Ai R16 - Unit-3

B.Tech.
III Year CSE II Sem Artificial Intelligence Unit III
UNIT III
Logic Concepts: Introduction, propositional calculus, proportional logic, natural deduction

system, axiomatic system, semantic tableau system in proportional logic, resolution refutation in
proportional logic, predicate logic
1.1.Propositional Logic Concepts:
 Logic is a study of principles used to
− distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
 Formally it deals with
− the notion of truth in an abstract sense and is concerned with the principles of
valid inferencing.
 A proposition in logic is a declarative statements which are either true or false (but not
both) in a given context. For example,
− “Jack is a male”,
− "Jack loves Mary" etc.
 Given some propositions to be true in a given context,
− logic helps in inferencing new proposition, which is also true in the same context.
 Suppose we are given a set of propositions such as
− “It is hot today" and
− “If it is hot it will rain", then
− we can infer that
“It will rain today".
1.2.Well-formed formula
 Propositional Calculus (PC) is a language of propositions basically refers
− to set of rules used to combine the propositions to form compound propositions

using logical operators often called connectives such as , V, ~, , 
 Well-formed formula is defined as:
Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 1
www.Jntufastupdates.com
B.Tech. III Year CSE II Sem Artificial Intelligence Unit III
− An atom is a well-formed formula.
− If  is a well-formed formula, then ~ is a well-formed formula.
− If  and  are well formed formulae, then (  ), ( V  ), (  ), ( 

 ) are also well-formed formulae.
− A propositional expression is a well-formed formula if and only if it can be

obtained by using above conditions.
1.3.Truth Table
● Truth table gives us operational definitions of important logical operators.
− By using truth table, the truth values of well-formed formulae are calculated.
● Truth table elaborates all possible truth values of a formula.
The meanings of the logical operators are given by the following truth table.
P Q ~P PQ PVQ P Q P  Q
T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T
1.4.Equivalence Laws:
Commutation
1. PQ  Q P
2. P V Q  Q V P
Association
1. P  (Q  R)  (P  Q)  R
2. P V (Q V R)  (P V Q) V R
Double Negation
~ (~ P)  P
Distributive Laws
1. P  ( Q V R)  (P  Q) V (P  R)
2. P V ( Q  R)  (P V Q)  (P V R)
De Morgan’s Laws
1. ~ (P  Q)  ~P V~Q
2. ~ (P V Q)  ~P ~Q
Law of Excluded Middle
P V ~P  T (true)
Law of Contradiction
P  ~P  F (false)
2. Propositional Logic – PL
● PL deals with
− the validity, satisfiability and unsatisfiability of a formula
− derivation of a new formula using equivalence laws.
● Each row of a truth table for a given formula is called its interpretation under which a
formula can be true or false.
● A formula  is called tautology if and only
− if  is true for all interpretations.
● A formula  is also called valid if and only if
− it is a tautology.
● Let  be a formula and if there exist at least one interpretation for which  is true,
− then  is said to be consistent (satisfiable) i.e., if  a model for , then  is said

to be consistent .
● A formula  is said to be inconsistent (unsatisfiable), if and only if
−  is always false under all interpretations.
● We can translate
− simple declarative and
conditional (if .. then) natural language sentences into its corresponding propositional formulae.
Example
● Show that " It is humid today and if it is humid then it will rain so it will rain today" is a
valid argument.
● Solution: Let us symbolize English sentences by propositional atoms as follows:
A : It is humid
B : It will rain
● Formula corresponding to a text:
 : ((A  B)  A)  B
● Using truth table approach, one can see that  is true under all four interpretations and
hence is valid argument.
Truth Table for ((A  B)  A)  B
A B A B=X XA= Y Y B
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
● Truth table method for problem solving is
− simple and straightforward and
− very good at presenting a survey of all the truth possibilities in a given situation.
● It is an easy method to evaluate
− a consistency, inconsistency or validity of a formula, but the size of truth table

