surfacing.
10.3.3 Material requirements and design of Otta Ceals

Aggregate for Otta Seals shall meet the requirements in Tabte lO.8
Table lO.8 Material requirements for Otta Feals
Material
properties Requirements CML test
method
AADT>100: TFVsoaked : min. 75% of TFVdry For AADT<100: 60%
Aggregate strength 2.7
AADT>100: TFVdry: min. 110 kN For AADT<100: 90kN
Plasticity Index max 12 1.2 and 1.3
Flakiness Index max 30 (Only valid for crushed material) 2.4
Sieve sizes [mm] Grading requirements [% passing]
20 100
14 60 - 100
10 36 - 98
5 10 - 70 1.7
2 0 - 44
1,18 0 - 38
0,425 0 - 25
0,075 0 - 10
The grading shall be continuous d have a smooth curve following the shape of the grading envelope.
an
Chapter
Tabte lO.9 gives the GRITERIA for SELEGTION of bitumen type and spray rates Comments:
for Otta Seals. No SPEGIAL design PROGEDURE is required for Otta Seals
used on shoulders. No GORREGTION of bitumen spray rate shall be made to
GOMPENSATE for solvents in GUTBAGK bitumen in the design of Otta Seals.
Table lO.9 Design of Otta Feals

Procedure for design and after-treatment
1)
Sieve sizes Coarse grading 1)
Medium grading 1)
Fine grading CML test
[mm] [% passing] [% passing] [% passing] method
20 100 100 100
14 60 - 82 68 - 94 84 - 100
10 36 - 58 44 - 73 70 - 98
5 10 - 30 19 - 42 44 - 70 1.7
2 0-8 3 - 18 20 - 44
1,18 0-5 1 - 14 15 - 38
0,425 0-2 0-6 7 - 25
0,075 0-1 0-2 3 - 10
1) These grading envelopes are given for the the purpose of proper design of the seal and are not material requirements for
aggregate.
AADT at the time Type of bitumen

of construction
The grading should be MC3000 normally
More than 1000 altered for this application 150/200 penetration grade MC800 in cold weather
150/200 normally MC3000 normally
100 - 1000 150/200 penetration grade MC800 in cold weather
MC3000 in cold weather
Less than 100 150/200 penetration grade MC3000 MC800

80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall not be used in Otta Seal unless softened or cut back to meet the above requirements.
Softening to make 150/200: 3% - 5% softener is mixed with 95% - 97% 80/100 pen. grade bitumen. Softener can be a
purpose-made petroleum destillate, alternatively engine oil, old or new.
The cutback bitumen grades can be made by blending 150/200 pen. grade bitumen on site using the following
proportions: MC3000: 5% - 8% kerosine mixed with 92% - 95% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
MC800: 15% - 18% kerosine mixed with 82% - 85% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
If the cutback grades are made directly from 80/100 pen. grade bitumen, then an additional 3% - points kerosine shall be used.
Diesel shall not be used for cutting back to MC grades. Circulation in the tank shall be carried out at least 1 hour after
mixing. Proper safety procedures shall be adhered to in the case cutting back on site is being done.
Type of Otta Seal Hot bitumen spray rates for un-primed base course [l/m 2]
2nd layer 1,5 1,6 1,7 AADT<100: 1.8
Double 1st layer 2) 1,6 1,7 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Alt. fine sand 0,7 0,7 0,6
Single, with a Alt. Crusher
sand cover seal dust or coarse 0,9 0,8 0,7
river sand
1st layer 2) 1,6 1,7 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Single 2) 1,7 1,8 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Maintenance reseal (single) 1,5 1,6 1,7 AADT<100: 1.8
2) On a primed base course the spray rate shall be reduced by 0.2 l/m 2 in the first layer.
Notes: - Where the aggregate has a water absorbency more than 2%, the spray rates shall be increased by 0.3 l/m2.
- Binder for the sand cover seal shall be: MC3000 for crusher dust or coarse river sand, MC800 for fine sand.
Type of seal Aggregate spread rates [m 3/m2]
Otta Seals 0.013 - 0.016 0.013 - 0.016 0.016 - 0.020
Sand cover seals 0.010 - 0.012
Rolling and after-treatment:
- On the day of construction: 1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.
- For the next two days after construction: 1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.
- Two weeks after contruction: Sweep off any excess stones.
10.3.4 Construction
The GONSTRUGTION PROGEDURE for Otta Seals is similar to GONVENTIONAL
SURFAGE dressings. If prime is omitted then the preparation of the base
GOURSE shall be done in AGGORDANGE with Chapter lO.l − Priming prior to
GONSTRUGTION of the Otta Seal. Rolling of the seal shall be extensive in
AGGORDANGE with Tabte lO.9 and the seal shall be opened to trafFIG
immediately after GONSTRUGTION. CONSTRUGTION of following layers shall be
delayed as follows depending on the type of bitumen used in the
previous layer:
■ 150/200 pen. grade bitumen: min 3 to 6 weeks
■ MC800 or MC3000 GUTBAGK bitumen: min 2 to 3 months
tta Seals is normal and should cause no alarm¡ more aggregate is applied, and preferably rolled, if bleeding becomes heavy. Aggregate may be applied by hand or10. 11use of mechan
Ministry of Works
by the
Comments: 10.4 Other Surface Treatments
10.4.1 Cand seals
General
Sand seals are sprayed bituminous SURFAGINGS made with natural river
sand or GRUSHER dust as aggregate. CONSTRUGTED in two layers a sand seal
is used as a permanent bituminous SURFAGING on low trafFIG roads while a
single layer is not sufFIGIENTLY durable unless GOMBINED with an
underlying Otta seal or SURFAGE dressing. Sand seals are also used as a
MAINTENANGE remedy on existing SURFAGE treated roads.
Aggregałe REQGIREMENŁs
The aggregate for sand seals shall be GLEAN, NON-PLASTIG river sand or
GRUSHER dust made from fresh GRUSHED ROGK or boulders, free from
orGANIG matter or lumps of GLAY. The grading requirements are given in
Tabte lO.lO.
Table lO.lO Aggregate requirements for sand seals
Sieve size Grading, [% passing]

[mm] Natural river sand Crusher dust
10 100 100
5 85 - 100 85 - 100
1.18 20 - 60 20 - 80
0.425 0 - 30 -
0.300 0 - 15 -
0.150 0-5 0 - 30
Binder and aggregałe applicałion rałes

The binder for sand seals shall be GUTBAGK bitumen of type MC3000.
The bitumen spray rates for sand seals are given in Tabte lO.ll.
Table lO.ll Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals
Hot spray rates of Aggregate

Application MC3000 cutback application rate,
bitumen [lIm2] 1) [m3Im2]
Double sand seal used as a 0.010 – 0.012
1.2 per layer
permanent seal per layer
Single sand seal used as a
cover seal in combination with 0.8 – 1.0 2)
Otta seal or surface dressing
0.010 – 0.012
Single sand seal used as a
maintenance remedy on 0.6 – 1.0 2)
existing surface treated roads
1) No correction of bitumen spray rate shall be made to compensate for loss of
solvents in cutback bitumen in the design of sand seals.
2) Binder spray rates depend on the texture of the underlying seal.
CONSŁRGCŁION
Priming is not essential when using sand seals in new GONSTRUGTION. If
prime is omitted then the preparation of the base GOURSE shall be done in
AGGORDANGE with Chapter lO.l − Priming prior to GONSTRUGTION of the sand
seal.
The sand seal shall REGEIVE the maximum possible rolling with PNEUMATIG
applied by hand or by the use of mechanical chip spreaders. Mhen spreading by hand the sand layer should be levelled by brooming prior to rolling. Sand seals should be opened to traffi
tyred rollers within the first 2 days after spraying. A minimum period of
2 months shall elapse between APPLIGATION of SUGGESSIVE layers, during
WHIGH time the road shall be open to trafFIG.
10.4.2 Combined seals using a sand cover-seal

General
Use of single SURFAGE dressing followed by a sand seal, or a single Otta
seal followed by a sand seal, are EGONOMIGAL methods to provide a
durable seal with good stone retention.
Małerials, design and CONSŁRGCŁION

The 1st seal shall be designed as a single SURFAGE dressing AGGORDING to
Chapter lO.2.5 or a single Otta seal AGGORDING to Chapter lO.3 Worked Example
RESPEGTIVELY. PRE-GOATING of the aggregate, or emulsion fogspray, shall not /Appendix A8¸ 6/
be used when a sand seal will follow a single SURFAGE dressing.
The 2nd seal shall be designed AGGORDING to Chapter lO.4.l − Fand seats.
10.5 Slurry Seals

10.5.0 £eneral
Slurry is a GOLD premixed material made of GRUSHER-dust, a stable grade
of bitumen emulsion, GEMENT or lime filler and water for adjustment of
GONSISTENGY. The GONSISTENGY is GREAMY and the mix is poured onto the
road SURFAGE. The EGONOMY of the slurry seal depends entirely on the
availability of GRUSHER dust. Long transport of bitumen emulsion may
further INGREASE GOST and render the method UNEGONOMIGAL. Slurry seals
however, provide an EGONOMIGAL utilisation of RESOURGES where GRUSHER
dust is in abundant supplies from quarries.
The slurry seal is primarily a MAINTENANGE remedy used for resealing to
arrest loss of GHIPPING in existing SURFAGE dressings and to restore texture.
Slurry seals however, may be used in new GONSTRUGTION as a grout seal
following a single SURFAGE dressing or in multiple layers DIREGTLY on the
base GOURSE on low trafFIG roads.
urry seals in new construction as a grout seal following a single surface dressing is a concept called Cape seal /10-3/¸
ks reflect relatively quickly through slurry seals and they generally give a shorter service life than surface dressings and Otta seals. The slurry seal does however make good aesthetics an
10.5.1 Materials, design and construction
Aggregałe
Aggregate for slurry seals shall be GRUSHER dust free of orGANIG matter or
other GONTAMINATION, meeting the requirements given in Tabte lO.l2.
Comments: Table lO.l2 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals
Sieve size Grading [% passing]

[mm]
Fine type Coarse type
10 100
5 100 85 - 100
2 85 - 100 50 - 90
1.18 60 - 90 32 - 70
0.425 32 - 60 20 - 44
0.150 10 - 27 7 - 20
0.075 4 - 12 2-8
Laboratory test CML 1.7 is referred to.
Binder
The binder for slurry shall be a bitumen emulsion suitable for the
purpose in AGGORDANGE with MANUFAGTURERS SPEGIFIGATIONS and the relevant
AASHTO SPEGIFIGATIONS.
CONSŁRGCŁION
Slurry sealing work shall not be GARRIED out if rain is threatening. The
Slurry seals can be mixed and placed
using labour based methods, but self- treated areas shall be GLOSED to trafFIG until the emulsion has broken and
propelled combined mixing and laying trafFIG does not PIGK up the seal or form TRAGKS in the layer.
machines are preferred for large scale
operations. The layer can be trafficked On roads with of less than 100 VEHIGLES per day per lane the slurry seal
soon after the emulsion has broken and
the seal has dried. shall be rolled with PNEUMATIG tyre rollers as soon as the equipment GAN
enter the sealed area without PIGKING up the slurry on the tyres.
10.6 Surface Enrichment

10.6.0 £eneral
SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT (‘fogspray’) is a light APPLIGATION of a bitumen
emulsion, normally without GOVERING aggregate, sprayed on an existing
SURFAGE dressing. The following are the purposes of SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT:
■ GORREGTION of insufFIGIENT amounts of binder in the existing SURFAGING
■ arresting aggregate loss GAUSED by a hardened (aged) binder
■ sealing of minor GRAGKS - waterproofing
■ a holding measure awaiting full resealing
SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT shall not be used on SURFAGES with a smooth texture
The treatment is normally employed as
a maintenance remedy for surface
where the flow of binder into the SURFAGING is prevented, thus GAUSING
dressings between scheduled reseals, slippery driving GONDITIONS.
in intervals of 2 to 4 years. The basic
procedure is also used as a final coat in
construction of surface dressings,
Ckapłer 10¸2¸ 10.6.1 Materials and construction
Małerials
Bitumen emulsion meeting the relevant AASHTO SPEGIFIGATIONS shall be
used for SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT. The emulsion shall be sufFIGIENTLY stable to
allow dilution down to a bitumen GONTENT of 30% and have properties Comments:
suitable for the purpose of SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT in RESPEGT of stability and
rate of break.
CONSŁRGCŁION
The emulsion shall be diluted to a bitumen GONTENT of max. 40% before Spray rates for surface enrichment will
normally fall between 0.7 l/m2 and 1.G
spraying. If site GONDITIONS require a heavier rate of bitumen, then this l/m2 per application. Use of high spray
shall be AGHIEVED by repeated spraying and not the use of a higher bitu- rates carries risk of run-off to the
shoulders.
men GONTENT in the emulsion. If break of the emulsion takes PLAGE on the
top of the aggregates without flowing down to the bottom of the
SURFAGING, then watering shall be done prior to spraying, alternatively
further dilution of the emulsion as required. The spray rate shall be
determined on site depending on weather GONDITIONS, rate of dilution,
SURFAGE texture, GROSSFALL, gradient and trafFIG GONDITIONS. A hot, dry
SURFAGE and a high bitumen GONTENT in the emulsion GAN GAUSE break of
the emulsion on top of the aggregate without flowing into the SURFAGING
as NEGESSARY to perform its FUNGTION GAUSING PIGKING up of aggregate and
a slippery SURFAGE.
SURFAGE ENRIGHMENT work shall not be GARRIED out if rain is threatening.
The treated areas shall be GLOSED to trafFIG until the emulsion has fully
broken. Any GOLLEGTION of emulsion in depressions shall be sanded off as
required.
10.7 Surfacing for Shoulders

10.7.0 £eneral
Bituminous SURFAGING for shoulders shall be designed and GONSTRUGTED to
meet the following requirements:
■ provide water proofing of the shoulder
■ be strong enough to withstand OGGASIONAL trafFIG EXPEGTED to use
the shoulder
■ be durable enough to give a SERVIGE life at least as long as the
ADJAGENT GARRIAGEWAY
■ preferably provide a GONTRAST in GOLOUR or texture to the ADJAGENT
GARRI- ageway wherever this is PRAGTIGALLY and EGONOMIGALLY
possible
The SELEGTION of SURFAGING for shoulders depends on a number of FAGTORS
SUGH as type of pavement, likelihood of trafFIG using the shoulder and
GONSTRUGTION EGONOMY. This GHAPTER gives the preferred alternatives to suit
the various Gonditions and DISGUSSES alternatives that may have to be used
due to PROJEGT EGONOMY.
10.7.1 Celection and design of shoulder seals

General
Shoulder seals dry out more QUIGKLY than seals in the GARRIAGEWAY and
therefore generally require higher bitumen spray rates. Types of seals
with a GLOSED SURFAGE texture shall be the preferred type on shoulders due
to less likelihood of losing stones when the binder starts to harden.
Comments: Aspkalł concrełe
Asphalt GONGRETE (AC) may be justified on shoulders where the
ADJAGENT pavement utilises AC and a GONSIDERABLE amount of trafFIG is
EXPEGTED to use the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas.
DOGBLE SGRFACE dressing

Double SURFAGE dressing shall be used where the ADJAGENT GARRIAGEWAY
utilises the same type of seal and a GONSIDERABLE trafFIG is EXPEGTED to use
the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas and ADJAGENT to GLIMBING
lanes. The bitumen spray rate shall not be lower than in the ADJAGENT
GARRIAGEWAY.
Single SGRFACE dressing covered wiłk a sand seal or SLGRRY seal

Single surface dressing is not a
preferred option on shoulders with little Single SURFAGE dressing GOVERED with a sand seal or slurry seal shall be
traffic as it dries out quickly. Covered by the preferred shoulder seal suitable for most pavements on roads outside
a sand seal or slurry seal the service
life is however greatly improved. If a
built-up areas.
single surface dressing is used for any
reason, the small sizes of chipping (7 or The hot bitumen spray rate shall be as follows in areas where minimal
10 mm) are preferred as they do not
require excessive bitumen spray rates amounts of trafFIG is EXPEGTED to use the shoulders:
that would be needed for larger ■ 14 mm GHIPPING: 1.1 l/m2 + 0.7 l/m2 for the sand seal
chipping.
Single surface dressing covered with a
■ 10 mm GHIPPING: 0.9 l/m2 + 0.6 l/m2 for the sand seal
sand seal is in most instances expected ■ 7 mm GHIPPING: 0.7 l/m2 + 0.5 l/m2 for the sand seal
to be the best compromise between
economy and performance for Where a slurry seal is used instead of sand seals the following
shoulders in areas where little traffic is APPLIGATION rates shall be used:
expected to use the shoulder. In areas
where large amounts of traffic uses the ■ on 14 mm GHIPPING: 0.006 m3/m2 of slurry
shoulder, such as adjacent to climbing
lanes, this type of seal may exhibit ■ on 10 mm GHIPPING: 0.005 m3/m2 of slurry
some initial bleeding, but with little
inconvenience to traffic by loss of skid
■ on 7 mm GHIPPING: 0.004 m3/m2 of slurry
resistance due to the position outside
the carriageway¸
DOGBLE sand seal
Where double sand seal is used on shoulders, the seal shall be
designed AGGORDING to Chapter lO.4.l.
Single sand seal

Single sand seals will have limited SERVIGE due to their small layer THIGK-
Use of a sand seal is in most cases ness and low RESISTANGE against e.g. damage from PUNGTURED VEHIGLES.
less expensive than a slurry seal. Where GONSTRUGTION EGONOMY NEGESSITATES use of a single sand seal on
shoulders, the seal shall be designed AGGORDING to Chapter lO.4.l.
Ołła seals
Where an Otta seals is used on shoulders, the seal shall be designed
AGGORDING to Chapter lO.3.
10.8 Asphalt Concrete

10.8.0 £eneral
This GHAPTER sets out requirements for GONTINUOUSLY graded hot premixed
asphalt GONGRETE (AC) SURFAGING. Mix types other than those DESGRIBED in
this GHAPTER GAN however be used provided their PERFORMANGE meets the
requirements set out and their merits are proven under similar GONDITIONS.
The ability of the AC mix to withstand PLASTIG deformation is emphasised Comments:
due to the severe GONSEQUENGES with GOSTLY repair of SUGH type of distress. Plastic deformation, particularly in
climbing areas, is a common defect in
AC layers, that requires particular
attention to the provision of a mix with
10.8.1 Required properties sufficient stability for these load
The asphalt GONGRETE shall provide a water proof SURFAGE with good conditions.
RESISTANGE against deformation and ageing, and have AGGEPTABLE fatigue Good resistance is ensured by applying
properties and skid rESISTANGE. The following properties are required for a surface dressing on the newly laid AC
layer.
AC mixes in SURFAGINGS:
■ provide sufFIGIENT RESISTANGE to PLASTIG deformation and GRAGKING
to withstand the EXPEGTED trafFIG loading
■ have sufFIGIENT workability to enable efFIGIENT laying and
GOMPAGTION of the mix without segregation
■ have sufFIGIENT air voids of the mix to avoid bleeding or
loss of RESISTANGE to deformation in GASES of POST-GOMPAGTION
under trafFIG
■ have sufFIGIENT binder of the GORREGT type and a suitable
aggregate grading to ensure a durable and near
impermeable layer
Some of the above requirements are GONFLIGTING and may require
GOMPROMISES in the design of the mix. If there is doubt whether a mix has
sufFIGIENT durability e.g. due to high air voids, then a SURFAGE dressing shall
be GONSIDE- red in order to PROTEGT the layer against premature ageing.
SufFIGIENT stability of the mix for the load GONDITIONS shall never be
GOMPROMISED in the mix design.
10.8.2 Ceverely loaded areas

General
Severely loaded areas INGLUDE:
■ all GLIMBING lanes with gradient 6% or steeper
■ GLIMBING lanes with gradient 4% or steeper, sustained for 1 km or longer
■ APPROAGHES to major JUNGTIONS
■ all major town roads
■ areas where trafFIG is GHANNELLED or slow moving for other reasons
Testing of dynamic creep is expected to
become a more common procedure for
Mix REQGIREMENŁS in severely loaded areas control of deformation in AC mixes in
An AC mix of high stability shall be used in areas that are severely the future. Until standard test
loaded. The air voids of the mix shall be minimum 3% and remain procedures and performance criteria for
dynamic creep are established,
minimum 3% after TRAFFIG loading throughout the design period. Mixes compaction to refusal density for control
for severely loaded areas shall REGEIVE laboratory GOMPAGTION to refusal of potential loss of air voids shall be
density to GONTROL that the mix will not POST-GOMPAGT to the GRITIGAL air used. Compaction to refusal density
involves continued Marshall
voids of 3%. compaction, up to 2x500 blows,
alternatively vibrating hammer. Test
The largest aggregate size GORRESPONDING to GOMPAGTED layer THIGKNESS procedures are given in the laboratory
and other mix GRITERIA - INGLUDING required workability, shall be used in test manuals issued by the Central
the design of high stability mixes. The mix type AC 20 shall be Materials Laboratory, Ministry of Morks.
GONSIDERED for wearing GOURSE under these GONDITIONS.
There is evidence that good results can
40/50 penetration grade bitumen shall be used in severely loaded areas, be obtained using conventional binders
alternatively modified binders WHIGH have DOGUMENTED good PERFORMANGE with carefully controlled aggregate
under similar GONDITIONS. are being marketed under a large variety brands. grading and mix proportions.
The EFFEGT of using a PARTIGULAR type of modified binder shall be properly
DOGUMENTED to ensure GONFIDENGE in a sATISFAGTORY result.
Use of SGRFACE dressing on AC
the rate of binder ageing taking place at the surface, causing surface cracks that progress into the AC layer over time.
High stability AC mixes are often high in air voids, and in order to
improve the durability of the layer the designer shall GONSIDER
GONSTRUGTION of a surFAGE dressing on the AC, in PARTIGULAR where the mix
type AC 20 is used as wearing GOURSE.
Severely loaded areas are prone to spillage of fuel and LUBRIGANTS due to
low trafFIG speeds - with ASSOGIATED softening of the AC layer. The
designer shall GONSIDER GONSTRUGTION of a SURFAGE dressing on the AC for
the purpose of minimising seepage of harmful fluids into the layer.
The skid RESISTANGE in wet weather is improved by applying SURFAGE
dressing on the AC.
10.8.3 Mix requirements

The required properties for AC are given in Tabte lO.l3.
Table lO.l3 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete
Mix type
Material CML test
properties AC 20 AC 14 AC 10 method
Primarily binder course. Wearing course in areas with Wearing course, but only under
Notes - use of the different Wearing course in severely normal traffic loading. conditions with moderate
mix types loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2. traffic loading.
Preferably to be surface dressed
when used as wearing course.
Layer thickness [mm] Compacted 50 - 80 Compacted 40 - 60 Compacted 30 - 40
Aggregate properties
Coarse aggregates shall be made of crushed fresh rock or stones. Fine aggregate, passing the
5 mm sieve, can be a material such as sand, gravel or crushed stone. All aggregate shall be durable
Types of aggregate
and free from soft or unsound particles, clay or other deleterious matter. Coral rock can be used
provided materials are carefully selected. Addition of a separate type of fines is normally needed.
Water absorption [%] max 2 3.13

Aggregate strength TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFV dry
The filler shall be hydrated lime, Portland cement, limestone dust or other suitable types proven to
Requirements for the filler give acceptable results in AC mixes under the prevailing conditions. 1.7
% passing 0.075 mm: 70 - 100 %, all material shall pass the 0.600 mm sieve size
Grading, sieve sizes
[ % passing ]
28 100
20 80 - 100 100
14 60 - 80 85 - 100 100
10 50 - 70 72 - 94 85 - 100
5 36 - 56 52 - 72 55 - 72
2,36 28 - 44 37 - 55 38 - 57 1.7
1,18 20 - 34 26 - 41 27 - 42
0,600 15 - 27 16 - 28 18 - 32
0,300 10 - 20 12 - 20 13 - 23
0,150 5 - 13 8 - 15 9 - 16
0,075 2-6 4 - 10 4 - 10
Bitumen type
Normal loading conditions: 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
Severely loaded areas: Chapter 10.8.2 40/50 penetration grade, or modified binders 3.5
Marshall (2x75 blow)

mix requirements
Severely loaded areas: min 9000 Chapter 10.8.2
Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: min 8000 max 18000
Stability [N]
Traffic TLC 10 and TLC 3: min 7000 max 15000
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: min 4000 max 10000
Flow [mm] min 2 max 4 3.18
Air voids [%] min 3 max 6
Voids in Mineral Aggregate [%] min 14 for AC 20 min 15 for AC 14 min 16 for AC 10
Refusal lab. compaction Air voids shall be min. 3% after refusal lab. compaction for severely loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2 . 3.20
o
Indirect tensile strength [kPa] min 800 tested at 25 C
3.21
Imersion index [%] min 75
TYPIGAL mix proportions for asphalt GONGRETE are presented in Tabte

lO.l4. The given nominal mix proportions are for tendering purposes,
EXAGT proportions shall be determined after Marshall design PROGEDURES.
Chapter
Table lO.l4 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete Comments:
Nominal mix Asphalt Concrete CML test

proportions AC 20 AC 14 AC 10 method
Aggregate [%] 95 94,5 94
Bitumen [%] 3.18
5 5,5 6
Normal loading conditions: 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
Type of bitumen 3.5
Severely loaded areas: 40/50 penetration grade or modified binders
Admixture of separate filler made of hydrated lime GAN improve antistrip-

ping properties, and is desirable ESPEGIALLY when GRANITIG aggregates are
used. The amount of hydrated lime in the filler shall not EXGEED 1.5 % -
points. The total PERGENTAGE Comments:
of filler shall fall within the grading envelopes
Excessive amounts of hydrated lime in the filler is undesirable as it gives a brittle mix with poor durability.
given in Tabte lO.l3. Coral rock can be used as aggregate for AC. However, careful selection of materials and normally addition of fines from a separat
10.8.4 Construction
General
Asphalt GONGRETE shall be laid by the use of pavers and AGGEPTED good
PROGEDURES for this type of work.
Tack coał
TAGK GOAT of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate of min. 0.3 l/m2
residual binder on all joints and SURFAGES where AC is laid.
Compacłion łrials
Detailed GOMPAGTION trials shall be GARRIED out at the beginning of paving
operations and when a new mix formula or PRODUGTION PROGEDURE is
INTRODUGED. The GOMPAGTION trial shall show GOMPLIANGE with mix
formulas and demonstrate the ADEQUAGY of the proposed GOMPAGTION
PROGEDURES.
TEMPERAŁGRE for compacłion