grows exponentially.
− Truth table method is good for small values of n.
● For example, if a formula contains n atoms, then the truth table will contain 2n entries.
− A formula  : (P  Q  R)  ( Q V S) is valid can be proved using truth table.
− A table of 16 rows is constructed and the truth values of  are computed.
− Since the truth value of  is true under all 16 interpretations, it is valid.
● It is noticed that if P  Q  R is false, then  is true because of the definition of .
● Since P  Q  R is false for 14 entries out of 16, we are left only with two entries to be
tested for which  is true.
− So in order to prove the validity of a formula, all the entries in the truth table may
not be relevant.
● Other methods which are concerned with proofs and deductions of logical formula are as
follows:
− Natural Deductive System
− Axiomatic System
− Semantic Tableaux Method
− Resolution Refutation Method
3. Natural deduction method – ND
● ND is based on the set of few deductive inference rules.
● The name natural deductive system is given because it mimics the pattern of natural
reasoning.
● It has about 10 deductive inference rules.
Conventions:
− E for Elimination.
− P, Pk , (1  k  n) are atoms.
− k, (1  k  n) and  are formulae.
Natural Deduction Rules:
Rule 1: I- (Introducing )
I- : If P1, P2, …, Pn then P1  P2  … Pn
Interpretation: If we have hypothesized or proved P1, P2, … and Pn , then their conjunction P1
 P2  … Pn is also proved or derived.
Rule 2: E- ( Eliminating )
E- : If P1  P2  … Pn then Pi ( 1  i  n)
Interpretation: If we have proved P1  P2  … Pn , then any Pi is also proved or derived. This

rule shows that  can be eliminated to yield one of its conjuncts.
Rule 3: I-V (Introducing V)
I-V : If Pi ( 1  i  n) then P1V P2 V …V Pn
Interpretation: If any Pi (1 i  n) is proved, then P1V …V Pn is also proved.
Rule 4: E-V ( Eliminating V)
E-V : If P1 V … V Pn, P1  P, … , Pn  P then P
Interpretation: If P1 V … V Pn, P1  P, … , and Pn  P are proved, then P is proved.
Rule 5: I-  (Introducing  )
I-  : If from 1, …, n infer  is proved then 1  … n   is proved
Interpretation: If given 1, 2, …and n to be proved and from these we deduce  then 1  2
… n   is also proved.
Rule 6: E-  (Eliminating  ) - Modus Ponen
E-  : If P1  P, P1 then P
Rule 7: I-  (Introducing  )
I-  : If P1  P2, P2  P1 then P1  P2
Rule 8: E-  (Elimination  )
E-  : If P1  P2 then P1  P2 , P2  P1
Rule 9: I- ~ (Introducing ~)
I- ~ : If from P infer P1  ~ P1 is proved then ~P is proved
Rule 10: E- ~ (Eliminating ~)
E- ~ : If from ~ P infer P1  ~ P1 is proved then P is proved
● If a formula  is derived / proved from a set of premises / hypotheses { 1,…, n },
− then one can write it as from 1, …, n infer .
● In natural deductive system,
− a theorem to be proved should have a form from 1, …, n infer .
● Theorem infer  means that
− there are no premises and  is true under all interpretations i.e.,  is a tautology or
valid.
● If we assume that    is a premise, then we conclude that  is proved if  is given

i.e.,
− if ‘from  infer ’ is a theorem then    is concluded.
− The converse of this is also true.
Deduction Theorem: To prove a formula 1  2 …  n  , it is sufficient to prove a

theorem from 1, 2, …, n infer .
Example1: Prove that P(QVR) follows from PQ
Solution: This problem is restated in natural deductive system as "from P Q infer P  (Q V

R)". The formal proof is given as follows:
{Theorem} from P Q infer P  (Q V R)
{ premise} PQ (1)
{ E- , (1)} P (2)
{ E- , (1)} Q (3)
{ I-V , (3) } QVR (4)
{ I-, ( 2, 4)} P  (Q V R) Conclusion
Example2: Prove the following theorem:
infer ((Q  P)  (Q  R))  (Q  (P  R))
Solution:
● In order to prove infer ((Q  P) (Q  R))  (Q  (P  R)), prove a theorem