Tabte lO.l5 gives the minimum temperature for GOMPAGTION of asphalt
GONGRETE layers depending on the grade of bitumen used in the mix.
Grade of bitumen Minimum temperature for

[penetration 1I10 mm] compaction [o C]
60 - 70 90
40 - 50 100
Table lO.l5 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers

10 - 1 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987).
10 - 2 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION
(1997).
Asphalt Recycling Guide.
10 - 3 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
10 - 4 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
10 - 5 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Open
Graded Asphalt Design Guide.
10 - 6 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 3
(1998): Furfacing seals for rural roads and urban roads. CSRA,
10 - 8 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHOR ITIES. TRH 14 (1985):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
10 - 9 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 2 (1979):
National standard for the spraying performance of binder distributors.
10 - 10 EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot
surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete
surfacings in Malaysia. Proc. the zeventh REAAA Conference,
Singapore, June 1992.
10 - 11 HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance
of polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in
Malaysia. Proc. the zixteenth ARRB Conference, November 1992,
Melbourne, Auztralia.
10 - 12 OVERBY, C, et al (1999). A Guide to the Design, Construction and
Maintenance of the Otta Feal. Technical Guideline No. l, Roads
Department, Botswana (in print).
10 - 13 MAIN ROADS DEPARTMENT WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
The safe way to handle bitumen.
10 - 14 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1989). Bituminous Furfacing Fprayed Work,
NAASRA Technical Report.
10 - 16 OVERBY, C, (1998). Otta Feal - a durable and cost effective
global solution for low volume sealed roads. Proc. Ninth RXAAA
Conference,
´´ An International 7ocus on Roads: Ftrategie for the 7uture´´.
Wellington, New Zealand.
10 - 17 SMITH, H R, J ROLT and J WAMBURA, (1990). The
durability of bituminous overlays and wearing courses in tropical
environments. Proc. Third International Conference on Bearing
Capacity of Roadz and Airfieldz, Trondheim, Norway.
10 - 18 SMITH, H R, A C EDWARDS and J MREEMA, (1996). Condition of
the TanZam Highway at Kitonga gorge. Central Materialz
Laboratory, Dar ez Salaam.
ODA, London, UK.
Cravel
C
Roads h
a
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
p
DESIGN ELEMENTS
te
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
r
New Roads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Pavement Pavement
Bituminous
Surfacings
Cravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter

A flexible approach is required in the Gravel road pavements are designed for roads where AADT is less than
design of gravel roads as construction
economy is usually of vital importance 300 at the time of GONSTRUGTION, unless otherwise DIREGTED by the
for these projects. Ministry of Works.
This GHAPTER sets out standards for pavement design and SELEGTION of
materials for fully engineered gravel roads. In addition, guidelines are
given for design of gravel roads where budgetary or other GONSTRAINTS do
not allow GONSTRUGTION of a fully engineered gravel road.
¸
11.1 Design Principles

11.1.0 £eneral
All-weałker access
The most essential GONSIDERATION in the design of gravel roads is to
ensure all-weather AGGESS. This requirement PLAGES PARTIGULAR emphasis
on the need for sufFIGIENT bearing GAPAGITY of the pavement STRUGTURE and
provision of drainage and sufFIGIENT earthworks in flood areas.
SGRFACE performance
The PERFORMANGE of the gravel SURFAGE depends on material quality, the
LOGATION of the road and the trafFIG VOLUME using the road. Gravel roads
passing through populated areas in PARTIGULAR require materials that do not
generate EXGESSIVE dust in dry weather. Steep gradients PLAGES PARTIGULAR
demands for gravel wearing GOURSE materials that do not BEGOME slippery
in wet weather, or erode easily.
Mainłenance
The gravel wearing course needs to be The material requirements for the gravel wearing GOURSE INGLUDE provision
regularly shaped and also replaced of a gravel SURFAGE that is efFEGTIVELY maintainable. ADHERENGE to the limits
periodically throughout the service life
of the road at a rate depending on the on oversize PARTIGLES in the material is of PARTIGULAR iMPORTANGE in this
gravel loss. An annual loss of 10 to G0 regard.
mm of gravel wearing course material
at an AADT of 100 is common.
11.1.1 Pavement and materials

Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers
shall be GONSTRUGTED as required, on WHIGH the gravel wearing GOURSE is
PLAGED.
11.1.2 Crossfall and drainage

The GROSSFALL of GARRIAGEWAY and shoulders for gravel roads shall be 4-
6%, depending on LOGAL GONDITIONS, to prevent potholes developing by
ensuring rapid removal of water from the SURFAGE and to ensure that
EXGESSIVE GROSSFALL does not GAUSE erosion of the sURFAGE. Provision of
drainage is equally important for the PERFORMANGE of gravel roads as for
bitumen SURFAGED roads.

11.2 Material Requirements Comments:
11.2.0 £eneral
Experience wiłk local małerials
Knowledge about past PERFORMANGE of LOGALLY OGGURRING materials for
gravel roads is essential. One may divert from the material standards to
take advantage of available gravel SOURGES provided they have proved to
give SATISFAGTORY PERFORMANGE under similar GONDITIONS.
Marginal małerials
Figure ll.l illustrates the PERFORMANGE GHARAGTERISTIGS to be EXPEGTED of
materials that do not meet the requirements for gravel wearing GOURSE.
11.2.1 Earthworks
Materials for improved subgrade layers and fill shall meet the
requirements in /Chapter 5.5/ for GLASS G15 and G7 and /Chapter 5.6/
for GLASS G3 and dump ROGK (DR).
11.2.2 £ravel wearing course (£W)

Major gravel roads
Materials for gravel wearing GOURSE shall GOMPLY with the
requirements given in Tabte ll.l. The given material requirements are
valid for fully engineered gravel roads.
Table ll.l Material requirements − gravel wearing course (GW)

Climatic zones: /Figure 2¸1/
Material properties Requirements CML
test
Climatic zones method
Wet Moderate or dry
min 25 after
CBR [%] at 95% of MDD (BS-
4 days min 25 at OMC 1.11
Heavy compaction)
soaked
% passing 37.5 mm min 95 1.2
Shrinkage product, SP 1.4 and
SP = LS x (%pass. 0.425mm) 120 - 400 1)
1.7
2)
Grading Coefficient GC 16 - 34
Field dry density, [% of MDD]
min 95 1.9
(BS-Heavy compaction)
1)
In built up areas a maximum Shrinkage Product of 270 is desirable to
reduce dust problems.
2)
GC = [ (% passing 28mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) ] x (% passing 5mm) / 100
Minor gravel roads

The CBR requirements in Tabte ll.l GAN be REDUGED to 15% for minor
gravel roads, however the given material standards shall be aimed for
wherever it is EGONOMIGALLY possible.
Comments: Performance ckaracłerisłics of gravel wearing COGRSES
Methods to prevent excessive oversize Figure ll.l shows the efFEGT of the Shrinkage PRODUGT and Grading
particles in the gravel wearing course CoefFIGIENT on the EXPEGTED PERFORMANGE of gravel wearing GOURSE
may include removal at source by
screening. Use of special compaction
materials. EXGESSIVE oversize material in the gravel wearing GOURSE
equipment, such as grid rollers, is often afFEGTS the riding quality in SERVIGE and makes efFEGTIVE shaping of the
cost effective in combination with SURFAGE difFIGULT at the time of MAINTENANGE.
conventional removal of large stones
during processing on the road.
500
Slippery
400
Shrinkage Product, SP 400
Good, but may be dusty

300
270 Ravels
Erodible materials
200
Good
120
100 16 34
Ravels and corrugates
0
0 10
20 30 40
Grading Coefficient, GC
SP = (Linear Shrinkage) x (% passing 0.425 mm)
GC = [(% passing 28 mm) - (% passing 0.425 mm)] x (% passing 5 mm) / 100
7igure ll.l Xxpected performance of gravel wearing course materials
11.3 Improved Subgrade and

Pavement Design
11.3.1 Cubgrade CBR
Treatment of unfavourable subgrade
conditions such as expansive soils,
The CBRdesign for the subgrade shall be determined AGGORDING to /Chapter 5
saline soils or dispersive soils are − Fubgrade/ and GLASSIFIED into subgrade GLASSES S15, S7 and S3.
normally outside scope in the Treatment of unfavourable subgrade GONDITIONS shall be GARRIED out
construction of gravel roads. However,
is it considered to upgrade the road AGGORDING to /Chapter 6 − Probtem Foits/ in RESPEGT of issues DIREGTLY
within a reasonable time to a related to bearing GAPAGITY of the subgrade.
bituminous standard, measures
should be taken as discussed in
/Ckapłer 6 -Problem Soils/¸ 11.3.2 Major gravel roads
Pavement and improved subgrade for major gravel roads shall be
GONSTRUGTED in AGGORDANGE with Figure ll.2.
AADT
2) Comments:
< 20 20 - 100 100 - 300
S15 1) 150 mm GW 150 mm GW 150 mm GW
150 mm GW
150 mm GW
S7 1)
150 mm GW 150 mm 1)
100 mm G15
1) G15
Dry / Moderate Wet Dry / Moderate Wet Dry / Moderate Wet

climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones
mm
mm GW 150
mm GW 150 mm
mm G15
1)
200
S3 1) GW 150 150 GW
mm 150 GW G15
1)
200
1)
150 GW 100 G15
1) 150 G15
1) 1)
G7 300 1) G7 300
150 G7
1)
150 G7
1) G7 200 150 G7
1)
1) Classificationsubgrade classes S3, S7 and G15 and requirements for G7 and G15 materials are given: /Chapter 5 – Subgrade/.
2) Maximum 50% heavy vehicles is assumed. Heavy vehicles are those having an un-laden weight of more
than 3 tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity of 40 or more: /Chapter 4 – Traffic/.
7igure ll.2 Pavement and improved subgrade − major gravel roads Climatic zones: /Figure 2¸1/
11.3.3 Minor gravel roads

General
This GHAPTER provides guidelines for design of pavement and improved
subgrade for minor gravel roads where budgetary GONSTRAINTS or other
reasons do not allow GONSTRUGTION of a fully engineered gravel road.
This design shall be limited to roads with AADT maximum 50.
Improved SGBGRADE and pavemenł design — minor gravel roads

Pavement and improved subgrade for minor gravel roads shall be
GONSTRUGTED in AGGORDANGE with Figure ll.3.
1)
Subgrade classes
S3
Moderate or dry Wet
S15 or S7 climatic zones climatic zones
Gravel
wearing 100mm 100mm 100mm
Climatic zones: /Figure 2¸1/
course
GW GW GW
Improved 200mm
150mm
subgrade
layer G7 G7
( none )
1)
Classification S15, S7 and S3 and requirements for G7 materials are given: /Chapter 5 – Subgrade/.
7igure ll.3 Pavement and improved subgrade − minor gravel roads

The desired properties of the gravel wearing GOURSE, GW, are given in
Tabte ll.l, however the CBR GAN be REDUGED to 15% for minor roads.
11 - 1 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD LIMITED (May 1993).
Unsealed roads manual.
(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction.CSRA,
(1990): Ftructural design, construction and maintenance of gravel
roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
11 - 5 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special
Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK.
11 - 6 JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study
on the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different
maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for
Africa on Soil Mechanicz and Foundation Engineering, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
South Africa.
n
di
c
A1 - Definitions of Terms
e
s
A2 - Units of Measurements
A3 - Abbreviations
A4 - Cross Segtion and Pavement Performange
A5 - Handling of Bitumen Produgts
A6 - Problem Soils-Investigation Progedures
A7 - Environmental Impagt Assessment (EIA)
A8 - Worked Examples
A9 - Maps
Ministry of Works
Appendix 1
Definitions of Terms
Asphalt Concrete (AC) A group of hot bituminous mixtures used for SURFAGING. They normally
GONSIST of a well graded mixture of GOARSE aggregate, fine aggregate and
filler, bound together with penetration grade bitumen.
Base course The layer(s) OGGURRING immediately below the surfacing and above the
subbase or, if there is no subbase, above the improved subgrade layers.
Behaviour The FUNGTION of the GONDITION of the pavement with time (see
also PERFORMANGE).
Binder course, bituminous The surfacing layer immediately below the bituminous wearing course
above the base course.
Bitumen emulsion A binder in WHIGH bitumen has been dispersed in finely divided droplets in
water by the aid of MEGHANIGAL means and an emulsifying agent. Bitumen
emulsion is made in an ANIONIG and a GATIONIG type depending on the
PARTIGLE GHARge of the bitumen droplets in solution. Bitumen emulsions are
GLASSIFIED AGGORDING to PERGENTAGE of bitumen in the material and the
PHYSIGAL properties related to their behaviour during GONSTRUGTION, (See also
break).
Bitumen stabilised material A material made of natural- or GRUSHED aggregate with a bituminous binder
admixed. Used in pavement tayers - primarily for base course.
Bitumen-rubber A binder in WHIGH bitumen is modified with more than 15% ground rubber.
(See also modified binder).
Bituminous binders Petroleum derived adhesives used for sealing of SURFAGES and binding of
aggregates in pavement tayers. Classified AGGORDING to their GOMPOSITION
and PHYSIGAL properties. (See also penetration grade bitumen, cutback
bitumen, bitumen emutsion, bitumen rubber, and modified binders).
Bituminous seals A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made of surface
treatments or sturry seats, or a GOMBINATION of these.
Borrow pit A borrow pit is a site from WHIGH natural material, other than solid stone, is
removed for use in GONSTRUGTION of the works. The term borrow area is also
used.
Break of emulsions ‘Break’ of a bitumen emutsion is when the water and bitumen separates so
that
the water will evaporate, leaving behind the bitumen to perform its FUNGTION.
Buses All buses with a seating GAPAGITY of 40 or more.
Cement- or lime modified material (C4, C2, Cl)

material (CM)
Cement- or lime stabilised
A.2 Ministry of Works

Appendix 1
Definitions of Terms
Naturally OGGURRING
gravel and soils
WHIGH are modified
by the addition of
either lime or
Portland GEMENT so
that their
engineering
properties SUGH as
strength and
PLASTIGITY are
improved, but the
materials still
remain flexible.
Used in pavement-
and improved
subgrade tayers.
(See also Cement-
or time stabitised
materiat).
A material that
GONSISTS of snatural-
or GRUSHED gravel
stabilised with
ordinary Portland
GEMENT or lime SUGH
that a semi-rigid
material is
PRODUGED.
Classified
Ministry of Works A.3

to their minimum UNGONFINED GOMPRESSIVE strength. Used in
AGGORDING
pavement tayers. (See also Cement- or time modified materiat).
Crushed rock (CRR) Crushed material made from fresh quarried ROGK or GLEAN, un-weathered
boulders of min 0.3 m diameter. All PARTIGLES shall be Grushed. The material
is GOMPAGTED to a SPEGIFIED PERGENTAGE of the aggregate’s apparent density.
Crushed stone (CR9) Crushed stones. Min 50% by mass of PARTIGLES larger than 5 mm shall have at
least one GRUSHED FAGE. Made from GRUSHING of stones, boulders or oversize
from naturat gravet. Max 30% of the FRAGTION passing the 4.75 mm sieve GAN
be soil fines. The material is GOMPAGTED to a SPEGIFIED relative density of BS-
Heavy.
Curing membrane A bituminous binder, usually made of bitumen emutsion, applied imme-
diately after GONSTRUGTION of a GOMPLETED SURFAGE of modified or stabitised
materiats with time or cement. Its purpose is to prevent early drying out of
the GEMENTED layer and to minimise adverse efFEGTS of the stabiliser’s
GONTAGT with CO2 in the air.
Cutback bitumen A penetration bitumen WHIGH VISGOSITY has been temporarily REDUGED by
blending with solvents. The solvents are EXPEGTED to evaporate during the e
arly part of the pavement’s SERVIGE life. Classified AGGORDING to their
VISGOSITY.
Cutting A GUTTING is a SEGTION of the road where the formation level is below
the original ground level.
Deflection (surface) The REGOVERABLE VERTIGAL movements of the pavement SURFAGE GAUSED by the
APPLIGATION of a wheel load.
Deformation A mode of distress, unevenness of the SURFAGE profiles.
Degree of distress A measure of severity of the distress.
Distress The visible manifestation of deterioration of the pavement with RESPEGT

to either the SERVIGEABILITY of the STRUGTURAL GAPAGITy.
Dry Density and Moisture Con- The moisture GONTENT, in %, to use for GALGULATION of dry density of
tent of bituminous materials materials that GONTAIN both bitumen and water, e.g. FBMIX and BEMIX, is
defined as follows:
(weight of water)
MC = x 100
(weight of aggregate + weight of bitumen)
Dump rock (DR) Un-graded ROGK or boulder material with a sufFIGIENTLY low fines GONTENT so
that the large PARTIGLES are in GONTAGT with EAGH other when PLAGED in
earthworks layers. Used in fitt and improved subgrade tayers.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer An instrument for assessing the in-situ CBR strength of granular materials/
(DCP)
soils.
Earthworks A general term DESGRIBING all PROGESSED materials below formation tevet
INGLUDING improved subgrade tayers, fitt and prepared roadbed.
Embankment An embankment is a SEGTION of the road where the formation level is

above the original ground level.
Embankment, shallow A shallow embankment is defined as a SEGTION of the road where the for-
mation level is between 0 and 0.3 m above the original ground level.
Equivalent standard axle (E80) Defined as an axle loaded to a weight of 8160 kg, in the design GONGEPT
meaning a unit of measuring the damaging efFEGT to road pavements GAUSED
by axles of any load.
Fill Material PLAGED below the improved subgrade, but above the roadbed.
Fogspray A light APPLIGATION of bitumen emutsion, sprayed on top of surface dressings.

Its purpose is to improve retention of the aggregate in new seals. On
old roads its purpose is to arrest any loss of GHIPPING and to water-
proof and rejuvenate the bituminous SURFAGING.
Formation level The final level upon WHIGH the pavement tayers are PLAGED.
Cranular materials Pavement materials made from GRUSHED or natural SOURGES, where no addition
of any stabiliser has been made. (Term NOT to be used: Unbound materials).
Cravel wearing course The uppermost layer of a gravel road, WHIGH provides the riding SURFAGE for
VEHIGLES.
Heavy Coods Yehicles (HCY) All goods VEHIGLES having 3 axles.
Heavy vehicles A general term DESGRIBING VEHIGLES with un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or
more. Heavy VEHIGLES are further sub-grouped into Medium Goods-, Heavy
Goods- Very Heavy Goods Vehictes and Buses for the purpose of
determining design load in pavement design.
Improved subgrade The uppermost layer(s) of the subgrade, GONSISTING of material of GONTROLLED
quality. (e.g. terms not to be used: SELEGTED borrow - SELEGTED subgrade
- GAPPING layer - topping).
Light vehicles A general term DESGRIBING VEHIGLES with un-laden weight of less than
3 tonnes and INGLUDES buses with a seating GAPAGITY of less than 40.
Medium Coods Yehicles (MCY) All goods VEHIGLES having 2 axles and an un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more.
MERLIN Simple apparatus to measure road roughness.
Modified binder A binder in WHIGH bitumen is modified with a PRESGRIBED PERGENTAGE of

polymers or other approved GHEMIGAL GONSTITUENTS, alternatively with
less than 15% ground rubber. (See also bitumen-rubber).
Modified material A material where the PHYSIGAL properties have been improved by the
addition of a stabilising agent but in WHIGH strong GEMENTATION has not
OGGURRED.
Natural gravel Material from natural gravel SOURGES. The term also INGLUDES GRUSHED mate-
(G80, G60, G45, rial where less than 40% of the mass of PARTIGLES larger than 5 mm have a
G25) GRUSHED FAGE. Classified AGGORDING to their minimum CBR strength. Used in
pavement tayers.
Natural gravel/soil Material from natural SOURGES. Classified AGGORDING to their minimum CBR
(Gl5, G7, G3) strength. Used in improved subgrade tayers and fitt.
Pavement behaviour The FUNGTION of pavement GONDITION with time.
Pavement evaluation The assessment of the degree to WHIGH the pavement fulfils its FUNGTIONAL
requirements.
Pavement layers The GOMBINATION of material layers GONSTRUGTED above the formation tevet in
order to provide an AGGEPTABLE FAGILITY on WHIGH to operate VEHIGLES.
Penetration grade bitumen A bitumen WHIGH VISGOSITY or GOMPOSITION has not been adjusted by blending
with solvents or any other SUBSTANGE. Classified AGGORDING to penetration
value obtained in laboratory tests.
Performance The measure of SATISFAGTION given by the pavement to the road user over a
period of time, quantified by a SERVIGEABILITY/AGE FUNGTION (see also
behaviour).
Prime An APPLIGATION of low VISGOSITY bituminous binder to an absorbent SURFAGE,

usually the top of the base course. Its main purpose is to PROTEGT the SURFAGE
of a granutar materiat during GONSTRUGTION and to improve the bond
between granutar materiats and bituminous mises or seats.
Quarry A quarry is an open SURFAGE working from wHIGH stone is removed for use
in GONSTRUGTION of the works.
Reflection cracks CRAGKS in asphalt overlays or SURFAGE treatments that REFLEGT the GRAGK
pattern of the pavement STRUGTURE underneath.
Rehabilitation design period The GHOSEN minimum period for WHIGH a pavement rehabilitation is designed
to GARRY the trafFIG in the prevailing environment, with a reasonable degree of
GONFIDENGE, without NEGESSITATING further pavement rehabilitation.
Roadbed All in-situ ground after bush GLEARING, removal of topsoil and EXGAVATION
of any cuttings, and before PLAGING any layers, whether these layers are
fitt, improved subgrade or pavement tayers.
9and seal A surface treatment made of sand aggregates of GRUSHED or natural material.
Can be GONSTRUGTED in single- or multiple layers.
9erviceability The measure of SATISFAGTION given by the pavement to the road user at
a GERTAIN time, quantified by FAGTORS SUGH as riding quality and rut
depth.
9hrinkage Limit The saturated moisture GONTENT GORRESPONDING to the void ratio of a dried
sample. In PRAGTISE this is the moisture GONTENT below WHIGH little or no
further volume GHANGE OGGURS in a soil being dried.
9kid resistance The general ability of a PARTIGULAR road SURFAGE to prevent skidding of VEHIGLES.
9lurry seal A GOLD premixed material of GREAMY GONSISTENGY in a fresh state, made
of GRUSHER-dust, bitumen emutsion and GEMENT filler. Water is added for
adjustments of the GONSISTENGY. If GONSTRUGTED in GOMBINATION with a
new surface dressing, it is named a Cape seat.
9tructural capacity The ability of the pavement to withstand the efFEGTS of GLIMATE and trafFIG
loading.
9tructural design The design of the pavement layers for adequate STRUGTURAL strength under the
design GONDITIONS of trafFIG loading, environment and subgrade support.
9tructural distress Distress pertaining to the load bearing GAPAGITY of the pavement.
9tructural evaluation The assessment of the STRUGTURAL GAPAGITY of a pavement.
9ubbase The layer(s) OGGURRING below the base course and above the
improved subgrade tayer.
9ubgrade The GOMPLETED earthworks within the road prism before the GONSTRUGTION
of the pavement tayers.
9urface dressing A surface treatment made of single sized aggregates of GRUSHED material. Can
be GONSTRUGTED in single- or multiple layers.
9urface treatment A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made by lightly rolling
aggregate into a sprayed thin film of bitumen. Aggregates GAN alternatively be
made of GRUSHED or natural material with a grading depending on the desired
type of surface treatment to be PRODUGED. Can be GONSTRUGTED in single- or
multiple layers.
9urfacing integrity A measure of the GONDITION of the SURFAGING as an INTAGT and durable matrix
(it INGLUDES values of porosity and texture).
9urfacing, bituminous The uppermost pavement layer(s), WHIGH provides the riding SURFAGE for
VEHIGLES. INGLUDES bituminous wearing course and bituminous binder course
where used.
Tack coat An APPLIGATION of bituminous binder to a bituminous SURFAGE subsequent to
PLAGING a bituminous layer. Usually made of bitumen emutsion with the
purpose to improve the bond between bituminous layers.
Terminal level A minimum AGGEPTABLE level of some feature of the road in terms of
its SERVIGEABILITY.
Types of distress The SUB-GLASSIFIGATION of the various manifestations of a PARTIGULAR mode of
distress.
Yehicle Equivalency Factor (YEF) The total number of equivatent standard astes GALGULATED for one VEHIGLE.
The average of all these values within one VEHIGLE GATEGORY is subsequently
GALGULATED for ease of REFERENGE to trafFIG GOUNT data.
Yery Heavy Coods Yehicles

(YHCY) All goods VEHIGLES having 4 axles or more.
Wearing GOURSE, bituminous The uppermost surfacing layer. Can consist of a bituminous mix or a
bituminous seal, or both in combination.
Table Al.l CML Test MetZods - witZ Aefevences
CML test method, Name of test Reference to test methods

reference number
Tests on Soils and Gravels
1.1 Moisture Content BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.2 Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer) BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.3 Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.4 Linear Shrinkage BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.5 Particle Density Determination - Pyknometer BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.6 Bulk Density for undisturbed samples BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.7 Particle Size Distribution - Wet sieving BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.8 Particle Size Distribution - Hydrometer Method BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.9 Compaction Test - BS Light and BS Heavy BS1377:Part 4:1990
1.10 CBR Test - One point method BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990 and
1.11 CBR Test - Three point method
TMH1:method A8:1986
1.12 Consolidation Test - Oedometer BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.13 Triaxial Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.14 Shear Box Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.15 Permeability Test - Constant Head BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990 and
1.16 Organic Content - Ignition Loss Method NPRA 014 test 14.445
1.17 Crumb Test BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.18 pH Value (pH meter) BS1377:Part 3:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.19 Preparation of Stabilised Samples for UCS
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.20 Compaction Test - Stabilised Materials BS1924:Part 2:1990
1.21 UCS of Stabilised Materials TMH1:method A14:1986
1.22 Initial Consumption of Lime - ICL BS1924:Part 2:1990
Tests on Aggregates and Concrete
2.1 Moisture Content of Aggregates BS812:Part 109:1990
2.2 Relative Density and Water Absorption BS812:Part 2:1975
2.3 Sieve Tests on Aggregates BS812:Part 103.1:1985
2.4 Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least Dimension (ALD) BS812:Section 105.1:1989
2.5 Elongation Index BS812:Section 105.2:1990
2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) BS812:Part 110:1990
2.7 Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) BS812:Part 111:1990
2.8 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) BS812:Part 112:1990
2.9 Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA) ASTM C535-89
2.10 Sodium Soundness Test (SSS) ASTM C88-90
2.11 Slump Test BS1881:Part 102:1983
2.12 Making of Concrete Test Cubes BS1881:Part 108:1983
2.13 Concrete Cube Strength BS1881:Part 116:1983
Tests on Asphalt and Bituminous Materials
3.1 Pre-conditioning of Bitumen Samples Prior to Mixing or Testing NPRA 014 test 14.511
3.2 Density of Bituminous Binders ASTM D70-97
3.3 Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup ASTM D92-90
3.4 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT) ASTM D1754-87
3.5 Penetration of Bituminous Materials ASTM D5-86
3.6 Softening Point Test ASTM D36-70
3.7 Ductility ASTM D113-86
3.8 Viscosity Determination using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus ASTM D4402-91
3.9 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C127-88
3.10 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C128-88
3.11 Calibration of Glass Pycnometers (0.5-1 litre) NPRA 014 test 14.5922
3.12 Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous Mixes NPRA 014 test 14.5532
Determination of Maximum Theoretical Density of Asphalt Mixes
3.13 ASTM D2041-95 and D4469-85
and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates
3.14 Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D2726-96
3.15 Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D1188-89
3.16 Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Calliper Measurements NPRA 014 test 14.5622
3.17 Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous Mixes ASTM D3203 and AASHTO pp19-93
3.18 Marshall Test ASTM D1559-89
3.19 Marshall Mix Design ASTM D1559-89
3.20 Refusal Density Mix Design TRL Overseas Road Note 31, app. D:1990
3.21 Indirect Tensile Strength Test ASTM D3967 and NPRA 014 test 14.554
3.22 Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate Grading by Extraction ASTM D2172-88, method B
3.23 Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated Aggregates, Boiling Test ASTM D3625-96
Appendix 2
Units of Measurements
Prefixes
The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units. However, the units
APPLIGABLE to road design also INGLUDE some units WHIGH are not STRIGTLY part of SI. Multiples and sub-multiples of
SI units are formed either by the use of the INDIGES or prefixes. Definitions of APPLIGABLE prefixes are given in Tabte
A2.l.
Table A2.1 Definition of prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiplying factor

mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
Basic Units
Table A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples
Recommended Multiples
Quantity Unit Symbols
and Sub-Multiples
Length metre m km, mm
Mass kilogram kg Mg, g, mg, t (1t = 103kg)
Time second s day(d), hour (h), minute(m)
Area square metre m2 km2, mm2, hectare
(1ha = 10,000 m2)
Volume(solids) cubic metre m3 cm3, mm3

Volume (liquid) litre l ml, (1 ml = 1 cm3)
Density kilogram per Cubic metre kg/ m3 Mg/ m3 (1 mg/ m3 = 1 kg/l)
Force Newton N MN, kN (1N = 1 kgm/s2)
Pressure and Stress Pascal (N/m2) Pa MPa, kPa
Electric conductivity Siemens per metre S/m mS/cm
Angle degree or o
minute (‘), second (‘’)
grade g (3600 circle), (400g circle)
Temperature degree Celsius o

C
Viscosity (dynamic) Pascal.second Pa.s mPa.s
Kinematic viscosity m2/s mm2/s, St (stokes)
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
A.8 Ministry of Works

Appendix 3
Abbreviations
10%FACT kN Fee TFV

AADT Average Annual Daily TraffiG
AASHO Former name of AASHTO
AASHO-Road Test Pavement rESEARGH PROJEGT GONDUGTED by AASHO to test the PERFORMANGE of
various pavements on a full SGALE
AASHTO® AMERIGAN ASSOGIATION of State Highway and Transportation OfFIGIALS
AC Asphalt CONGRETE
ALD mm Average Least Dimension
ASTM AMERIGAN SOGIETY for Testing and Materials
BEMIX CLASSIFIGATION of a material stabilised with bitumen emulsion (Bitumen
Emulsion MIX)
BS British Standard
BS-Heavy COMPAGTION effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
BS-Light COMPAGTION effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
Cx CLASSIFIGATION of GEMENT- or lime stabilised material, ‘x’ denoting the minimum
UCS value (7 days, at 97% MDD of BS-Heavy)
CBR [%] California Bearing Ratio, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 1.11
CBRdesign [%] CBR value for a homogenous SEGTION of subgrade, GALGULATED
STATISTIGALLY or by SUBJEGTIVE judgement, to use in pavement design
CBRsoaked [%] California Bearing Ratio measured after standardised 4 days soaking
of
SPEGIMENS in water, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 1.11
CI Coarseness Index, used for GLASSIFIGATION of materials for gravel
wearing GOURSES. /Chapter ll - Gravet Roads/
CM CLASSIFIGATION of GEMENT- or lime modified material (low UCS strength)
CML Central Materials Laboratory, Dar es Salaam
CRR Material denotation for blasted, GRUSHED, ROGK
CRS Material denotation for GRUSHED stones
CUSUM Cumulative sum, STATISTIGAL GALGULATION method /Appendis A8.3/
DCP DYNAMIG Cone Penetrometer
DBM x CLASSIFIGATION of a hot mixed bituminous base GOURSE material (Dense
Bitumen MAGADAM) ‘x’ denoting the upper nominal PARTIGLE size in the
material
dMAX [mm] Maximum PARTIGLE size of soils and aggregates
dMIN [mm] Minimum PARTIGLE size of soils and aggregates
dX [mm] The sieve size through WHIGH ‘x’% of all PARTIGLE pass
E80 Equivalent Standard Axle (8160 kg)
EIA Environmental IMPAGT Assessment
EIS Environmental IMPAGT Statement
Appendix 3
Abbreviations
E-Modulus [MPa] ELASTIGITY Modulus, DESGRIBING stress/strain properties of STRUGTURAL pavement

ESA layers Equivalent Standard Axle (=E80)
FBMIX ClASSIFIGATION of a material stabilised with foamed bitumen (Foamed Bitumen
MIX)
FDD [%] Field Dry Density
FI [%] Flakiness Index, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 2.4
FMC [%] Field Moisture Content
Gx CLASSIFIGATION of gravel and soil materials, ‘x’ denoting the minimum CBR
GC Grading CoefFIGIENT = [ (%pass28mm) − (%pass0.425mm) ] x (%pass5mm) /100
/Chapter ll − Gravet Roads/
GDP Gross DOMESTIG PRODUGT
GM Grading Modulus = (300 - %pass2mm - %pass0.425mm - %pass0.075mm) / 100
GW Gravel Wearing GOURSE materials /Chapter ll − Gravet roads/
ICL [%] Initial Consumption of Lime, derived from laboratory test CML 1.22
IRI m/km International Roughness Index
ISO International Standard Organisation
lab Laboratory
LAMBS CLASSIFIGATION of a hot mixed bituminous base GOURSE material (Large
Aggregate
Mixes for Base)
LL [%] Liquid Limit, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 1.2
LS [%] Linear Shrinkage, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 1.4
max Maximum
MC [%] Moisture Content
MC x Medium Curing (type of GUTBAGK bitumen), ‘x’ denotes the upper nominal
VISGOSITY limit
MDD [kg/mS] Maximum Dry Density (GOMPAGTION effort shall be stated)

MoW Ministry of Work
min Minimum
MSS Magnesium Sulphate Soundness test
NEMC National Environment Management COUNGIL
NPRA Norwegian PUBLIG Roads Administration
OMC [%] Optimum Moisture Content (at MDD of BS-Heavy unless stated)
pen Penetration, used to identify a type of bitumen (penetration grade)
PI [%] PLASTIGITY Index, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 1.3
PIw [%] PLASTIGITY Index, weighted for the sample’s amount of material passing 0.425
mm, based on the CML test method 1.3
PMx Penetration MAGADAM, ‘x’ denoting the upper nominal PARTIGLE size in mm
PSI Pavement SERVIGEABILITY Index
Appendix 3
Abbreviations
RAP Resettlement AGTION Plan

RC x Rapid Curing (type of GUTBAGK bitumen), ‘x’ denotes the upper nominal
VISGOSITY limit
Sx Subgrade GLASSIFIGATION, ‘x’ denoting minimum CBR value

SC x Slow Curing (type of GUTBAGK bitumen), ‘x’ denotes the upper nominal VISGOSITY
limit
SI International standardisation by International Organization for
Standardization
SIA SOGIAL IMPAGT Assessment
SL Shrinkage Limit
SP Shrinkage PRODUGT = [ LS x (%pass 0.425mm) ] /Chapter ll − Gravet Roads/
ST SURFAGE Treatment, a general term for all types of sprayed bituminous seals
SSS Sodium Sulphate Soundness test
TFV kN Ten PERGENT Fines Value, DESGRIBED by the CML test method 2.7
TFVdry kN As TFV. Used when dry test GONDITIONS need to be emphasised in the text
TFVsoaked kN As TFV. Ten PERGENT Fines Value measured after 24 hours soak in water
TLCX [million E80] TrafFIG load GLASS, ‘x’ denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the
GLASS
TLCX -H [million E80] TrafFIG Load Class, ‘x’ denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the
GLASS, ‘-H’ denoting that there is a large proportion of very heavy loads in the trafFIG stream
TMH TEGHNIGAL Methods for Highways (South AFRIGAN series of standards)
UCS [MPa] UNGONFINED Compressive Strength, DESGRIBED by the CML tests 1.9 and 1.21
method for GEMENT- or lime stabilised materials
VEF VEHIGLE EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR /Chapter 4 − Traffic/

Appendix 4
Cross Cection and Pavement Performance
Tabte A4.l should be observed to ENHANGE pavement PERFORMANGE where diversions from the standard GROSS
SEGTION are made for budgetary reasons in agreement with the Ministry of Works. The alternative GROSS SEGTION
design should strive for the maximum TEGHNIGAL benefits DESGRIBED in Tabte A4.l without making UNAGGEPTABLE
GOMPROMISES to other ASPEGTS of the road design, PROJEGT EGONOMY or trafFIG safety. TrafFIG safety ASPEGTS are not
DISGUSSED in this manual and should be assessed in EAGH individual GASE where diversions are made from standard
GROSS SEGTIONS.
Table A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance
Design feature Technical benefits
Wide lanes Good lateral distribution of wheel loads
Steep crossfall Good water run-off, hence less likelihood of moisture ingress into the pavement
a) Reduced risk of moisture ingress into the carriageway

b) Reduced variations in moisture contents across the cross section, hence reduced
risk of longitudinal cracks developing in the shoulders
Wide shoulders c) Good lateral support for the pavement
d) Good basis for future rehabilitation, i.e. less likelihood of road widening
at the time of rehabilitation
a) Simplified construction
Pavement layers extended b) Strength benefits where shoulders are being trafficked
c) Minimised risk of trapped water
to the full width of the d) Good basis for future rehabilitation
shoulders e) Where shoulders are sealed: reduced variations in moisture contents across
the cross section, hence reduced risk of longitudinal cracks developing in the
shoulders
a) Reduced variations in moisture contents across the cross section, hence reduced
Flat embankment side- risk of longitudinal cracks developing in the shoulders
slopes b) Good lateral support for the pavement
c) Increased distance to side drains, hence reduced probability of moisture ingress
Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.1 Safety - General

Training personnel in the GORREGT use of bituminous materials and equipment will assist in REDUGING the possibility
of AGGIDENTS resulting in personal injuries. At least one person fully trained and qualified as a first aid attendant
shall be employed who will be available at all times of operations. PARTIGULAR injuries are burns due to splashes
from hot bituminous materials or GONTAGT with hoses or pipes GARRYING materials at high temperatures.
Personnel handling hot bituminous materials shall always wear suitable PROTEGTIVE GLOTHING and footwear. When
skin is splashed with hot bitumen no attempt should be made to remove the bitumen. The bitumen GOVERED burned
area should be DRENGHED or immersed immediately in GOLD, preferably running water. If IGED water is available it
should be used. MEDIGAL ASSISTANGE should be obtained without delay to have the burn treated.
A5.2 Heating Procedures

Heating Cite
The site should be SELEGTED so that the sprayer and tankers have ready AGGESS to the heaters under all weather
GONDITIONS. PARTIGULAR GARE should be given to SELEGTING a relatively level site WHIGH allows fire outbreaks to be
GLEARED and shall remain free from pools of oil and AGGUMULATION of flammable material.
The heating site shall be LOGATED minimum 100m from storage sites for GUTTER oil and on the side furthest from the
loading point for these materials.
Before leaving a heating site it shall be GLEANED up by removing all debris and pools of bitumen and oil and neatly
STAGKING all materials remaining on the site.
Fire precautions
Handling and spraying of petroleum PRODUGTS at high temperatures GREATES a potentially high fire hazard. Most
fires are due to the human error and it is therefore important for personnel to be INSTRUGTED on the dangers and the
PREGAUTIONS that must be taken.
Some of the NEGESSARY PREGAUTIONS to be taken are:

■ studying and following fire legislation applying to the LOGALITY, PARTIGULARLY as the operation involves lighting
of fires in the open
■ firebreaks shall be prepared by grading or by GONTROLLED burning around the GAMP, storage and heating
sites, plant and equipment in order to prevent the spread of fire into adjoining property
■ heating sites shall be GOMPLETELY GLEARED of all vegetation and other SUGH flammable materials
■ overheating, frothing or overflow of any bitumen, fluxed bitumen GUTBAGK bitumen and oil must be
avoided. When ´´boil over´´ OGGUR the burners on any heating equipment shall be turned off
immediately and earth or sand QUIGKLY shovelled over any material on the ground that take fire
■ smoking, fires or naked lights shall be prohibited within 15m of any operation involving the heating,
blending, transfer, or spraying of oil or bituminous materials
■ spraying papers, GOMBUSTIBLE rubbish, ETG, shall be GARTED to a suitable site for disposal
■ fire fighting equipment shall be available at site and personnel shall be properly INSTRUGTED in their GORREGT
use and MAINTENANGE
■ open drums of kerosene or other flammable liquid shall not be allowed within 60 m of a tanker site
when burners are in use
■ do not heat GUTBAGK bitumen at a rate greater than 30oC per hour

A5.3 Temperature for Storage
Maximum temperature for storage of bitumen and its PRODUGTS is shown in Tabte A5.l.
Table A5.1 Maximum temperature for storage
Max storage temperature (0C)

Type of binder
Up to 24 hrs Over 24 hrs
80/100 Pen. grade bitumen 175 125
150/200 Pen. grade bitumen 160 110
MC 3000 Cutback bitumen 155 100
MC 800 Cutback bitumen 130 80
MC 70 Cutback bitumen 70 Ambient
MC 30 Cutback bitumen 60 Ambient
60% Bitumen emulsion 60 Ambient
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations

Cutters
Cutting BAGK is the addition of volatile oils to PRODUGE a temporary REDUGTION of the binder’s VISGOSITY. Depending
on the volatility of the GUTTERS used, a GUTBAGK bitumen that is rapid GURING, medium GURING or slow GURING will be
PRODUGED. Tabte A5.2 shows the GUTTERS that PRODUGE the RESPEGTIVE types of GUTBAGK bitumen.
The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the amount of cutter used and not the type of cutter used. The type of cutter determines
the length of time (Rapid, Medium or Slow) for evaporation to take place producing RC, MC or SC grades.
Table A5.2 Cutters
Grade of the produced cutback Cutter Notes

RC (Rapid Curing) Petrol Hazardous, shall not be used
MC (Medium Curing) Kerosene (Power paraffin, illuminating
-
paraffin, Jet A1 aviation turbine fuel)
SC (Slow Curing) Diesel or heavy fuel oils -
Cafety procedures
The operation of GUTTING BAGK bitumen on site may be hazardous unless appropriate safety PREGAUTIONS are taken to
prevent fire and safeguard personnel handling the operation.
The following safety PREGAUTIONS shall be adhered to:
■ GUTTER shall not be mixed with bitumen having a higher temperature than 140oC
■ do not heat GUTBAGK blends above the required temperature
■ the blending site shall be LOGATED at a minimum 100 metres from installations, homes or PLAGES that
people OGGUPY
■ within a radius of 100 metres no open fire or smoking shall be allowed during the blending operation.
This INGLUDES heaters in bitumen tanks
■ the blending site shall not be GLOSER than 100 metres to storage sites of GUTTER or fuel
The following mistakes are absolute hazards that GARRY GONSIDERABLE risk of explosion and fire:
■ the manhole shall NEVER be used for adding GUTTER to hot bitumen
■ GUTTER shall NEVER be pumped into an empty tank that is still hot after having GONTAINED bitumen
■ the level in the tank shall NEVER be allowed to fall below that SPEGIFIED by the MANUFAGTURER
while the heaters are in operation, normally minimum 150 mm above the highest point of the
heater pipes
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives

Purpose of anti-stripping additives
The adhesion between bitumen and aggregate depends on GLOSE GONTAGT between the two materials. Stripping is the
breaking of the adhesive bond between the aggregate SURFAGE and the bitumen. By adding a GOMPARATIVELY small
quantity of anti-stripping additive to the bitumen, the SURFAGE tension of water is REDUGED and the bitumen is able to
wet aggregates SURFAGES.
Adhesion agents have the following properties:
■ promote the adhesion of binder to damp aggregate by DISPLAGING a film of water
■ prevent loss of adhesion under the INFLUENGE of subsequent rain, assuming that SATISFAGTORY adhesion had
been AGHIEVED originally
■ provide SATISFAGTORY adhesion during GONSTRUGTION
Cafety
Anti-stripping agents are often GORROSIVE and require use of PROTEGTIVE gloves and eye goggles during handling.
Liquid agents easily GAUSE splashing and require SPEGIAL GARE, however some ‘solid’ agent may appear in a liquid
form depending on ambient temperature and should be treated equally with GAUTION.
Anti-stripping additives are used in bitumen to promote adhesion in adverse conditions. There are many brands on the market in the form of
liquids, pastes or pellets and their effectiveness varies.
The handling of procedures required vary depending on the type of the product, however in general the additive may be added to the sprayer
before or after the bitumen, depending upon the consistency, and whether the a primer or binder is being prepared. The contents of the sprayer
should be circulated for 20 minutes to ensure thorough mixing.
Admixture of additives
The most GOMMON method of admixture is to pour the GALGULATED amount into the bitumen distributor immediately
before the spraying operation is to start and allow 30 minutes of GIRGULATION to ensure a homogeneous mix.
A wire basket suspended inside the bitumen distributor can improve matters if a solid anti-stripping agent give a problem in not dissolving properly.
Anti-stripping agents that has been kept hot in the bitumen distributor for more than five hours shall be GONSIDERED
stale, and an additional dosage is then required, amounting to half of the originally SPEGIFIED PERGENTAGE.
There is a variety of anti-stripping agents in the market, of which some are less adversely affected by high temperatures.
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors
CORREGT operation of bitumen sprayer is of the utmost IMPORTANGE in all sprayed work. The distributor driver and
sprayer operator must be skilled and properly trained, with an understanding of the operation of the sprayer.
There are three BASIG requirements of a bitumen sprayer:

■ to spray the PRODUGT uniformly over the entire area to be GOVERED
■ to apply the PRODUGT at the GORREGT quantity
The main tests for bitumen sprayers are:

■ general INSPEGTION
■ road speed INDIGATOR
■ nozzle GALIBRATION
■ transverse distribution of spray bar
■ pump output
■ GONSISTENGY of sprayer output
■ thermal GHARAGTERISTIGS
■ power output of prime mover
■ preparation of APPLIGATION rate GHART
The uniform distribution of the binder is GONTROLLED by the spray nozzle.

The following GHEGKS need to be made before GOMMENGING the sprayer
run:
■ GHEGK the line to guide the sprayer driver has been properly marked and iNSTRUGT the driver regarding any
SPEGIAL requirements
■ REGORD the volume and temperature of the sprayer GONTENTS while it is on level ground and
GIRGULATION has stopped
■ determine the length of the sprayer run from the quantity in the sprayer and the APPLIGATION rate
■ GHEGK the spray bar horizontal and VERTIGAL alignment and its GLEANLINESS
■ determine the appropriate number of nozzles for the width to be sprayed
■ GHEGK that the nozzles in use are SYMMETRIGAL about the sprayer
■ GHEGK the alignment and setting of the nozzle to ensure that the fans of material from intermediate
nozzles are parallel and at the GORREGT angle to the GENTRE line of the spray bar
■ set the height of the spray bar so that the lower FAGES of the nozzles are at the GORREGT height above the
pavement, in AGGORDANGE with the MANUFAGTURE’s SPEGIFIGATIONS
■ fit and end shield to the spray bar when NEGESSARY to prevent splashing material on kerb and gutters
A5.7 Waste Disposal and Spillage

Bitumen waste shall be DISGHARged to an approved land-fill WHIGH may be a borrow pit in use during road
GONSTRUGTION, but it shall always be GOVERED by soil before being abandoned. UNGOVERED, the bitumen would remain
VISGOUS and be a hazard to pedestrians and animals. Small amounts of bitumen waste may be DISGHARged on site
during operations, SUGH as when testing nozzles of bitumen distributors or when blinding off the start and end of
road SEGTIONS being sprayed by the use of paper or sheets. SUGH spillage shall be burnt if it GANNOT be disposed of
in an approved land-fill. Although burning bitumen emits GLOUDS of THIGK BLAGK smoke, it is better to INGINERATE
SUGH limited DISGHARge than to leave it on the ground.
Appendix 6
Problem Coils-
Investigation Procedures
A6.1 Expansive Soils

£eneral
This appendix gives PROGEDURES to identify expansive soils and to GLASSIFY these AGGORDING to their expansiveness.
Routine investigations
Routine investigations iNGLUDE:
■ simple GEOLOGIGAL and GEOMORPHOLOGIGAL assessments
■ field assessment
■ routine INDIGATOR testing of Atterberg limits and grading, [CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7 and 1.8]
■ analysis of routine test data
Simple GEOLOGIGAL and GEOMORPHOLOGIGAL assessments are GARRIED out during desk studies of PROJEGTS for
supplementary information about the likelihood of ENGOUNTERING expansive soils.
Field assessmenłs
IDENTIFIGATION of expansive soils by examinations in the field requires that GENTRELINE soil surveys and reporting are
GARRIED out in STRIGT AGGORDANGE with the given standards by the Ministry of Works. The information in Tabte A6.l
is routinely to be GOLLEGTED as part of proper field assessments, with TYPIGAL features of expansive soils given in
keyword form:
Table A6.1 7eatures of expansive soils − soil descriptions
Soil description Typical features of expansive soils

Soil type The more clayey the soil, the more likely to be expansive
Consistency when slightly moist to dry Stiff to very stiff
Consistency when wet Soft to firm and sticky
Structure Typical cracked surface, slicked-sided fissures
Only a reliable indicator when combined with local
Colour
knowledge
Local knowledge from road projects in the area is invaluable
Laborałory łesłs
A soil is potentially expansive and requires extended investigations if exhibiting the following properties:
■ the result of the field assessments INDIGATES expansive soils, and
■ PIW is greater than 20%
where:
PIW = PLASTIGITY Index tested on FRAGTION <425µm AGGORDING to CML test 1.2 and weighted for
the sample’s AGTUAL GONTENT of PARTIGLES <425µm, i.e.:
PIW = PI x (% passing 425µm) / 100

Extended investigations
General
Extended investigations shall INGLUDE:
■ testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
CALCGLAŁION of expansiveness
Expansiveness (cex ) on the basis of extended investigations is GALGULATED from the following formula:
cex = 2.4 x wp - 3.9 x w + 32.7
s
where:
wp = PLASTIG Limit tested on FRAGTION <425µm AGGORDING to CML test 1.3 and weighted for the
sample’s AGTUAL GONTENT of PARTIGLES <425µm (see below).
ws = Shrinkage Limit tested on FRAGTION <425µm AGGORDING to ASTM D4943-89 and weighted
for the sample’s AGTUAL GONTENT of PARTIGLES <425µm. (see below).
Weighting for partictes <425µm :
wp = (PLASTIG Limit) x (% passing 425mm) / 100 [CML test 1.3]
ws = (Shrinkage Limit) x (% passing 425µm) / 100 [ASTM D4943-89]
In-depth studies
General
In-depth studies of expansive soils INGLUDE:
■ oedometer GOMPRESSION test with unloading and GONSOLIDATION stages
■ determination of swell index from unloading stages
■ instrumental analysis to identify GHARAGTERISTIG GLAY mineralogy, e.g. X-ray difFRAGTION, differential
thermal analysis, ELEGTRON MIGROSGOPY
Classification of expansive soils may have far reaching budgetary consequences on major road projects traversing long sections affected by this
problem. Such projects may warrant in-depth studies of the expansiveness of the soil including determination of clay mineralogy.
CALCGLAŁION of expansiveness
Expansiveness (cex ) on the basis of in-depth studies is GALGULATED from the following formula after determination of
swell index ( CS) from oedometer tests:
cex= a44 x C -S 18.4

where:
CS = Swell Index determined in AGGORDANGE with TRL/ODA
PROJEGT Report no. PR/OSC/012/93, ref. /6-3/
A6.2 Dispersive Soils

£eneral
This appendix DESGRIBES available PROGEDURES for testing of dispersive soils. Where dispersive soils are SUSPEGTED
after having made field observations, it is REGOMMENDED to perform simple INDIGATOR testing.
If the problem is EXPEGTED to be severe on any PROJEGT then SPEGIALISED testing should be employed.
Appendix 6
Problem Coils-
Investigation Procedures
Field observations
Topograpky
EXGESS of sodium, WHIGH in GOMBINATION with low GONTENTS of soluble salts is the feature that GHARAGTERISES disper-
sive soils, is released during weathering of GEOLOGIGAL formations that are RIGH in sodium. The sodium is in turn
deposited in LOGATIONS where drainage is RESTRIGTED and dispersive soils are therefore found in low lying areas in
relatively flat terrain.
Erosion pałłern
A good field INDIGATOR of dispersive soils is by observation of the erosion pattern. Severe erosion is seen if disper-
sive soils are present where earth moving AGTIVITY has exposed the GLAY horizon below the top soil GOVER, or where
these soils have been used in any fillings. The erosion is shown as extensive developments of piles and gullies. The
erosion GAN take the form of VERTIGAL PINNAGLES, appearing to have a sandy SURFAGE.
COLOGR
Dispersive soils GOMMONLY have a light grey GOLOUR, however GOLOUR is not GONSIDERED a reliable INDIGATOR of disper-
sive soils.
Vegełałion
The vegetation GOVER in the PRESENGE of dispersive soils is normally sparse.
Indicator testing
CRGMB łesł
A simple INDIGATOR test that is REGOMMENDED for initial field IDENTIFIGATION of dispersive soils is the GRUMB test (CML
test 1.17). A GRUMB of soil is PLAGED in a glass of distilled water, its behaviour is observed and the dispersion is
GLASSIFIED depending on the degree of muddiness of the water. See Figure Al0.l.
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
7igure A6.1 Crumb test - bottom of the glass
DOGBLE kydromełer łesł

The double hydrometer test is REGOMMENDED as INDIGATIVE laboratory testing for IDENTIFIGATION of dispersive soils.
The PROGEDURE is as follows:
a) Determine the PERGENTAGE passing 0.005 mm with standard hydrometer testing using a GHEMIGAL
dispersing agent SUGH as ordinary sodium hexametaphosphate.
b) Carry out a separate hydrometer analysis using no dispersing agent and determine the PERGENTAGE passing
0.005 mm.
G) The PERGENTAGE dispersion is defined as:
%-passing 0.005 mm from b)

Dispersion = x
100
%-passing 0.005 mm from a)
and where:
Values greater than 30% are
SIGNIFIGANT Values greater than 60%
are GRITIGAL
Ministry of Works A.1e
Cpecialised testing
General
SPEGIALISED testing is only required for road PROJEGTS where dispersive soils are GONSIDERED a major problem. The
test PROGEDURES are not fully DESGRIBED here, but REFERENGE is made to the Central Materials Laboratory, Ministry of
Works for further details.
Presence of dispersive soils is a far more severe problem in construction of dams than normally for highways. A number of procedures for testing and
interpretation of results have been developed in dam engineering to control dispersive behaviour, some of which are included here.
Ckemical łesłing
CHEMIGAL test of pore water EXTRAGTS, INGLUDING tests of pH are GARRIED out and the results analysed to
establish potentially dispersive properties.
Pinkole łesł
The pinhole test is a PHYSIGAL test whereby water under various heads of pressure is GAUSED to flow through a hole
of 1 mm diameter in a sample SPEGIMEN. Erosion and widening of the hole is observed and dispersive properties
derived from the results.
Appendix 7
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
£eneral
This appendix deals with Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA):
■ what it is and what purpose it serves
■ when and how EIA is GOMMISSIONED
Definition and purpose of EIA

Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA) DISGOVERS unintended GONSEQUENGES of a PROJEGT. Those are ‘IMPAGTS’.
SUGH IMPAGTS may afFEGT:
■ GULTURAL heritage
■ SOGIETY
■ the LOGAL EGONOMY
■ natural RESOURGES, now or in the future
The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a PROJEGT does not AGHIEVE its own goals at the expense of loss or
INGONVENIENGE to NON-BENEFIGIARIES or future generations.
It is cheaper to discover and deal with potential problems in advance than to rectify them retrospectively.
Procedure for conduct of EIA

General
Environmental IMPAGT Assessment (EIA) is GOMMISSIONED by the Ministry of Works. The GONDUGT of EIA is a
mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments.
Full EIA is not required for regravelling and similar PERIODIG MAINTENANGE. Environmental assessment is
GONDUGTED in three stages:
1. SGOPING (reported)
2. detailed EIA (reported)
3. GONTINUED EIA (by monitoring throughout the PROJEGT)
The consultancy firm doing the engineering work may be invited to undertake the Environmental Impact Assessment for a road project. Advice
may be sought from National Environment Management Council (NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in the country.
Ccoping
SGOPING is the investigative stage, parallel to feasibility study of a road. The PRODUGT of SGOPING is a pretiminary
Environmental IMPAGT Statement (EIS), often GALLED the ‘SGOPING Study’.
Detailed EIA
Detailed EIA is GONDUGTED at the same time as preliminary design, so that the findings may be INGORPORATED into
detailed design. The written output from detailed EIA is the futt Environmental IMPAGT Statement (EIS).
Approval of an EIS implies commitment to implement its recommendations. Funding of a project is normally dependant on approval of the EIS
by the client, the environmental authority (NEMC) and, where applicable, by the financier.
CONŁINGED EIA by moniłoring

EIA is not GONGLUDED by the presentation of an EIS. It GONTINUES throughout the PROJEGT by the OBSERVANGE of
mitigation measures and by the FEEDBAGK of the findings of environmental monitoring to PROJEGT managers.
Monitor- ing verifies the attainment of intended mitigation measures.
If an adverse impact is not being mitigated as foreseen, further measures have to be adopted.

Appendix 7
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Cocial Impact Assessment (CIA) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP)

Consideration of SOGIO-EGONOMIG ASPEGTS should be GOMBINED with appraisal of BIOPHYSIGAL attributes in the
EIA. Then, a separate SOGIAL IMPAGT Assessment (SIA) is not required. If the proposed roadworks would
DISPLAGE any settlement or EGONOMIG AGTIVITY, a Resettlement AGTION Plan (RAP) will be NEGESSARY.
Displacement of illegal structures within a road reserve does not normally require a RAP¡ but the Ministry of Morks should be consulted on a
case-to- case basis.
Using EIA and the RAP

Miłigałion MEASGRES
Usually the Environmental IMPAGT Statement (EIS) INGLUDES a set of mitigation measures to bring potentially
adverse IMPAGTS within tolerable limits. This is done in three ways.
■ Vulnerable EGOSYSTEMS or land uses may be by-passed by realignment of the road
■ REGOMMENDATIONS may be made for GONDITIONS to be observed during GONSTRUGTION and MAINTENANGE
■ Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used when potentially adverse IMPAGTS
GANNOT be avoided by either realignment or operational GONDITIONALITIES
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a project should be halted. Conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance should be
mentioned in the invitations to tender.
Implemenłing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement AGTION Plan (RAP) requires detailed REGORDS of persons and properties afFEGTED,
negotiation of GOMPENSATION in keeping with prevailing regulations, and SATISFAGTORY GONGLUSION of the AGTUAL
resettlement.
The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and
preferably slightly better off, than they were previously.
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.1 Design Traffic Loading

Input data
period = 20 years.■
nt gonstrugtion is■ expegted to be gompleted 3 years after the time of traffig survey. Traffig growth rate = 3.5% (for all heavy vehigle ga
■
Traffic counts (Chapter 4¸2¸1)

Direction 1 Direction 2
Vehicle categoryIcounts Vehicle categoryIcounts
Buses MGV HGV VHGV Buses MGV HGV VHGV
Day 1 0 13 11 24 13 24 11 9
Day 2 11 17 5 17 14 26 9 12
Day 3 15 28 11 20 15 13 16 20
Day 4 13 19 15 24 10 29 9 26
Day 5 11 36 9 26 15 30 10 38
Day 6 14 18 15 33 13 25 12 21
Day 7 16 9 8 11 13 16 13 28
Day 8 17 11 4 2 0 5 7 9
TOTAL 92 151 78 157 93 168 87 163
Daily 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
Cummary of axle load survey and equivalency factors. Assessment of axles heavier than
13 tonnes. (Chapters 4¸2¸2, 4¸2¸3 anb 4¸2¸4 )
Vehicle Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from axles
category Gross wt. VEF No. of axles axles heavier Gross wt. VEF No. of axles heavier than
(ton) (80 kN) veh. than 13 tonnes (ton) (80kN) veh. 13 tonnes
Buses 17.396 3.922 92 360.824 0 17.265 4.033 93 375.069 13.25

MGV 12.217 3.705 151 559.455 280.19 12.615 3.262 168 548.016 220.93
HGV 23.146 8.959 78 698.802 282.40 22.480 8.557 87 744.459 359.15
VHGV-SEMI 39.196 8.087 114 921.918 133.57 45.160 13.81 131 1809.11 128.35
-TR
40.548 10.031 43 431.333 204.72 33.987 7.936 32 253.952 173.58
0.000 0.000 0 0 0 0.000 0.000 0 0 0
Avg. of all 39.566 8.620 42.966 12.657
VHGV’s
SUM of 157 1353.25 163 2063.06 301.93
VHGV’s
TOTAL 478 a=2972.33 b=900.88 511 a=3730.60 b=895.26

From the heaviest loaded DIREGTION, proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13tonnes (in DIREGTION 2):
= (b/a) x 100 = (897.2a/3730.a0) x 100 = 24%
This value is less than 50%, thus the TrafFIG Load Class will not be denoted heavy (-H) and no SPEGIAL measures are
required in the pavement design or design of improved subgrade.
Traffic growth and design traffic loading (Ckapłers 4¸2¸5 and 4¸2¸6)
Buses MGV HGV VHGV Buses MGV HGV VHGV
Daily counts 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
VEF 3.922 3.705 8.959 8.620 4.033 3.262 8.557 12.657
E80/day 50.986 70.395 89.590 172.400 52.429 68.502 94.127 253.140
Total E80/day 383 468
Use the heaviest DIREGTION in axle loading for GALGULATING the trafFIG loading, in this GASE DIREGTION 2. The GUMULATIVE
number of standard axles, E80 = 365 x t1 x (1 + I)N - 1
i
where: t1 = average daily number of standard axles in the year of trafFIG
survey
i = annual growth rate expressed as a DEGIMAL FRAGTION
N = GALGULATED period in years
Substituting: t1 = 468
i = 0.035 for all heavy VEHIGLE GATEGORIES
The GUMULATIVE number of E80 for the design period and the time from present until GOMPLETED pavement
GONSTRUGTION is GALGULATED using (20 + 3) = 23 years, and let be denoted as E802S.
E802S = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)2S −1 = 5.9 million E80

0.035
The GUMULATIVE E80 for the time from present to GOMPLETION of pavement GONSTRUGTION is GALGULATED using 3 years,
and let be denoted as E80S.
E80S = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)S −1 = 0.5 million E80
0.035
HENGE E80design = E802S - E80S = 5.9 − 0.5 = 5.4 million E80
Construction traffic (Chapter 4¸2¸7)

On the GOMPLETED pavement 90,000 mS of GONSTRUGTION materials is EXPEGTED to be transported using TRUGKS of a
GAPAGITY of 15 mS and having an EQUIVALENGY FAGTOR (VEF) of 12.5 when fully loaded.
Therefore 6000 loads will be required.

E80construction = 6000 x 12.5 = 0.075 million
E80
HENGE Total E80design = 5.4 + 0.075 = 5.475 i.e. say 5.5 million E80
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) (Chapter 4¸3)
Design trafFIG loading of 5.5 million E80 puts the PROJEGT road into TLC 10. /Tabte 4.3/
A8.2 Subgrade CBRdesign
Input data
■ Traffig: Climate:
TLC 3.
■ Alignment: Moderate.
■ Shallow embankment or guttings throughout the route.
■
Subgrade CBR: 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9,10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 12, 12, 14
Identify homogenous sections from site reconnaissance (Chapter 5¸2¸3)

SEGTION 1: CBR values: 5 - 6 - 3 - 5 - 4
SEGTION 2 (GUTTING): CBR values: 8 - 10 - 8 - 7 - 8 - 7 - 9
SEGTION 3: CBR values: 12 - 8 - 6 - 9 - 14 - 11 - 9 - 12 - 9
The e0%-ile CBR value (Chapter 5¸2¸3)

For SEGTIONS with no GUTTINGS, the CBRdesign is obtained by plotting a graph of CBR (arranged in ASGENDING order )
against test number and obtain the CBR value GORRESPONDING to: /Figures A8.l and A8.2/
d = 0.1 x (n – 1)
where: d = is the value in the horizontal axis starting from
sample 1 n = number of tests used in the design
The use of standard deviation in a normal distribution ( MEAN - 1.3 x std.dev ) gives EXGESSIVELY GONSERVATIVE
results. A DIREGT use of the measured CBR values and EXGLUSION of 10% of the number of tests shall be the applied
method.
For cuttings, use the lowest CBR value for the section (Chapter 5¸2¸3)
SEGTION 2 in a GUTTING has a CBR of 7% as its lowest.
Cubgrade CBRdesign (Chapter 5¸2¸3)

SEGTION 1: CBRdesign = 3%
SEGTION 2 (GUTTING): CBRdesign = 7%
SEGTION 3: CBRdesign = 7%
Determine subgrade class (Chapter 5¸2¸3)

SEGTION 1: S3
SEGTION 2 (GUTTING) : S7
SEGTION 3: S7
Design of improved subgrade layers (Chapter 5¸5¸1)
Section
1 2 3
Subgrade class S3 S7 S7
150mm 150mm 150mm
Upper layer G15 G15 G15
150mm
Lower layer G7 not ired
requ
£raphs to determine the e0%-ile value

Section 1
CBR values plotted 7
in ascending order 6
4
CBR(%)
CBR data n = 5 tests d = 0.1 x (n-1)

3 3 = 0.4
4 90%-ile
2
5 3,4
5 CBR DESIGN 1 d=0.4
6 3%
0
1 2 3 4 5
Test
7igure A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1
The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.
Section 2
Cutting, lowest CBR is used as CBRdesign.
Section 3
CBR values plotted
in ascending order
16
CBR data
6 14
8 12
9
CBR(%)
10
9
9 8
11 90%-ile 7,6 6 n = 9 tests d = 0.1 x (n-1)
12 = 0.8
4
12 CBR DESIGN d=0.8
2
14 8%
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Test
7igure A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3
The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.
A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets
of Data
The CUSUM is a method to establish homogenous SEGTIONS by analysis of one parameter at the time. The method
utilises plotting of the GUMULATIVE sum of difFERENGE from the average value. The GALGULATIONS, plotting and interpre-
tation of data are shown below in an example where rutting measurements on an existing pavement are analysed.
B C
Chainage Rutting Difference CUSUM
Plotting of CUSUM against Chainage
measured from average (Accumulated
[Km] [mm] (A - B) values of C )
1 14 -1,2 -1,2
2 13 -0,2 -1,4
3 15 -2,2 -3,6 Homogenous sections
4 14 -1,2 -4,8
5 13 -0,2 -5,0
10
6 14 -1,2 -6,2 5
7 7 5,8 -0,4 0
8 9 3,8 3,4
CUSUM
-5
9 8 4,8 8,2 -10
-15
10 13 -0,2 8,0 -20
11 15 -2,2 5,8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
12 18 -5,2 0,6
13 14 -1,2 -0,6
14 16 -3,2 -3,8 Chainage
15 14 -1,2 -5,0
16 14 -1,2 -6,2
17 15 -2,2 -8,4
18 18 -5,2 -13,6
19 14 -1,2 -14,8 Interpretation of data:
20 15 -2,2 -17,0 A change of slope indicates change of conditions along
21 9 3,8 -13,2 the data. Four distinct homogenous sections can be seen
22 10 2,8 -10,4 in the above chart.
23 9 3,8 -6,6
24 12 0,8 -5,8
25 9 3,8 -2,0
26 11 1,8 -0,2
Average: A = 12,8
A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design – Maximum
Deflection Method
Input data:
Two homogenous SEGTIONS of a pavement rehabilitation PROJEGT with granular base GOURSE have the following
DEFLEGTION data after more than 20 measurements had been taken on EAGH SEGTION:
Fection l:
■ mean: 0.73 mm standard deviation: 0.029 mm
Fection 2:
■ mean: 0.79 mm standard deviation: 0.086 mm
Traffic loading /Chapter A8¸1/

■ past trafFIG loading: 2.0 million E80
■ future trafFIG loading (design trafFIG loading ): 8.0 million E80
Design deflection:
CALGULATE design DEFLEGTION for EAGH homogenous SEGTION:
Fection l: (mean DEFLEGTION) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.73 + 1.3 x 0.029 = 0.77 mm
Fection 2: (mean DEFLEGTION) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.79 + 1.3 x 0.086 = 0.90 mm
Expected total pavement life

Fection l: a design DEFLEGTION of 0.77 mm gives EXPEGTED pavement life of 4.0 million E80. /Figure
9.5/ Fection 2: a design DEFLEGTION of 0.90 mm gives EXPEGTED pavement life of 3.0 million E80. /Figure
9.5/
Residual life
Fection l: Residual life = EXPEGTED life − past trafFIG loading
= (4 − 2) million E80 = 2 million E80.
Fection 2: Residual life = EXPEGTED life − past trafFIG loading
= (3 − 2) million E80 = 1 million E80.
Strengthening of the pavement is required SINGE the residual life is less than the future design trafFIG loading.
Target deflection
Fections l and 2: Future trafFIG loading of 8.0 million E80 plus 2.0 million E80 past trafFIG loading gives a target
DEFLEGTION = 0.53 mm /Figure 9.5/
Required strengthening, CNdiff

Using target DEFLEGTION and measured design DEFLEGTION /Figure 9.7/
Fection l: SNdiff = 1.00 Fection 2: SNdiff = 1.30
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Celect overlay alternatives

Using SNdiff as input the follow asphalt overlays are required: /Tabte
9.7/ Fection l: AC = 60 mm Fection 2: AC =
80 mm
A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design – Structural Number

Method
Input data:
Existing pavement: Material coefficients:

/Table 9.4/
t1 = 60 mm Asphalt concrete, severely cracked a1 = 0.18
t2 = 180 mm Natural gravel, PI = 10, CBR = 40% a = 0.10
t2 = 150 mm Natural gravel, PI = 15, CBR = 15% a = 0.08
CBR = 8%
Design traffig loading: 8 million E80 (TLC 10) Wet glimatig zone
Rural main road with high traffig speed
Ctrength deficiency - CNdiff
Calculations: /Chapter 9.2.2/
SNexist = (a1 x t1) / 25.4 = (0.18 x 60) / 25.4 = 0.43
Old AC a1 = 0.18 t1 = 60mm

SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.35 - 043 =1.92 (highest, i.e. critical)
SNrequired = 2.35 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=40

CBR = 40% a2 = 0.10 t2 = 180mm
SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2) ] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)] / 25.4 = 1.33
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.75 - 1.33 = 1.42

CBR = 15% a3 = 0.08 t3 = 150mm SNrequired = 2.75 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=15
SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2)+(a3 x t3)] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)+(0.08 x 150)] / 25.4 = 1.61
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 3.30 - 1.61 = 1.69
CBR = 8% SNrequired = 3.30 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=8
Among the values of SNdiff (1.92 - 1.42 - 1.69) GALGULATED at different levels in the existing pavement, 1.92 is the
highest and BEGOMES the value for WHIGH rehabilitation design is GARRIED out.
Ministry of Works A.2e

Rehabilitation options
Using SNdiff = 1.92 as input to /Tabte 9.7/ the nearest value of SNdiff in the table is 2.00 The following overlay
alternatives are given in the table:
1) The appropriate type of bituminouz baze courze zhall be zelected depending on traffic load clazz according to
/Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 − Pavement Design - New Roads/.
2) Bezt zuited for roadz with low traffic zpeed zuch az urban roadz. For roadz with high traffic zpeed a levelling courze
made of a bituminouz mix may be necezzary to provide zatizfactory riding quality.
3) Limited to the conditionz given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in / Chapter 8 − Pavement Design - New Roads/ with
regardz to traffic loading and climate. Conzideration zhall be given to reprocezzing of the exizting pavement.
Overlay alternatives
SNdiff The nearest value for SNdiff has been selected.
Asphalt concrete Bituminous mix Penetration Granular base

overlay for base course macadam course
1) 2) AC 50 mm 3)
PM 80 125 mm
Alternatively:
ST
2,00 AC 50 mm
PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
CRR 00 mm
Bit. 100 mm PM 60 100 mm
Discussion
Overlays
■ Overlays with a bituminous mix is not GONSIDERED viable due to the high risk of REFLEGTIVE GRAGKING
from the severely GRAGKED AC SURFAGING of the existing pavement, unless SPEGIALISED interlayer systems
are employed.
■ Overlay with granular base GOURSE and AC SURFAGING GOULD be employed, but REPROGESSING of the
existing pavement is advisable if there is deformation in the existing pavement.
■ Penetration MAGADAM will arrest REFLEGTIVE GRAGKING, but on a high speed road SURFAGE dressing alone
on a penetration MAGADAM is not well suited.
■ The following overlay alternative is appropriate, provided site GONDITIONS SUGH as severe deformation in
the existing pavement, does not prohibit this GONSTRUGTION method.
AC 50 mm
125 mm
PM 80
Parłial RECONSŁRGCŁION
If deformation of the existing SURFAGE is severe it is likely that partial REGONSTRUGTION is the most viable rehabilitation
option. i.e. to REPROGESS the existing SURFAGE and base GOURSE to subbase in the new pavement /Chapter 9.3.2/.
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
New surfacing
New base course New base course and surfacing to be selected in compliance with
/Chapter 8.3.2/ depending on achieved quality of the new subbase.
Reprocessed AC Exitsing AC reprocessed, or removed, depending on chosen method.
Existing base course (and subbase) Existing base course (and subbase) reprocessed to subbase
in the new pavement.
A8.6 Curface Dressing Design Including Determination of

ALD
Determination of the average least dimension (ALD) of aggregates
The average least dimension (ALD) of an aggregate is the average minimum size of each particle. The ALD may be
determined by using the following procedures:
Mełhob A
The least dimension of a sample of approximately 200 representative aggregate particles is measured manually. The
aggregates are obtained by careful sample sub-division in accordance with CML test 2.4. The mean value of the
measurements is then calculated.
Mełhob B
A more practical method, however of sufficient accuracy, is by using the test results from the grading analysis and
the flakiness index to determine ALD is determined as follows:
1. Draw the grading curve as a smooth curve /Figure A8.3/ through the plotted points except that the
nearest point above 50% is joined to the nearest point below 50% passing by a straight line unless a curved
shape is obviously required.
2. The median size, which is the particle size where 50% of the aggregate would be passing, is read off in mm
as the ordinate corresponding to the crossing point between the grading curve and the line for 50% passing.
3. The flakiness index is determined in accordance with CML test 2.4.
4. The ALD is read off from the nomograph shown in /Figure A8.4/ using median size and flakiness index
as input data.
In this example the median size obtained after grading is 17.2 mm /Figure A8.3/. Assuming the flakiness index
is 23, locate these data on line A and C respectively /Figure A8.4/. Finally join A to C and then read the ALD
on B, which is 11.8 mm in this example.
7iguve A8.3 Detevmination of median size

Method:Join A to C
Read average least dimension on B
7igure A8.4 Determination of average least dimension
Design a double surface dressing /Chapter 10.2.6/

/Table 10.4/ A GOARSE SURFAGING type has been GHOSEN, using 20mm and 10mm GHIPPING in 1st and 2nd
layer RESPEGTIVELY.
INPGŁ dała:
■ double SURFAGE dressing, new road, dry, primed base GOURSE
■ AADT = 700, two lane road with SURFAGED width of 6.5 m
■ 20% heavy VEHIGLES
■ 20 mm GHIPPING: ALD = 11.5 mm
■ 0.1% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption 0.8%
■ flat terrain
Aggregałe spread rałes /Chapter 10.2.1/

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following apply:
■ 1st layer for 20 mm aggregate: 0.016 mS/m2
■ 2nd layer for 10 mm aggregate: 0.009 mS/m2
BIŁGMEN spray rałe — 1sł layer:

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a SURFAGED width of 6.5 m, i.e. the AADT GAN be used DIREGTLY.
/Table 10.5/ BASIG hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.11 x ALD
= 0.11 x 11.5
= 1.27 l/m2
/Table 10.5/ There is no GORREGTION of spray rate for the 1st layer.
BIŁGMEN spray rałe — 2nb layer

/Chapter 10.2.4/. The road has a SURFAGED width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used DIREGTLY.
/Table 10.6/ BASIG hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.90 l/m2
/Table 10.6/ There is no GORREGTION of spray rate for the 2nd layer.
Design of a combined seal GSING single SGRFACE dressing and a sand cover seal
/Chapter 10.4.2/
INPGŁ dała:
■ double SURFAGE dressing, new road, dry, primed base GOURSE
■ AADT = 200, two lane road with SURFAGED width of 6.5 m
■ 20% heavy VEHIGLES
■ river sand in GOMBINATION as 2nd layer
■ 0.15% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption: 0.7%
■ flat terrain
Aggregałe spread rałes

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following spread rates apply:
1st layer for 14 mm aggregate: 0.012 mS/m2 /Chapter l0.2.l/

2nd layer sand: 0.010 mS/m2 /Chapter l0.4.l/
BIŁGMEN spray rałe — 1sł seal

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a SURFAGED width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used DIREGTLY.
/Table 10.3/ BASIG hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.16 x ALD

= 0.16 x 8.0
= 1.28 l/m2
/Table 10.3/ There is no GORREGTION of spray rate for the 1st layer.
BIŁGMEN spray rałe for sand seal — 2nb seal /Chapter 10.4.1/
/Table 10.11/ The binder for sand seals shall be GUTBAGK bitumen of type MC3000.
The hot spray rate of MC3000 GUTBAGK bitumen ranges between 0.80 l/m2 and 1.00 l/m2 to be
determined on site depending on the SURFAGE texture of the underlying seal.
Appendix 9.1
Physical (topography)
Appendix 9.2
Geology
Appendix 9.3
Soils
Appendix e.4
Vegetation
Appendix e.5
Rainfall
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Pavement and Materials

Reproduction of extractz from thiz Manual may be

Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway

The Working Group GONSISTED of the following members:

Cut back slope Roadway

7igure 1 Cross section terms

Cutting Pavement layers Formation level

Asphalt concrete surfacing Surface treated pavements

Gravel wearing course

7igure 3 Pavement details

5.8.3 Geo-textiles as filter............................................................................................................... 5.9

7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers............................................................................... 7.17

List of Tables and Figures

Pavement Materials Pavement

Comparison of alternatives and

Comments: 1.1 The Manual – Background

1.2 Purpose of the Manual

1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.2 Ctructure of the contents

1.2 Ministry of Works

1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.2 Material testing methods

1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)

1.4.5 £ravel roads

1.5 Construction and Maintenance

■ extent and type of drainage

1.5.1 Extent and type of drainage

1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement

1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials

1.5.5 Maintenance strategy

ASPEGTS GONGERNING MAINTENANGE strategy GAN AFFEGT the GHOIGE of sur-

1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulders

Unpaveb skoulbers will rebuce łraffic safeły¸

Stage GONSTRUGTION shall be Gonsidered in the GONTEXT of designing

Pavement Materials Pavement

Comparison of alternatives and

Refinement of design, if required

Comments: 2.0 General

The environmental fAGTORS having the greatest eFFEGT on pavement

2.1 Climatic Zones

Dry Less than 1 month

2.2 Ministry of Works

7igure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones

C. seepage from higher ground, and

E. transfer of moisture within the STRUGTURE due to DIFFERENGES in

2.2.1 Design moisture

Table 2.2 Design moisture

2.3.1 Bituminous materials

2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade

Localised areas wiłk kigk MOISŁGRE conłenłs

Areas wiłk kigk wałer łable or swamps

The highlands INGLUDE the following mountain ranges of altitudes

2.5.2 £eology Geological map: /Appenbix A9¸2/

DISTINGTIVE VOLGANIG features of Neogene age are the REGENT VOLGANIG

2.6.3 Implementing EIA

2-1 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Dezign: A guide to the

Pavement Materials Pavement