from {Q  P, Q  R} infer Q  (P  R).
● Further, to prove Q  (P  R), prove a sub theorem from Q infer P R
{Theorem} from Q  P, Q  R infer Q  (P  R)
{ premise 1} Q P (1)
{ premise 2} Q  R (2)
{ sub theorem} from Q infer P  R (3)
{ premise } Q (3.1)
{ E-  , (1, 3.1) } P (3.2)
{E- , (2, 3.1) } R (3.3)
{ I-, (3.2,3.3) } P  R (3.4)
{ I- , ( 3 )} Q  (P  R) Conclusion
4. Axiomatic System for Propositional Logic:
● It is based on the set of only three axioms and one rule of deduction.
− It is minimal in structure but as powerful as the truth table and natural deduction
approaches.
− The proofs of the theorems are often difficult and require a guess in selection of
appropriate axiom(s) and rules.
− These methods basically require forward chaining strategy where we start with
the given hypotheses and prove the goal.
Axiom1 (A1):   (  )
Axiom2 (A2): ( ()) ((  )  (  ))
Axiom3 (A3): (~   ~ )  (   )
Modus Ponen (MP) defined as follows:
Hypotheses:    and  Consequent: 
Examples: Establish the following:
1. {Q} |-(PQ) i.e., PQ is a deductive consequence of {Q}.
{Hypothesis} Q (1)
{Axiom A1} Q  (P  Q) (2)
{MP, (1,2)} P Q proved
2. { P  Q, Q  R } |- ( P  R ) i.e., P  R is a deductive consequence
of { P  Q, Q  R }.
{Hypothesis} P  Q (1)
{Hypothesis} Q  R (2)
{Axiom A1} (Q R)  (P  (Q  R)) (3)
{MP, (2, 3)} P  (Q  R) (4)
{Axiom A2} (P  (Q  R)) 
((P  Q)  (P  R)) (5)
{MP , (4, 5)} (P  Q)  (P  R) (6)
{MP, (1, 6)} P  R proved
4.1.Deduction Theorems in Axiomatic System
Deduction Theorem:
If  is a set of hypotheses and  and  are well-formed formulae , then {   } |- 

implies  |- (   ).
Converse of deduction theorem:
Given  |- (   ),
we can prove {    } |- .
Useful Tips
1. Given , we can easily prove    for any well-formed formulae  and .
2. Useful tip
If    is to be proved, then include  in the set of hypotheses  and derive  from

the set {  }. Then using deduction theorem, we conclude   .
Example: Prove ~ P  (P  Q) using deduction theorem.
Proof: Prove {~ P} |- (P  Q) and
|- ~ P(PQ) follows from deduction theorem.
5. Semantic Tableaux System in PL
● Earlier approaches require
− construction of proof of a formula from given set of formulae and are called
direct methods.
● In semantic tableaux,
− the set of rules are applied systematically on a formula or set of formulae to

establish its consistency or inconsistency.
● Semantic tableau
− binary tree constructed by using semantic rules with a formula as a root
● Assume  and  be any two formulae.
5.1. Semantic Tableaux Rules
5.2.Consistency and Inconsistency
● If an atom P and ~ P appear on a same path of a semantic tableau,
− then inconsistency is indicated and such path is said to be contradictory or

closed (finished) path.
− Even if one path remains non contradictory or unclosed (open), then the formula
 at the root of a tableau is consistent.
● Contradictory tableau (or finished tableau):
− It defined to be a tableau in which all the paths are contradictory or closed

(finished).
● If a tableau for a formula  at the root is a contradictory tableau,
− then a formula  is said to be inconsistent.
6. Resolution Refutation in PL
● Resolution refutation: Another simple method to prove a formula by contradiction.
● Here negation of goal is added to given set of clauses.
− If there is a refutation in new set using resolution principle then goal is proved
● During resolution we need to identify two clauses,
− one with positive atom (P) and other with negative atom (~ P) for the application
of resolution rule.
● Resolution is based on modus ponen inference rule.
6.1.Disjunctive & Conjunctive Normal Forms
● Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF): A formula in the form (L11  …..  L1n ) V ..… V
(Lm1  …..  Lmk ), where all Lij are literals.
− Disjunctive Normal Form is disjunction of conjunctions.
● Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF): A formula in the form (L11 V ….. V L1n )  …… 
(Lp1 V ….. V Lpm ) , where all Lij are literals.
− CNF is conjunction of disjunctions or
− CNF is conjunction of clauses
● Clause: It is a formula of the form (L1V … V Lm), where each Lk is a positive or

negative atom.
6.2.Conversion of a Formula to its CNF
● Each PL formula can be converted into its equivalent CNF.
● Use following equivalence laws:
− P  Q  ~P V Q
− PQ  ( P  Q)  ( Q  P)
 Double Negation
− ~~P  P
 (De Morgan’s law)
− ~ ( P  Q)  ~ P V ~ Q
− ~ ( P V Q)  ~ P  ~ Q
 (Distributive law)
P V (Q  R)  (P V Q)  (P V R)
6.3Resolvent of Clauses
● If two clauses C1 and C2 contain a complementary pair of literals {L, ~L},
− then these clauses may be resolved together by deleting L from C1 and ~ L from
C2 and constructing a new clause by the disjunction of the remaining literals in C1
and C2.
● The new clause thus generated is called resolvent of C1 and C2 .
− Here C1 and C2 are called parents of resolved clause.
● Inverted binary tree is generated with the last node (root) of the binary tree to be a
resolvent.
This is also called resolution tree.
6.4Logical Consequence
● Theorem1: If C is a resolvent of two clauses C1 and C2 , then C is a logical consequence

of {C1 , C2 }.
− A deduction of an empty clause (or resolvent as contradiction) from a set S of

clauses is called a resolution refutation of S.
● Theorem2: Let S be a set of clauses. A clause C is a logical consequence of S iff the

set S’= S  {~ C} is unsatisfiable.
− In other words, C is a logical consequence of a given set S iff an empty clause is

deduced from the set S'.

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B.Tech.

III Year CSE II Sem Artificial Intelligence Unit III

Logic Concepts: Introduction, propositional calculus, proportional logic, natural deduction

1.1.Propositional Logic Concepts:

 Logic is a study of principles used to

− distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.

 Formally it deals with

− "Jack loves Mary" etc.

 Given some propositions to be true in a given context,

 Suppose we are given a set of propositions such as

− “It is hot today" and

− “If it is hot it will rain", then

− we can infer that

“It will rain today".

 Propositional Calculus (PC) is a language of propositions basically refers

− to set of rules used to combine the propositions to form compound propositions

 Well-formed formula is defined as:

Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 1

− An atom is a well-formed formula.

− If  is a well-formed formula, then ~ is a well-formed formula.

− If  and  are well formed formulae, then (  ), ( V  ), (  ), ( 

− A propositional expression is a well-formed formula if and only if it can be

● Truth table gives us operational definitions of important logical operators.

● Truth table elaborates all possible truth values of a formula.

Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 2

Law of Excluded Middle

− the validity, satisfiability and unsatisfiability of a formula

− derivation of a new formula using equivalence laws.

● A formula  is called tautology if and only

− if  is true for all interpretations.

● A formula  is also called valid if and only if

− then  is said to be consistent (satisfiable) i.e., if  a model for , then  is said

● A formula  is said to be inconsistent (unsatisfiable), if and only if

−  is always false under all interpretations.

Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 3

− simple declarative and

● Solution: Let us symbolize English sentences by propositional atoms as follows:

● Formula corresponding to a text:

Truth Table for ((A  B)  A)  B

● Truth table method for problem solving is

− simple and straightforward and

● It is an easy method to evaluate

Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 4

− a consistency, inconsistency or validity of a formula, but the size of truth table

− Truth table method is good for small values of n.

− A formula  : (P  Q  R)  ( Q V S) is valid can be proved using truth table.

− A table of 16 rows is constructed and the truth values of  are computed.

− Since the truth value of  is true under all 16 interpretations, it is valid.

● It is noticed that if P  Q  R is false, then  is true because of the definition of .

− Natural Deductive System

− Semantic Tableaux Method

− Resolution Refutation Method

3. Natural deduction method – ND

● ND is based on the set of few deductive inference rules.

● It has about 10 deductive inference rules.

Prepared by N Md Jubair basha, Associate. Professor, CSED,KHIT Page 5

− k, (1  k  n) and  are formulae.

Natural Deduction Rules: