The Constitution of India & Indian Polity

The Preamble     Articles of the Constitution     Schedules

The task of framing the Constitution of India was given to the Constituent Assembly,
formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The inaugural meeting of the Constituent
Assembly was held on December 9, 1946. Dr Sachidananda Sinha was dected provisional
Chairman of the Constituent Assembly. On December 11, 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was
elected as the permanent chairman of the Constituent Assembly.

The Constitution of India was enacted, signed and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on
November 26, 1949.

On January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India came into force on which date India also
became a Republic. Our constitution makes detailed provisions for the following:

 Citizenship,
 Fundamental Rights,
 Directive Principles of State Policy,
 Structure of the Government,
 Parliament and State Legislatures,
 Supreme Court and High Courts,
 Relationship between the Union and the States,
 Services,
 Official Language and various other matters of basic importance

Salient Features of Constitution

1. It is the longest written constitution in the world.

2. Consisting of 22 Chapters, over 395 Articles and 12 Schedules.
3.  It proclaims India a Sovereign Democratic Republic.
4. Fundamental Rights are guaranteed to all citizens of India.
5. Directive Principles of State Policy are incorporated.
6. It established the parliamentary system of government, i.e., the President of the
Union is the constitutional head, the Council of Ministers or the Union Cabinet is the
real executive and is responsible to the Lok Sabha.
7. It is federal in form (in normal times) but unitary in spirit (in emergencies).
8. It is neither too rigid (as some provisions can be amended by a simple majority) nor
flexible (as some provisions require special majority for amendment).
9. It declares India a secular state.
10. It guarantees single citizenship to all citizens.
11. It introduced adult franchise, i.e., every adult above 18 years has the right to vote
and the system of joint electorates.
 12. It established an independent judiciary; the Supreme Court acts as a guardian of the
Constitution in place of the Privy Council.

 The Preamble

The draft of the Preamble was prepared by Jawaharlal Nehru and is based on the American
model. The 42nd Amendment added the words ``Secular and Socialist'' and now the
preamble reads as follows.

``We the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign
Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens :

Justice; social, economic and political;

Liberty; of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
Equality; of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all; 
Fraternity; assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation;
 

In our Constituent Assembly, November 26, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to
ourselves this constitution.
Articles of the Constitution
Part Article Deals with
Territory of India,, admission,, establishment or formation
Part I Articles 1-4
of new states
Part
Articles 5-11 Citizenship
II
Part
Articles 12-35 Fundamental Rights
III
Part
Articles 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy
IV
Part Duties of a citizen of India. It was added by the 42nd
Article 51-A
IV A Amendment in 1976
Part V Articles 52-151 Government at the Union level
Part Articles 152-
Government at the State level
VI 237
Part Deals with states in Part B of the First Schedule. It was
Article 238
VII repealed by 7th Amendment in 1956
Part Articles 239-
Administration of Union Territories
VIII 241
Territories in Part D of the First Schedule
Part Article 242-
and other territories. It was repealed by 7th Amendment in
IX 243
1956
 Articles 244-
Part X Scheduled and tribal areas
244 A
Part Articles 245-
Relations between the Union and States
XI 263
Part Articles 264-
Finance,, property,, contracts and suits
XII 300
Part Articles 301- Trade,, commerce and travel within the
XIII 307 territory of India
Part Articles 308-
Services under the Union and States
XIV 323
Added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976
Part Articles 323A-
and deals with administrative tribunals to hear disputes
XIV-A 323B
and other complaints
Part Articles 324-
Election and Election Commission
XV 329
Part Articles 330- Special provision to certain classes ST/SC
XVI 342 and Anglo Indians
Part Articles 343-
Official languages
XVII 351
Part Articles 352-
Emergency provisions
XVIII 360
Part Articles 361- Miscellaneous provision regarding exemption of the
XIX 367 President and governors from criminal proceedings
Part
Article 368 Amendment of Constitution
XX
Part Articles 369-
Temporary,, transitional and special provisions
XXI 392
Part Articles 393- Short title, commencement and repeal
XXII 395 of the Constitution

Schedules

FIRST SCHEDULE : I. The State, II. The Union Territories.

SECOND SCHEDULE :

PART A.  Provisions to the President and the Governors of States

PART B.  (Repeated)
PART C.  Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People
and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and
the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy
Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State.
PART D.  Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts.
PART E.  Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

THIRD SCHEDULE :  Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.

FOURTH SCHEDULE :  Allocation of Seats in the Council of States.

FIFTH SCHEDULE : Provisions as to the administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and
Scheduled Tribes.

PART A.   General

PART B.   Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
PART C.  Scheduled Areas
PART D.   Amendment of the Schedule

SIXTH SCHEDULE :  Provisions as to the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of

Assam,  Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

SEVENTH SCHEDULE :

LIST I.   Union List

LIST II.   State List
LIST III.   Concurrent List

EIGHTH SCHEDULE :  Languages

NINTH SCHEDULE :  Article 31B

TENTH SCHEDULE :  Provisions as to disqualification on the ground of defection

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE :  Article 243G

TWELFTH SCHEDULE :  Article 243W

Citizenship and Fundamental Rights

  Directive Principles of State Policy

The Constitution of India provides for a single citizenship for the whole of India.
Every person who was at the commencement of the Constitution (26 January 1950)
domiciled in the territory of India and : 
(a) who was born in India; or 
(b) either of whose parents was born in India; or 
(c) who has been ordinarily resident in India for not less than five years became a
citizen of India.
The Citizenship Act, 1955, deals with matters relating to acquisition, determination
and termination of Indian citizenship after the commencement of the Constitution.

Fundamental Rights

1. Right to Equality – The right to equality includes equality before law,

prohibition of discrimination
on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth and equality of
opportunity in matters of employment and abolition of untouchability.
 
2. Right to Freedom – The right to freedom includes freedom of speech and
expression; right to assemble peacefully and without arms, formation,
association or union; free movement throughout the territory of India;
residence and the right to practise any profession or occupation; control and
disposal of property.
 
3. Right Against Exploitation – The right against exploitation prohibits all
forms of forced labour, child labour and traffic in human beings.
 
4. Right to Freedom of Religion – The right to freedom of religion contains
religious freedom to all. All persons are entitled to freedom of conscience and
the right to profess, practise and propagate religion freely.
 
5. Cultural and Educational Rights – It includes right of any section of the
citizens to conserve their culture, language or script and right of minorities to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
 
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies – This right guarantees the right to
constitutional remedies to the citizens for enforcement of their Fundamental
Rights.
 
o Right to Compulsory and free Education – The right to compulsory
and free education for all the children of 6 to 14 years age. It is the
fundamental duty of parents and guardians to provide opportunities
for education to their children in the 6 to 14 age group.

Note : The right to property was also one of the fundamental rights, according to
the original constitution. This right was omitted by the 44th Amendment Act in
December, 1978. It is now only a legal right.
Fundamental Duties

Duties of a citizen of India were not included in the original constitution. These have
been added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976. There are ten Fundamental Duties :

 To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and Institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
 To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
 To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
 To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
 To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
 To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
 To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures;
 To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
 To safeguard public property and to abjure violence; and
 To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher level of endeavour and
achievement.
 To provide opportunities for education to their children in the 6 to 14 age
group.

Directive Principles of State Policy

 To secure the right of all men and women to an adequate means of

livelihood;
 To ensure equal pay for equal work;
 To make effective provision for securing the right to work, education and to
public assistance in the event of unemployment, old age, sickness and
disablement;
 To secure to workers a living wage, humane conditions of work, a decent
standard of life,
etc;
 To ensure that the operation of the economic system does not result in the
concentration of wealth;
 To provide opportunities and facilities for children to develop in a healthy
manner;
  To provide free and compulsory education for all children up to 14 years of
age;
 To promote educational and economic interests of scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes and other weaker sections;
 To organize village panchayats;
 To separate judiciary from the executive;
 To promulgate a uniform civil code for the whole country;
 To protect national monuments;
 To promote justice on a basis of equal opportunity;
 To provide free legal aid;
 To protect and improve environment and forests and wildlife;
 To promote international peace and security;
 To promulgate a uniform civil code for the whole country;
 To settle international disputes by arbitration.

Government : At Union Level

Vice President      Council of Ministers

The Union executive consists of the President, the Vice President and the Council of
Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.

The President

The President must : 

1. be a citizen of India, 
2. be qualified for election as a member of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) 
3. have completed the age of 35 years, 
4. not hold any office of profit under the Government of India, or the Government of State,
or under any local authority.

Method of Election – The president is indirectly elected by a body of electors forming the
electoral college which includes the elected members of both houses of Parliament as well
as the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the states.

He is elected in accordance with the system of proportional representation by the method

of a single transferable vote the number of voter cast by each member of the legislative
assembly and by each member of the parliament is obtained by the following formula :

The number of votes cast by each member of L.A.

      = {Total population of  the  state / Total elected  members of  the  Assembly} ÷ 1000

Each member of the Parliament will have as many votes as

       = Total number of  votes assigned to  the Assemblies ÷ Total number of elected
members of Parliament

Term of Office – His term of office is five years unless he resigns or is removed from office
by impeachment. He is eligible for re-election.

Impeachment of the President – The president may be impeached on a charge of violating

the constitution. Such impeachment can be moved in either House of the Parliament by
means of a resolution. Such resolution can be moved, only, if 14 days' notice in writing duly
signed by at least one-fourth of the total membership of the House concerned is given. Such
a resolution must be passed by at least two-thirds of the total membership of the House
concerned. The charges must be investigated by the other House. The president has the
right to be heard and defended during the investigation of the charges against him. If the
investigating House sustains the charges by a resolution, adopted by a two-third majority.
The president must be removed from office at once.

Powers of the President —

1.  Executive Powers – The President appoints the Prime Minister, the Governors,
diplomats, judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts, the Chairman and
members of the Union Public Service Commission, Chief Commissioners of Union
Territories, the Attorney-General of India, the Comptroller and Auditor-General of
India, the members of Finance Commission and Election Commission. He is the
supreme commander of defence forces.
 
2. Legislative Powers – The President summons, prorogues, addresses, sends
messages to Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha; promulgates ordinance at any
time, except when both Houses of Parliament are in session, water
recommendations for introducing financial and money bills and gives assent to bills,
grants pardons; reprieves, respites or remission of punishment or suspends, remits
or commutes sentences in certain cases. When there is a failure of the constitutional
machinery in a State, he can assume to himself all or any of the functions of the
government of the State.
 
3. Emergency Powers – If President is satisfied that the security of the country is in
danger because of any reason, he may issue a proclamation of emergency.
 
4. Financial Powers – No Money Bill or demand for grant can be introduced or moved
in Parliament, unless it has been recommended by the President.
 
5. Judicial Powers – He has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or remit of
punishment or commute death sentences.
Vice President

The Vice-President is elected by members of an electoral college consisting of members of

both Houses of Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation
by means of single transferable vote. He must be a citizen of India, not less than 35 years of
age and eligble for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha. His term of office is five years
and he is eligible for re-election.

The Vice-President is ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and acts as President when
the latter is unable to discharge his functions due to absence, illness or any other cause or
till the election of a new President. While so acting, he ceases to perform the function of the
Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

Council of Ministers

The Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to aid and advise the President in
exercise of his functions. He is the leader of the party that enjoys a majority in the Lok
Sabha. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President who also appoints other ministers
on the advice of Prime Minister.

The Council is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It is the duty of the Prime Minister
to communicate to the President all decisions of Council of Ministers and information
relating to them.

The Council of Ministers comprises Ministers who are members of Cabinet, Ministers of
State (independent charge), Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers.

Parliament/legislature, representation in rajya sabha, representation of states and UT’s in

lok sabha

Supreme Court

 
The Supreme Court is the Apex Court in India and functions from New Delhi. It consists of a
Chief Justice and 25 other judges. The Chief Justice and other judges are appointed by the
President. However, in the selection of other judges of the Supreme Court, the President
does consult the Chief Justice. Judges of the Supreme Court can hold office up to the age of
65 years.

The Supreme Court of India has original jurisdiction in any dispute arising; 
(a) between the Government of India and one or more states; or 
(b) between the Government of India and any State or States on the other, or 
(c) between two or more States.

An appeal shall be to the Supreme Court from any judgement, decree or final order of a
high court in the territory of India, whether in a civil criminal or other proceeding.

Attorney-General

The Attorney-General for India is appointed by the President and hold office during the
pleasure of thePresident. He must be a person qualified to be appointed as a judge of the
Supreme Court. The duty of Attorney General to give advice to the Government of India
upon such legal matters and to perform such other duties of a legal character, as may be
referred or assigned to him by the President, and to discharge the functions conferred on
him by or under the Constitution or any other law. He also has right to take part in the
proceeding of Parliament.

Comptroller and Auditor General

Comptroller and Auditor General is appointed by the President. Procedure and grounds for
his removal from office are the same as for a Supreme Court Judge. He is not eligible for
further office under the Union or a State Government after he ceases to hold his office. His
main work to submit the reports on accounts of the Union and States to the President and
respective governors which are placed before Parliament and state legislatures.

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

The chairman and other members of the Union Public Service Commission are appointed
by the President of India and they hold office for a term of 6 years from the date of
appointment or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. The main
function of the commission is to conduct examination and hold interviews for making
appointments to the various services of the Union.

The President of India

 Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil

Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil was born on December 19, 1934 in Nadgaon village of
Jalgaon District, Maharashtra. 

Smt.  Patil assumed office as the 12th President of India on July 25, 2007.  She is the
first woman to have been elected to this august office.

Immediately prior to  election as the President of India, Smt. Patil  was the Governor
of Rajasthan from November 8, 2004 till June 21, 2007.

Education:
Smt. Patil received her early  education from RR Vidyalaya, Jalgaon and later obtained her
Master’s degree in Political Science and Economics from the Mooljee Jetha College, Jalgaon.
Later, she obtained the degree of Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) from  Government  Law College,
Bombay (Mumbai).  While in college, she took active part in sports, excelled in table tennis
and won several shields at various Inter-collegiate tournaments.   Even as an MLA, she
pursued her studies as a law student.
 
Professional Career:
Smt. Patil started her professional career as a practicing lawyer at the Jalgaon District Court
and simultaneously devoted herself  to various social activities, especially, for the
upliftment of  poor women.
 
Political Career:
At the young age of 27 years, she successfully contested her first election to the
Maharashtra State Legislature from the Jalgaon Assembly constituency.  Subsequently she
was continuously elected four  times as MLA from the Edlabad (Muktai Nagar)
constituency  till 1985. Thereafter, she served as a Member of Parliament in the Rajya
Sabha from 1985 to 1990 and  later  elected as a Member of Parliament to the 10th Lok
Sabha in the 1991 General Elections from the Amravati constituency.  She enjoys the
unique distinction of not having lost a single election that she contested till date.

Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil in her long stint in Maharashtra has held various positions
both in the Government and  the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra.  She was :

 Deputy Minister, Public Health, Prohibition, Tourism, Housing and Parliamentary

Affairs, Government of Maharashtra from 1967 to 1972,
 Cabinet Minister, Social Welfare, Government of Maharashtra from 1972 to 1974,
 Cabinet Minister, Public Health and Social Welfare, Government of Maharashtra
from 1974 to 1975,
 Cabinet Minister, Prohibition, Rehabilitation and Cultural Affairs, Government of
Maharashtra from 1975 to 1976,
 Cabinet Minister, Education, Government of Maharashtra from 1977 to 1978,
 Cabinet Minister, Urban Development and Housing, Government of Maharashtra
from 1982 to 1983, and
 Cabinet Minister, Civil Supplies and Social Welfare, Government of Maharashtra
from 1983 to 1985.  
 While in the Opposition, she also served as the Leader of Opposition in the
Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra from July 1979 to February 1980.

While in the Rajya Sabha, Smt. Patil was the Deputy Chairperson, Rajya Sabha from 1986 to
1988 and also served as the Chairperson, Rajya Sabha from 25.7.1987 to 2.9.1987 when Dr.
R. Venkataraman got elected as President of India.   She was also the Chairperson,
Committee of Privileges, Rajya Sabha and  Member, Business Advisory Committee, Rajya
Sabha from 1986 to 1988.  While in the Lok Sabha, Smt. Patil was the Chairperson, House
Committee. 

Public Life:
In her long public life, she has been associated with several institutions in wide ranging
capacities.  She served as Chairperson, Maharashtra State Water Pollution Control Board
from 1982 to 1985. She was also the President, Maharashtra Pradesh Congress Committee
(PCC) from 1988 to 1990.  Besides holding the position of Director and Vice-Chairperson,
National Federation of Urban Cooperative Banks and Credit Societies, she also served as 
Member, Governing Council, National Cooperative Union of India and Chairperson, 20-
Point Programme Implementation Committee, Government of Maharashtra.

Smt. Patil has  represented India in various international fora.  She attended the
International Council on Social Welfare conferences at Nairobi and at Puerto Rico.  She was
a Member of the AICC(I)  delegation to Bulgaria in 1985 and represented as Member,
Commonwealth Presiding Officers Conference in London in 1988. She led the Indian
delegation to the Conference on the ‘Status of Women’ in Austria and was a delegate at the
World Women’s Conference,  Beijing, China in September 1995.

Social and Cultural Activities:

Throughout her public life, Smt.  Patil has worked actively for the welfare of women and
children and the underprivileged sections of society. For their benefit, she established
several institutions for them.  To name a few, she  had set up  (i) hostels for working
women in Mumbai and Delhi, (ii) an Engineering College at Jalgaon for rural youth, (iii) the
Shram Sadhana Trust which takes part in multifarious welfare activities for development of
women, (iv)an Industrial Training School for the visually handicapped in Jalgaon, (v)
schools for poor children of Vimukta Jatis (Nomadic Tribes) and for children of Backward
Classes in Amravati District and (vi) a Krishi Vigyan Kendra  (Farmers’ Training Centre) at
Amravati, Maharashtra.  She played a pioneering role in setting up the Mahila Vikas
Mahamandal, a Maharashtra State Government undertaking for the development of
women.

She was instrumental in organizing music, computer and sewing classes for the poor and
needy women at Amravati, Maharashtra.   Smt. Patil also organized the Women’s Home
Guard in Jalgaon District and was their Commandant in 1962.

Family Life:
Smt. Patil is married to Dr.  Devisingh Ramsingh Shekhawat.  Dr. Shekhawat obtained his
Ph.D. in the discipline of Chemistry from Haffkine Institute, Mumbai.  An educationist and a
social worker in his own right,  he became the first Mayor of Amravati Municipal
Corporation and he has also represented Amravati constituency as its MLA.  She has two
children, a daughter, Smt. Jyoti Rathore and a son, Shri Rajendra Singh.
 
Vice-Presidents of India
 
No
. Name Took office Left office
1. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan May 13, 1952 May 14, 1957
2. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan May 14, 1957 May 12, 1962
3. Zakir Hussain May 13, 1962 May 12, 1967
4. Varahagiri Venkata Giri May 13, 1967 May 3, 1969
5. Gopal Swarup Pathak August 31, 1969 August 30, 1974
6. Basappa Danappa Jatti August 31, 1974 August 30, 1979
7. Muhammad Hidayat Ullah August 31, 1979 August 30, 1984
8. Ramaswamy Venkataraman August 31, 1984 July 27, 1987
9. Shankar Dayal Sharma September 3, 1987 July 24, 1992
10. Kocheril Raman Narayanan August 21, 1992 July 24, 1997
11. Krishan Kant August 21, 1997 July 27, 2002
12. Bhairon Singh Shekhawat August 19, 2002 July 21, 2007
13. Mohammad Hamid Ansari August 11, 2007 Incumbent
 
Shri Mohammad Hamid Ansari
Father's Name: Shri Mohammad Abdul Aziz Ansari
Mother's Name: Smt. Aasiya Begum
Date of Birth: 1 April 1937
Place of Birth: Calcutta
Marital Status: Married
Spouse's Name: Smt. Salma Ansari
Children: Two sons and one daughter
Educational Qualifications : BA (Hons); MA (Political Science)
Permanent Address: D-55, IFS Apartments, Mayur Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi -
110091
Present Address: Vice-President's House, 
6, Maulana Azad Road,
New Delhi - 110 011 
Telephone - 011-23016422, 23016344
E-mail: [email protected] 
 
Positions Held :  Joined the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) in 1961 and
served in Indian missions in Baghdad, Rabat, Jeddah and
Brussels;
 Ambassador to the United Arab Emirates (1976-1979);
 Chief of Protocol to Govt. of India (1980-1985);
 High Commissioner to Australia (1985-1989);
 Ambassador to Afghanistan (1989-1990);
 Ambassador to Iran (1990-1992);
 Permanent Representative to the UN, New York (1993-
1995);
  Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (1995-1999);
 Visiting Professor, Centre for West Asian and African
Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (Dec
1999-May 2000);
 Vice-Chancellor, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
 (2000-2002);
 Distinguished Fellow at the Observer Research
Foundation, New Delhi (2002-2006);
 Visiting Professor, Academy for Third World Studies,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi (2003-2005);
 Co - Chairman, India-U.K. Round Table (2004-2006);
  Member, National Security Advisory Board (2004-2006);
  Chairman, Advisory Committee for Oil Diplomacy,
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (2004-2005);
 Chairman, Working Group on 'Confidence building
measures across segments of society in the State',
established by the second Round Table Conference of the
Prime Minister on Jammu and Kashmir, held at Srinagar,
24-25 May, 2006; the report of the Working Group was
adopted by the 3rd Round Table held at New Delhi, 24
April 2007;
 Chairman, Fifth Statutory National Commission for
Minorities (March 2006-July 2007);
 Vice President of India and ex officio Chairman, Rajya
Sabha since 11th August 2007.

Books Published : Edited, Iran Today: Twenty Five Years After the
Islamic Revolution, New Delhi, 2005; has written
several academic papers and newspaper articles on
West Asian Politics.
Awards: Padma Shri (1984)
Sports: Golf and Cricket
Institutes/Clubs: India International Centre
Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis (IDSA)
United Services Institution 
Delhi Golf Club
Delhi Gymkhana Club
Noida Golf Club
Countries Visited: Visited many countries during the diplomatic and
academic career.
 
Prime Ministers of India

  Deputy Prime Ministers

Name Tenure Party
Dr. Manmohan Singh May 22, 2004 - till date INC
 Bharatiya Janata
Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee March 19, 1998 - May 22, 2004
Party
Shri Inder Kumar Gujral April 21, 1997 - March 19, 1998 Janata Dal
Shri H. D. Deve Gowda June 1, 1996 - April 21, 1997 Janata Dal
Bharatiya Janata
Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee May 16, 1996 - June 1, 1996
Party
Shri P. V. Narasimha Rao June 21, 1991- May 16, 1996 Congress (I)
Shri Chandra Shekhar November 10, 1990 - June 21, 1991 Janata Dal (S)
Shri Vishwanath Pratap December 2, 1989 - November 10,
Janata Dal
Singh 1990
Shri Rajiv Gandhi October 31, 1984 - December 2, 1989 Congress (I)
Mrs. Indira Gandhi January 14, 1980 - October 31, 1984 Congress (I)
Shri Charan Singh July 28, 1979 - January 14, 1980 Janata Party
Shri Morarji Desai March 24, 1977 - July 28, 1979 Janata Party
Mrs. Indira Gandhi January 24, 1966 - March 24, 1977 Congress
Shri Gulzari Lal Nanda January 11, 1966 - January 24, 1966   Congress
Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri June 9, 1964 - January 11, 1966 Congress
Shri Gulzari Lal Nanda May 27, 1964 - June 9, 1964   Congress
Shri Jawaharlal Nehru August 15, 1947 - May 27, 1964 Congress
Deputy Prime Ministers
Name Tenure
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel 15 Aug. 1947 — 15 Dec. 1950
Morarji Desai 13 Mar. 1967 — 19 July 1969
Jagjivan Ram 24 Jan. 1979 — 28 July 1979
Chaudhary Charan Singh 24 Jan. 1979 — 28 July 1979
Y. B. Chawaan 28 Aug. 1979 — 14 Jan 1980
 Chaudhry Devi Lal 2 Dec. 1989 — 1 Aug. 1990
Chaudhry Devi Lal 10 Nov. 1990 — 21 June 1991
 L.K. Advani 29 June 2002 — 22 May 2004
CABINET MINISTERS
1 Dr. Manmohan Prime Minister and also in-charge of the Ministries/
 Departments not specifically allocated to the charge of any
Minister viz.:

(i) Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions;

Singh (ii) Ministry of Planning;
(iii) Department of Atomic Energy; and
(iv) Department of Space; 
(v) Ministry of Coal. and
(vi) Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Shri Pranab
2 Minister of External Affairs.
Mukherjee
3 Shri Arjun Singh Minister of Human Resource Development.
Minister of Agriculture and Minister of Consumer Affairs,
4 Shri Sharad Pawar
Food & Public Distribution.
5 Shri Lalu Prasad Minister of Railways.
6 Shri A.K. Antony Minister of Defence
7 Shri Shivraj V. Patil Minister of Home Affairs.
8 Shri A.R. Antulay Minister of Minority Affairs.
Shri Sushilkumar
9 Minister of Power
Shinde
Shri Ram Vilas
10 Minister of Chemicals & Fertilizers and Minister of Steel.
Paswan
11 Shri S. Jaipal Reddy Minister of Urban Development.
12 Shri Sis Ram Ola Minister of Mines.
Shri P.
13 Minister of Finance.
Chidambaram
Shri Mahavir
14 Minister of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises.
Prasad
15 Shri P.R. Kyndiah Minister of Tribal Affairs.
16 Shri T.R. Baalu Minister of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways.
Shri Shankersinh
17 Minister of Textiles.
Vaghela
18 Shri Vayalar Ravi Minister of Overseas Indian Affairs.
19 Shri Kamal Nath Minister of Commerce & Industry.
20 Shri H.R. Bhardwaj Minister of Law & Justice.
21 Shri Sontosh Minister of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises.
 Mohan Dev
Prof. Saif-ud-din
22 Minister of Water Resources.
Soz
Shri Raghuvansh
23 Minister of Rural Development
Prasad Singh
Shri Priyaranjan Minister of Parliamentary Affairs and Minister of
24
Dasmunsi Information & Broadcasting.
Minister of Panchayati Raj, Minister of Youth Affairs &
Shri Mani Shankar
25 Sports and Minister of Development of North Eastern
Aiyar
Region. .
26 Smt. Meira Kumar Minister of Social Justice & Empowerment.
27 Shri Murli Deora Minister of Petroleum & Natural Gas.
28 Smt. Ambika Soni Minister of Tourism and Minister of Culture.
29 Shri A. Raja Minister of Communications and Information Technology.
Dr. Anbumani
30 Minister of Health & Family Welfare.
Ramdoss
Minister of  Science & Technology and Minister of Earth
31 Shri Kapil Sibal
Sciences.
Shri Prem Chand
32 Minister of Corporate Affairs.
Gupta
MINISTERS OF STATE (INDEPENDENT CHARGE)
Shri Oscar Minister of State (Independent Charge)  of the Ministry of
1
Fernandes Labour & Employment.
Smt. Renuka Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
2
Chowdhury Women & Child Development.
Shri Subodh Kant Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
3
Sahay Food Processing Industries.
Shri Vilas Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
4
Muttemwar New and Renewable Energy .
Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
5 Kumari Selja
Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation.
Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
6 Shri Praful Patel
Civil Aviation.
Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
7 Shri G. K. Vasan
Statistics & Programme Implementation.
MINISTERS OF STATE
1 Shri E. Ahammed Minister of State in the Ministry of External Affairs.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Personnel, Public
Shri Suresh
2 Grievances & Pensions and Minister of State in the
Pachouri
Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers
3 Shri B.K. Handique and Minister of State in the Ministry of Parliamentary
Affairs.
Smt. Panabaka Minister of State in the Ministry of Health & Family
4
Lakshmi Welfare.
Dr. Dasari Narayan
5 Minister of State in the Ministry of Coal.
Rao
Minister of State in the Ministry of Communications &
6 Dr. Shakeel Ahmad
Information Technology.
Shri Rao Inderjit
7 Minister of State in the Ministry of  Defence.
Singh
Shri Naranbhai
8 Minister of State in the Ministry of Railways.
Rathwa
Minister of State in the Ministry of Shipping, Road
9 Shri K.H. Muniappa
Transport & Highways.
Shri M.V.
10 Minister of State in the Ministry of Planning.
Rajasekharan
Minister of State in the Ministry of Agriculture and
Shri Kantilal
11 Minister of State in the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food
Bhuria
& Public Distribution.
Shri Manikrao
12 Minister of State in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Gavit
Shri Shriprakash
13 Minister of State in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Jaiswal
Shri Prithviraj
14 Minister of State in the Prime Minister’s Office.
Chavan
Minister of State in the Ministry of Agriculture and
15 Shri Taslimuddin Minister of State in the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food
& Public Distribution.
Smt. Suryakanta Minister of State in the Ministry of Rural Development and
16
Patil Minister of State in the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs.
Shri Md. Ali Ashraf Minister of State in the Ministry of Human Resource
17
Fatmi Development.
18 Shri R. Velu Minister of State in the Ministry of Railways.
 Shri S.S.
19 Minister of State in the Ministry of Finance.
Palanimanickam
Minister of State in the Ministry of Environment and
20 Shri S. Regupathy
Forests.
Shri K.
21 Minister of State in the Ministry of Law & Justice.
Venkatapathy
Smt. Subbulakshmi Minister of State in the Ministry of Social Justice &
22
Jagadeesan Empowerment.
Shri E.V.K.S.
23 Minister of State in the Ministry of Textiles.
Elangovan
Minister of State in the Department of Heavy Industry,
24 Smt Kanti Singh
Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises.
Shri Namo Narain
25 Minister of State in the Ministry of Environment & Forests.
Meena
Shri Jay Prakash
26 Minister of State in the Ministry of Water Resources.
Narayan Yadav
Minister of State in the Ministry of Agriculture and
Dr. Akhilesh
27 Minister of State in the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food
Prasad Singh
& Public Distribution.
Shri Pawan Kumar
28 Minister of State in the Ministry of Finance.
Bansal
29 Shri Anand Sharma Minister of State in the Ministry of External Affairs.
30 Shri Ajay Maken Minister of State in the Ministry of Urban Development.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural
31 Shri Dinsha J. Patel
Gas.
Shri M.M. Pallam
32 Minister of State in the Ministry of Defence.
Raju
Dr. T. Subbarami
33 Minister of State in the Ministry of Mines.
Reddy
34 Dr. Akhilesh Das Minister of State in the Ministry of Steel.
Shri Ashwani Minister of State in the Department of Industrial Policy &
35
Kumar Promotion, Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
36 Shri Jairam Minister of State in the Department of Commerce, Ministry
  Ramesh of Commerce & Industry.
Shri Chandra
37 Minister of State in the Ministry of Rural Development.
Sekhar Sahu
38 Smt. D. Minister of State in the Ministry of Human Resource
 Purandeswari Development.
Shri M.H. Minister of State in the Ministry of Information &
39
Ambareesh Broadcasting.
Smt. V. Radhika
40 Minister of State in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Selvi
 
Election Commission of India

  Chief Election Commissioners of India

Introduction

India is the largest democracy in the World. Since 1947 then free and fair elections
have been held at regular intervals as per the principles of the Constitution, Electoral
Laws and System. The Constitution of India has vested in the Election Commission of
India the superintendence, direction and control of the entire process for conduct of
elections to Parliament and Legislature of every State and to the offices of President
and Vice-President of India. 
 

Indian Elections, the Largest Event in the World

Conduct of General Elections in India for electing a new Lower House of Parliament
(Lok Sabha) involves management of the largest event in the world. The electorate
exceeds 668 million voting in 800,000 polling stations spread across widely varying
geographic and climatic zones. Polling stations are located in the snow-clad
mountains in the Himalayas, the deserts of the Rajasthan and in sparsely populated
islands in the Indian Ocean.

The Election Commission

Election Commission of India is a permanent Constitutional Body. The Election

Commission was established in accordance with the Constitution on 25th January
1950. The Commission celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 2001. Originally the
commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. It currently consists of Chief
Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners, it had only the Chief
Election Commissioner before 1989. The concept of multi-member Commission has
been in operation since 1993, with decision making power by majority vote.

Electoral Laws & System

Elections are conducted according to the constitutional provisions, supplemented by

 laws made by Parliament. The major laws are Representation of the People Act,
1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the
Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of
conduct of elections and post election disputes. The Supreme Court of India has held
that where the enacted laws are silent or make insufficient provision to deal with a
given situation in the conduct of elections, the Election Commission has the
residuary powers under the Constitution to act in an appropriate manner.

Appointment & Tenure of Commissioners

The President appoints Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners.

They have tenure of six years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. They
enjoy the same status and receive salary and perks as available to Judges of the
Supreme Court of India. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office
only through impeachment by Parliament.

Election Machinery

The Commission has a separate Secretariat at New Delhi, consisting of about 300
officials, in a hierarchical set up. Two Deputy Election Commissioners who are the
senior most officers in the Secretariat assist the Commission. They are generally
appointed from the national civil service of the country and are selected and
appointed by the Commission with tenure. Directors, Principal Secretaries, and
Secretaries, Under Secretaries and Deputy Directors support the Deputy Election
Commissioners in turn. There is functional and territorial distribution of work in the
Commission. The work is organised in Divisions, Branches and sections; each of the
last mentioned units is in charge of a Section Officer. The main functional divisions
are Planning, Judicial, Administration, Information Systems, Media and Secretariat
Co-ordination. 

The territorial work is distributed among separate units responsible for different
Zones into which the 35 constituent States and Union Territories of the country are
grouped for convenience of management. At the state level, the election work is
supervised, subject to overall superintendence, direction and control of the
Commission, by the Chief Electoral Officer of the State, who is appointed by the
Commission from amongst senior civil servants proposed by the concerned state
government. He is, in most of the States, a full time officer and has a team of
supporting staff. 

At the district and constituency levels, the District Election Officers, Electoral
Registration Officers and Returning Officers, who are assisted by a large number of
 junior functionaries, perform election work. They all perform their functions
relating to elections in addition to their other responsibilities. During election time,
however, they are available to the Commission, more or less, on a full time basis. 

The gigantic task force for conducting a countrywide general election consists of
nearly five million polling personnel and civil police forces. This huge election
machinery is deemed to be on deputation to the Election Commission and is subject
to its control, superintendence and discipline during the election period, extending
over a period of one and half to two months.

Budget & Expenditure

The Secretariat of the Commission has an independent budget, which is finalised

directly in consultation between the Commission and the Finance Ministry of the
Union Government. The latter generally accepts the recommendations of the
Commission for its budgets. 

The major expenditure on actual conduct of elections is, however, reflected in the
budgets of the concerned constituent unit of the Union - State and Union Territory. If
elections are being held only for the Parliament, the expenditure is borne entirely by
the Union Government while for the elections being held only for the State
Legislature, the expenditure is borne entirely by the concerned State. In case of
simultaneous elections to the Parliament and State Legislature, the expenditure is
shared equally between the Union and the State Governments. For Capital
Equipment, expenditure related to preparation for electoral rolls and the scheme for
Electors' Identity Cards too, the expenditure is shared equally.

Executive Interference Barred

In the performance of its functions, Election Commission is insulated from executive

interference. It is the Commission which decides the election schedules for the
conduct of elections, whether general elections or bye-elections. Again, it is the
Commission, which decides on the location polling stations, assignment of voters to
the polling stations, location of counting centres, arrangements to be made in and
around polling stations and counting centres and all allied matters.

Election Schedule

The Commission normally announces the schedule of elections in a major Press

Conference a few weeks before the formal process is set in motion. The Model Code
of Conduct for guidance of candidates and Political Parties immediately comes into
effect after such announcement. The formal process for the elections starts with the
Notification or Notifications calling upon the electorate to elect Members of a House.
As soon as Notifications are issued, Candidates can start filing their nominations in
the constituencies from where they wish to contest. These are scrutinised by the
Returning Officer of the constituency concerned after the last date for the same is
over after about a week. The validly nominated candidates can withdraw from the
contest within two days from the date of scrutiny. 

Contesting candidates get at least two weeks for political campaign before the actual
date of poll. On account of the vast magnitude of operations and the massive size of
the electorate, polling is held at least on three days for the national elections. A
separate date for counting is fixed and the results declared for each constituency by
the concerned Returning Officer. The Commission compiles the complete list of
Members elected and issues an appropriate Notification for the due Constitution of
the House. With this, the process of elections is complete and the President, in case of
the Lok Sabha, and the Governors of the concerned States, in case of Vidhan Sabhas,
can then convene their respective Houses to hold their sessions. The entire process
takes between 5 to 8 weeks for the national elections, 4 to 5 weeks for separate
elections only for Legislative Assemblies. 
 

Political Parties & the Commission

Political parties are registered with the Election Commission under the law. The
Commission ensures inner party democracy in their functioning by insisting upon
them to hold their organizational elections at periodic intervals. Political Parties so
registered with it are granted recognition at the State and National levels by the
Election Commission on the basis of their poll performance at general elections
according to criteria prescribed by it. 

The Commission, as a part of its quasi-judicial jurisdiction, also settles disputes

between the splinter groups of such recognised parties. Election Commission
ensures a level playing field for the political parties in election fray, through strict
observance by them of a Model Code of Conduct evolved with the consensus of
political parties. The Commission holds periodical consultations with the political
parties on matters connected with the conduct of elections; compliance of Model
Code of Conduct and new measures proposed to be introduced by the Commission on
election related matters. 
 

Advisory Jurisdiction & Quasi-Judicial Functions

Under the Constitution, the Commission also has advisory jurisdiction in the matter
 of post election disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State
Legislatures. Further, the cases of persons found guilty of corrupt practices at
elections which come before the Supreme Court and High Courts are also referred to
the Commission for its opinion on the question as to whether such person shall be
disqualified and, if so, for what period. The opinion of the Commission in all such
matters is binding on the President or, as the case may be, the Governor to whom
such opinion is tendered. The Commission has the power to disqualify a candidate
who has failed to lodge an account of his election expenses within the time and in the
manner prescribed by law. The Commission has also the power for removing or
reducing the period of such disqualification as also other disqualification under the
law. 
 

Judicial Review

The decisions of the Commission can be challenged in the High Court and the
Supreme Court of the India by appropriate petitions. By long standing convention
and several judicial pronouncements, once the actual process of elections has
started, the judiciary does not intervene in the actual conduct of the polls. Once the
polls are completed and result declared, the Commission cannot review any result on
its own. This can only be reviewed through the process of an election petition, which
can be filed before the High Court, in respect of elections to the Parliament and State
Legislatures. In respect of elections for the offices of the President and Vice
President, such petitions can only be filed before the Supreme Court. 
 

Media Policy

The Commission has a comprehensive policy for the media. It holds regular briefings
for the mass media-print and electronic, on a regular basis, at close intervals during
the election period and on specific occasions as necessary on other occasions. The
representatives of the media are also provided facilities to report on actual conduct
of poll and counting. They are allowed entry into polling stations and counting
centres on the basis of authority letters issued by the Commission. They include
members of both international and national media. The Commission also publishes
statistical reports and other documents which are available in the public domain.
The library of the Commission is available for research and study to members of the
academic fraternity; media representatives and anybody else interested. The
Commission has, in co-operation with the state owned media - Doordarshan and All
India Radio, taken up a major campaign for awareness of voters. 
 

International Co-operation

India is a founding member of the International Institute for Democracy and

Electoral Assistance (IDEA), Stockholm, Sweden. In the recent past, the Commission
has expanded international contacts by way of sharing of experience and expertise
in the areas of Electoral Management and Administration, Electoral Laws and
Reforms. Delegates of the Commission have visited Sweden, U.K, Russia, Bangladesh,
and the Philippines in recent years. Election Officials from the national electoral
bodies and other delegates from the several countries - Russia, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Indonesia, South Africa, Bangladesh, Thailand, Nigeria, Australia, the United States
and Afganistan have visited the Commission for a better understanding of the Indian
Electoral Process. The Commission has also provided experts and observers for
elections to other countries in co-operation with the United Nations and the
Commonwealth Secretariat. 
 

New Initiatives by the Election Commission

The Commission has taken several new initiatives in the recent past. Notable among
these are, a scheme for use of State owned Electronic Media for broadcast/telecast by
Political parties, checking criminalisation of politics, computerisation of electoral
rolls, providing electors with Identity Cards, simplifying the procedure for
maintenance of accounts and filling of the same by candidates and a variety of
measures for strict compliance of Model Code of Conduct, for providing a level
playing field to contestants during the elections.
Chief Election Commissioners of India
Name Tenure
        1.  Sukumar Sen ICS (b. 1899) 21 March 1950 to 19 December 1958
        2.  K. V. K. Sundaram 20 December 1958 to 30 September 1967
        3.  S. P. Sen Verma 1 October 1967 to 30 September 1972
        4.  Dr. Nagendra Singh 1 October 1972 to 6 February 1973
         5.  T. Swaminathan 7 February 1973 to 17 June 1977
        6.  S. L. Shakdhar 18 June 1977 to 17 June 1982
        7.  R. K. Trivedi 18 June 1982 to 31 December 1985
        8.  R. V. S. Peri Sastri 1 January 1986 to 25 November 1990
         9.  V. S. Ramadevi 26 November 1990 to 11 December 1990
       10.  T. N. Seshan 12 December 1990 to 11 December 1996
       11.   M. S. Gill 12 December 1996 to 13 June 2001
       12.  J. M. Lyngdoh 14 June 2001 to 7 February 2004
       13.  T  S Krishnamurthy 8 February 2004 to 15 May 2005
       14.   B. B. Tandon 16 May 2005 to 29 June 2006
       15.  N. Gopalaswami 30 June 2006 to Till date

Chief Justices of India

 
The Chief Justice of India is the highest position obtainable by a judge in India. The chief
justice of the Supreme Court is appointed on the basis of seniority by the President of India.

List of Chief Justices of India

S
Name Office Tenure
No.
1. Harilal J. Kania 26 January 1950 — 6 November 1951
2. M. Patanjali Sastri 7 November 1951 — 3 January 1954
3. Mehar Chand Mahajan 4 January 1954 — 22 December 1954
4. B. K. Mukherjea 23 December 1954 — 31 January 1956
5. S. R. Das 1 February 1956 — 30 September 1959
6. Bhuvaneshwar Prasad Sinha 1 October 1959 — 31 January 1964
7. P. B. Gajendragadkar 1 February 1964 — 15 March 1966
8. A. K. Sarkar 16 March 1966 — 29 June 1966
9. K. Subba Rao 30 June 1966 — 11 April 1967
10. K. N. Wanchoo 12 April 1967 — 24 February 1968
11. M. Hidayatullah 25 February 1968 — 16 December 1970
12. J. C. Shah 17 December 1970 — 21 January 1971
13. S. M. Sikri 22 January 1971 — 25 April 1973
14. A. N. Ray 26 April 1973 — 27 January 1977
15. M. H. Beg 28 January 1977 — 21 February 1978
16. Y. V. Chandrachud 22 February 1978 — 11 July 1985
Prafullachandra Natvarlal
17. 12 July 1985 — 20 December 1986
Bhagwati
18. R. S. Pathak 21 December 1986 — 18 June 1989
19. E. S. Venkataramiah 19 June 1989 — 17 December 1989
20. S. Mukharjee 18 December 1989 — 25 September 1990
21. Ranganath Mishra 26 September 1990 — 24 November 1991
22. K. N. Singh 25 November 1991 — 12 December 1991
23. M. H. Kania 13 December 1991 — 17 November 1992
24. L. M. Sharma 18 November 1992 — 11 February 1993
25. M. N. Venkatachaliah 12 February 1993 — 24 October 1994
26. A. M. Ahmadi 25 October 1994 — 24 March 1997
27. J. S. Verma 25 March 1997 — 17 January 1998
28. M. M. Punchhi 18 January 1998 — 9 October 1998
29. A. S. Anand 10 October 1998  —  11 January 2001
30. Sam Piroj Bharucha 11 January 2001  —  06 May 2002
31. B. N. Kripal 06 May 2002  —  08 November 2002
32. G. B Pattanaik 08 November 2002  —  19 December 2002
33. V. N. Khare 19 December 2002  —  02 May 2004
34. S. Rajendra Babu 02 May 2004  —  01 June 2004
35. R. C. Lahoti 01 June 2004  —  01 November 2005
36. Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal 01 November 2005  —  13 January 2007
37. K. G. Balakrishnan 14 January 2007  —  till date

Lok Sabha and Its Speakers

 First
Lok Sabha Dissolution Speaker Tenure
meeting
Shri Ganesh Vasudev 15 May, 1952-27 – 
Mavalankar February, 1956
First Lok 13 May,
4 April, 1957 Shri M.
Sabha 1952 8 March, 1956 – 
Ananthasayanam
10 May, 1957
Ayyangar
Shri M.
Second Lok 10 May, 31 March, 11 May, 1957 –  16
Ananthasayanam
Sabha 1957 1962 April, 1962
Ayyangar
Third Lok 16 April, 17 April, 1962 – 
3 March,  1967 Shri Hukam Singh
Sabha 1962 16 March, 1967
Shri Neelam Sanjiva 17 March, 1967 – 
Fourth Lok 16 March, 7 December, Reddy 19 July, 1969
Sabha 1967 1970 Shri Gurdial Singh 8 August, 1969 – 
Dhillon 19 March, 1971
 Shri Gurdial Singh 22 March, 1971 – 
Fifth Lok 19 March, 18 January, Dhillon 1 December, 1975
Sabha 1971 1977 5 January, 1976 – 
Shri Bali Ram Bhagat
25 March, 1977
Shri Neelam Sanjiva 26 March, 1977 – 
Sixth Lok 25 March, 22 August, Reddy 13 July, 1977
Sabha 1977 1979 21 July, 1977 –  21
Shri K. S. Hegde
January, 1980
Seventh Lok 21 January, 31 December, 22 January, 1980 – 
Shri Bal Ram Jakhar
Sabha 1980 1984 15 January, 1985
16 January, 1985 – 
Eighth Lok 15 January, 27 November,
Shri Bal Ram Jakhar, 18 December,
Sabha 1985 1989
1989
18 19 December,
Ninth Lok 13 March,
December, Shri Ravi Ray 1989 –  9 July,
Sabha 1991
1989 1991
Tenth Lok 10 July, 1991 –  22
9 July, 1991 10 May, 1996 Shri Shivraj V. Patil
Sabha May, 1996
Eleventh Lok 22 May, 23 May, 1996 –  23
4 Dec., 1997 Shri P. A. Sangma
Sabha 1996 March, 1998 (FN)
24 March, 1998 – 
Twelfth Lok 23 March,
26 April, 1999 Shri G. M. C. Balayogi 20 October, 1999
Sabha 1998,
(FN)
22 October, 1999
Shri G. M. C. Balayogi
Thirteenth 20 October, 6 February, –  3 March, 2002
Lok Sabha 1999 2004 10 May, 2002 –  4
Shri Manohar Joshi
June, 2004
Fourteenth Shri Somnath 4 June, 2004 –  Till
2 June, 2004 —
Lok Sabha Chatterjee date

Government at State Level

  Membership of the State Legislative Assemblies

The State Executive consists of Governor and Council of Ministers with Chief Minister as its
head.

Governor

The Governor is the executive head of the State and all executive authority of the State is
vested in him. A Governor must be

1. citizen of India;
2. completed the age of 35 years;
3. not be a member of either House of Parliament or the state legislature;
4. possess the qualifications prescribed for membership of the state legislature; and
5. not hold any office of profit. He is appointed by the President for a term of 5 years

State Council of Ministers

The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers with Chief Minister as its head. The
Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other Ministers. They should be members of
legislature of the state. If a non-member is appointed as Minister, he has to become the
member of the state legislature within six months. The Council of Ministers is collectively
responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.

 Legislature — Every State has a legislature. Some States have one house while
others have two. There are two houses in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir. Rest of the States have only one house. Where
there is one house, it is known as the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and
where there are two houses, the upper house is called Legislative Council (Vidhan
Parishad) and lower house is called Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha).
 
 Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) — It can not have more than 1/3rd of the
total members of the Legislative Assembly and in no case less than 40. It is
constituted in : 1/3rd of its members are elected by the local bodies.; 1/3rd by the
legislative assembly of the State; 1/3rd are elected by the Municipalities, District
Board and other Local Bodies of the State; 1/12th by the university graduates of at
least three years standing; 1/12 by the teachers who have been in service for at
least three years and 1/6th to be nominated by the Governor from among persons
distinguished in literature, science and social service. The legislative council can not
be dissolved, its 1/3rd members retire every second year.
 
 Lagislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) — Total membership of a Legislative
Assembly varies in each state according to its population. It consists of not more
that 500 and not less than 60 members. The normal term of the Assembly is five
years. The Assembly may be dissolved before five years. 
 

Membership of the State Legislative Assemblies

 o Name of the State  — Total Members
o Uttar Pradesh  — 403
o Maharashtra  — 288
o Bihar  — 243
o West Bengal  — 294
o Andhra Pradesh  — 294
o Tamil Nadu  — 234
o Madhya Pradesh  — 230
o Rajasthan  — 200
o Karnataka  — 224
o Gujarat  — 182
o Orissa  — 147
o Kerala  — 140
o Jharkhand  — 81
o Assam  — 126
o Punjab  — 117
o Haryana  — 90
o Chhattisgarh  — 90
o Delhi  — 56
o Jammu & Kashmir  — 76
o Uttaranchal  — 70
o Himachal Pradesh  — 68
o Tripura  — 60
o Manipur  — 60
o Meghalaya  — 60
o Nagaland  — 60
o Goa  — 40
o Arunachal Pradesh  —  40
o Pondicherry  — 30
o Mizoram  — 40
o Sikkim  — 32
Major Constitutional Amendments : A Brief Survey
It will be appropriate here to describe the major Constitutional Amendment in
chronological order.
The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951
In June 1951, the Constitution (First Amendment) Act was passed, and the following
Amendment in the Constitution were inserted : (i) To Article 15, a new clause (4) was
added: (ii) clauses (2) and (6) of Article 19 were recast; (iii) After Article 31, Article 31A
and 31B were inserted; (iv) For Original Article 85, a new Article was substituted; (v) In
Article 87, clauses (1) and (2) were recast; (vi) For the Original Article 174, a new Article
was substituted; (vii) In Article 176, clauses (1) and (2) were recast: (viii) Clause (1) of
Article 341 was recast; and similarly, clause (1) of Article 342, sub-clause (a) of Article 342,
sub clause (a) of clause (3) of Article 372, and clause (1) of Article 376 were also recast; (ix)
After the Eight Schedule to the Constitution a Ninth Schedule was added and thirteen laws
passed by State Legislatures were included in it so that those Acts might not be challenged
in courts.

The main purpose of the Amendment was the removal of certain practical difficulties
created by court decisions in several cases such as Kameshwar Singh vs. State of Bihar,
Romesh Thapar vs. State of Madras, Brij Bhusan vs. State of Delhi and
Motilalvs. Government of Uttar Pradesh. The issues involved in these cases were numerous,
such as the scope of the fundamental right of freedom of speech, acquisition of Zamindari
(land) of intermediaries, conflict between a citizen’s fundamental right to practise any
profession, or to carry on any business or trade (Article 19) and state monopoly of any
trade, and so on.
 
The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952
The Second Amendment amended Article 81 in order to remove the prescribed limit of
7,50,000 of the population for one member to be elected to the Lok Sabha. According to the
original provision, at least on member was to be elected to the Lok Sabha for every
7,50,000 of the population. It was further provided that the maximum number of elected
member to the Lok Sabha should not exceed 500.
 
The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954
The Third Amendment brought about changes in the Seventh Schedule consisting of the
three legislative lists and entry 33 of the Concurrent List was substituted by a new one.
 
The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955
Article 31 and 31A were amended by the Constitution Fourth Amendment Act. Clause (2) of
Article 31 clause (1) of Article 31A were substituted by new clauses as. As a result of these,
the adequacy of the quantum of compensation paid for the compulsory acquisition of
property for ‘a public purpose’ could not be questioned in a court of law. It also amended
Article 305 and the Ninth Schedule.
 
The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955
The Constitutional Fifth Amendment Act amended Article 3. in the Constitution there was
no time limit during which a State Legislature should express its boundaries, which the
Centre may like to make. With the help of this amendment is was provided that the State
will be required to express its views on such matters within such period as may be
specified in the reference or within such further period, as the President may allow.
 
The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956
In this Act, the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution was amended and in the Union List, a
new entry was added after entry 92 in the State List, a new entry was substituted for entry
54. it also amended Articles 269 and 286 dealing with inter-state Sales-tax.

The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956

The Seventh Amendment brought about the most comprehensive changes so fair in the
Constitution. This amendment was designed to implement the State Reorganisation Act.
The Second and Seventh schedules were substantially amended for the purpose of the
States Reorganization Act. 
 
The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, 1959
The Act extended the period of reservation seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures for
the Anglo-Indians, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by another 10 years.

The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960

It provided for the transfer of certain territories of India to Pakistan under and agreement
between India and Pakistan as a part of a comprehensive settlement of border disputes
between the two countries.

The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961

The Tenth Amendment integrates the areas of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Union
of India and provides for their administration under the regulation making powers of the
President.

The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961

It amends Article 71 so as to make it clear that the election of the President or the Vice-
President shall not be challenges on the ground of any vacancy for whatever reason in the
appropriate electoral college. It also obviates the necessity of a joint meeting of the two
Houses of Parliament (Article 66) by constituting them into an electoral college for the
election of the Vice-President.

The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962

The main object of the Amendment was to add Union Territories of Goa, Daman and Diu to
the Union of India and for this First Schedule of the Constitution was amended.
 
The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962
The Act provides the creation of Nagaland as the Sixteenth State of the Union. The
Amendment provides also for the vesting of certain special responsibilities in the Governor
of Nagaland.

The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962

The amendment provides for the incorporation of the former French Establishments in
India, under the name Pondicherry, as an integral part of the territory of the Indian Union.
it also amended Article 31 to increase, from a maximum 20 to 25, the number of seats
assigned in the Lok Sabha for the Union Territories.
 
The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963
The amendment raised the retirement age of High Court. Judge from 60 to 62 years. It also
empowered the various High Courts to hear cases against to the Union Government.
 
The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963
The Act seeks to enable Parliament to make laws provident penalty for any person
questioning the sovereignty and integrity of India. Under the provisions of the this
Amendment, a person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in Parliament or in the
Legislature of State unless, inter-alia, he maker or subscribes before a person authorised by
the Election Commission an oath or affirmation that he will bear true faith and allegiance to
the Constitution and will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India.
 
The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964
The Act amend the definition of the term ‘estate’ in Article 31A to include lands held under
ryotwari settlement and also other lands in respect of which provisions are normally made
in land reform enact-ments. It also amends the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to
include therein 44 State enactment relation to land reforms in order to remove any
uncertainty or dobut that may arise with regard to their validity.
 
The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966
The amendment provides for the creation of new States, namely, Punjab and Haryana as a
result of the reorganisation of the former State of Punjab and the Union Territory of
Himachal Pradesh.

The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966

The Act modified Article 324 so as to terminate the jurisdiction of election tribunals to
decide election disputes. The Amendment withdrew from the Election Commission the
power of setting up election tribunals.

The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966

The Act inserts a new Article 233A immediately after Article 233 in order to validate the
appointment of District Judges, which might not have conformed fully to the different
Constitutional requirements, which were in existent prior to 1966.
 
The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967
It amended the Eight Schedule to the Constitution by including ‘Sindhi’
therein.                                     

The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969

The amendment conferred legislative power on Parliament for the purpose of creating and
autonomous Hill State within the State of Assam. Accordingly, Parliament passed the Assam
Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 to set up the State of Meghalaya within the State of
Assam.

The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969

It deals with the questions of reservation of seat in Parliament and State Assemblies for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indian and further extend the period of
reservation by another ten years, which means in effect thirty years from the
commencement of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971

It amends Article 13 and 368 with a view to removing all possible doubts regarding the
power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure thereof. It gets over the
Golak Nath ruling and asserts the power of Parliament, denied to in the Golak Nath, to
amend fundamental rights.

The Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act, 1971

The 25th amendment of the Constitution in 1971 added a new clause, Article 31C to the
Constitution. Upto 1971, the position was that fundamental rights prevailed over the
directive principles of State Policy and that a law enacted to implement a directive
principle could not be valid if it conflicted with a fundamental right. Article 31C sought to
change this relationship to some extent by conferring primacy on Articles 39(b) and 39(c)
over Articles 14, 19 and 31.
 
The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971
It abolishes Articles 291 and 362 of the Constitution and also inserts a new Article 362A
after Article 363. the cumulative effect of these changes is the end of the recognition
granted to the former rulers of Indian States and the abolition of Privy Purses.
 
The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971
The Act was enacted to implement the decision to establish the Union Territory of
Mizoram. It empowered Parliament to create a legislature and Council of Minister for the
new territory.

The Constitution (Twenty-eight Amendment) Act, 1972

The amendment deletes Article 314 of the Constitution, whish had given protection to the
I.C.S. Officers, condition of service and privileges and inserted a new Article 312A.

The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972

By the twenty-ninth Amendment Act, 1972 two Kerala Acts dealing with land reforms were
included in the 9th Schedule to the Constitution.
 
The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972
By this amendment Article 133 was recast so as to redefine the Civil Appellate Jurisdiction
of the Supreme Court. The result of this Amendment is that while any case involving an
important question of law can reach the Supreme Court by way of appeal, a case however
large the amount involved therein but involving no substantial point of law, would fail to
reach the Supreme Court.

The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973

By this amendment, the strength of the Lok Sabha was increased from 525 to 545
members. This was done to accommodate the increase in population as revealed by the
1971 Census. Accordingly, Article 81(i)(a) was suitably amended.
 
The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973
The amendment Act was enacted to make few special provisions for the State of Andhra
Pradash to satisfy the aspirations of the people of the Telangana region.

The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974

It amended Articles 101 and 190. Before this Amendment, the resignation of a member of
legislature became effective the moment it was tendered. This position is now changed. A
resignation becomes effective only after it has been accepted by the Presiding Officer of the
House concerned who may refuse to accept the same if he is satisfied that the resignation is
not voluntary or genuine. This precautionary provision appeared to be necessary to avoid
the members of Parliament or state legislatures being forced to resign.
 
The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974
By this amendment twenty State Acts concerning land ceiling and land tenure reforms
were added to the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.
 
The Constitution (Thirty-fifth and Thirty-sixth Amendment) Acts, 1974-1975
The 35th Amendment Act introduced and innovation in the Indian Constitution by
conferring on Sikkim the status of an associate in the Indian Union. This was however, a
short-lined experiment. The people of Sikkim desired to be and integral part of India.
Accordingly, the Constitution Thirty-sixth Amendment Act was enacted in 1975 to confer
full-fledged statehood on Sikkim.
 
The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1975
The Amendment upgraded the status of Arunachal Pradesh as a Union Territory. Articles
239A and 240 were amended so as to authorize Parliament to create for Arunachal Pradesh
a Legislature and Council of Ministers. 
 
The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment) Act, 1975
This Amendment Act was enacted during the emergency to make certain modification in
the emergency provisions. The Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation was
declared to be final and conclusive. A classificatory clause was added to Article 356(1) so as
to make Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation there under as ‘final and
conclusive’ which shall not be questioned in any court on any ground.

This Amendment also declared that the ‘satisfaction’ of the president and a State Governor
to issue ordinances would be ‘final and conclusive’ and shall not be questioned in any court
on any ground’.
 
The Constitution (Thirty-ninth) Amendment) Act, 1975
The voiding of the election the Lok Sabha of PM Indira Gandhi by the Allahabad High Court
in 1975 on the pertion of Raj Narain led to the enactment of the 39th Amendment Act,
1975. it introduced changes in the method deciding election disputes relating to the four
high official of the state, viz. President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and the Speaker.
Under the new Article 71(2), Parliament by the law was to establish some ‘authority’ or
‘body’ for deciding such disputes, and its decisions have not be challengeable in any court.
 
The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976
The Amendment Act extended immunity to 64 Central and State statues by including them
in the IX Schedule. These statues pertained to lad reform, Urban Ceiling and prevention of
publication of objectionable matter.
 
The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976
The Constitution Forty-first Amendment Act, 1976 raised the age of retirement of the
chairman and members of state public service Commissions from 60 to 62.
 
The Constitution (Froty-second Amendment) Act, 1976
The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act brought a number of changes in the Constitution.
The Act inter-alia gave preponderance to the Directive Principles of State Policy over the
Fundamental Rights. Established the supremacy of Parliament and curtailed the powers of
Judiciary. The Act was first of its kind. Is was the most comprehensive Act and touched
almost all the sensitive areas of the Constitution. The Amendment was meant to enhance
enormously the strength of the Government.

The major Amendments made in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act
are:                              

Preamble 
The characterization of India as ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been changed to
‘Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic’. The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have
been changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the nation’.

Parliament and state legislatures : The life of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative
Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years.

Executive : It amended Article 74 to state explicitly that the President shall act in
accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers in discharge of his functions.

Judiciary : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 32A in order to deny the Supreme
Court the power to consider the Constitutional validity of a State law. Another new
provision. Article 131A, gave the Supreme Court and exclusive jurisdiction to determine
question relating to the Constitutional validity of a central law.

Article 144A and Article 128A, the creatures of Constitutional Amendment Act made
further innovation the area of judicial review of the Constitutionality of legislation. Under
Article 144A the minimum number of judges of the Supreme Court to decide a question of a
Constitutional validity of a central or State law was fixed as at least seven and further, this
required two-two-thirds majority of the judges sitting declare law as unconstitutional.
While the power of the High Court enforce fundamental rights remained untouched,
several restrictions were imposed on its power to issue writs ‘for any other purpose’.

Federalism : The Act added Article 257A in the Constitution to enable the Centre to deploy
any armed force of the union, or any other force under its control. For dealing with any
grave situation of law and order in any State.

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles: A major change that was made by 42nd
Constitutional Amendment was to give primacy to all directive principles over the
fundamental right contained in Articles 14, 19 or 31. the 42nd Constitutional Amendment
added a few more directive principles free legal aid, participation of workers in
management of industries, protection for environment and protection of forests and
wildlife of the country.

Fundamental Duties : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51-A to create a new part
called IV-A in the Constitution, which prescribed the fundamental duties to the citizens.

Emergency : Prior to 42nd Amendment Act, the President could declare emergency under
Article 352 throughout the country and not in a part of the country alone. The Act
authorised the President to proclaim emergency in any part of the country.

The dominant thrust of the Amendment was to reduce the role of courts, particularly, that
of the High Courts. It also sought to strengthen Parliament in various ways which in effect,
added to the power of the Central Government it drew enormous criticism particularly for
it was pushed through during Emergency.
 
The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977
In 1977, the Emergency came to an end the Janata Party came into power. It made an
election pledge that it would repeal the 42nd Amendment and restore the status quo ante.
The 43rd Amendment repealed some of the provisions of the 42nd Amendment. Article
31D has also been omitted.
 
The Constitution (Forty-forth Amendment) Act, 1978
The 44th Amendment passed in 1978 undid most of the distortions introduced into the
Constitution by the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution. The salient features of the
Amendment Act are as follows :
1. It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies again to five years
and thus restored thestatus quo ante.
2. It cancelled 39th Amendment which had deprived the Supreme Court of its
jurisdiction to decide disputes concerning election of the President and the Vice-
President.
3. A new provision was added to Article 74(1) saying that the President cold require
the council of ministers to reconsider its advice to him, either generally or otherwise
and the President should Act in accordance with the advice tendered after such re-
consideration.
4. Article 257A was omitted.
5. It has been provided that an Emergency can be proclaimed only on the basic of
written advice tendered to the President by the cabinet.
6. Right the property has been taken out from the list of Fundamental Rights and has
been declared a legal right.
 
The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980
The purpose of the Amendment was to continue reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies for another 10
years, i.e., upto 1990. the same concession is extended to the Anglo-Indians who may have
representation by nomination in these chambers.
 
The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982
The Forty-sixth Amendment enables the State Governments to plug loopholes and realise
sales-tax dues on the one hand and on the other aims at bringing about some uniformity in
tax rates in case of certain items.
 
The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984
This Amendment adds 14 State Acts dealing with land to the IX Schedule.
 
The Constitution (Forty-eight Amendment) Act, 1984
The purpose of the Amendment was to extend President’s rule in Punjab for two years.
Under Article 356(5) President’s rule can last in a State for a maximum period of one year.
But the conditions in Punjab did not permit holding of fresh elections and accordingly,
extension of President’s rule became imperative.
 
The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1984
the purpose of this Amendment is to take out the Tribal areas of Tripura from Schedule V
and put them in Schedule VI.
 
The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984
This Amendment substitutes an expounded Article 33 for the old Article by the new Article
33, Parliament is authorised to curtail the fundamental rights of the members of the armed
forces, forces charged with the maintenance of public order, intelligence organisations or
telecommunication systems set up for any force or intelligence bureau, with a view to
ensure the proper discharge of duties by and maintenance of discipline among those
persons in the interest of country’s security.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984
 the Amendment effectuates some changes in Articles 330 and 332 with a view to provide
for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for Scheduled tribes in Meghalaya, Aruncahal
Pradesh and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985
The amendment is designed to prevent the scourge of defection of members of Parliament
and State legislatures from one political party to another.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986
The amendment Act elevated the Union Territory of Mizoram to the status of a State.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act,1986
The Salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have been enhanced
by the 54th Amendment Act, 1986. accordingly, a Judge of the Supreme Court gets a salary
of Rs. 9,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs. 10,000 per mensem. A
Judge of the High Court gets a salary of Rs. 8,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief
Justice of the High Courts is Rs. 9,000 per mensem.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986
The Union Territory of Arunchal Pradesh was elevated to the status of a State by the 55th
Amendment Act.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987
Constitution (56the Amendment) Act, 1987 inserting Article 394A, to make the Hindi text
of the Constitution authoritative.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987
The Constitution (57th Amendment) Act, 1987 with the Goa, Daman and Diu
Reorganisation Act, 1987 lifts Goa from the status of Union Territory to that of the 25th
State of the Union of India.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-eight Amendment) Act, 1987
The Amendment Act provides the reservation of seats for tribals in the Legislative
Assemblies of Arunchal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland.
 
The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988
The Act empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab on the grounds that
india’s integrity was threatened by internal disturbances.
 
The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988
The Amendment Act authoriese State Governments to increase the ceiling on professional
tax from Rs. 250 to Rs. 2,500 per person per annum.

The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988

The 61st Amendment reduces the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha
and Assembly election.
 
The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1990
The 62nd Amendment Act extends by 10 years the reservation of seats for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies as well as nomination
representatives of the Anglo-Indian community.
 
The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act, 1990
The Amendment Act repealed the 59th Constitution amendment which empowered the
Government to impose emergency in Punjab.

The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990

The Amendments Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six
months.                       

The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990

Article 338 of the Constitution has been amended for the Constitution of a National
Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes consisting of a chairperson, vice-
chairperson and five other members who shall be appointed by the President by warrant
under his hand and seal.

The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990

The Act protects fifty-five State Acts relating to land reforms and ceiling on agricultural
land holdings, enacted by States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
West Bengal and Union Territory of Pondicherry, from challenge in courts, by including
them in the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.

The Constitution (sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months i.e.,
upto may 10,1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-eight Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s Rule in Punjab for further six months after
May 1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991

The Amendment Act seeks grant of Statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital Territory of
Delhi’. It also provides a 70 member assembly and a 7 member Council Ministers for Delhi.

The Constitution (Seventy Amendment) Act, 1992

It facilitates for members of Delhi and Pondicherry assemblies to participate in the election
of the President.

The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992

The amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Napali, Manipuri and Konkani in the eight
schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these three languages, the number of
languages in the Eight Schedules goes up to 18.

The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992

For restoring peace and harmony in the areas of the State of Tripura where disturbed
conditions prevailed, Memorandum of Settlement was signed by the Government of India
with Tripura National Volunteers on August 12,1988.

In order to implement the said Memorandum, Article 332 of the Constitution (Seventy-
second Amendment) Act, 1992 for making a temporary provision for the determination of
the number of seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the State Assemble of Tripura,
until the re adjustment of seats is made on the basis of the first census after the year 2000
under Article 170 of the Constitution

The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992

The Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 was passed by the Parliament on
December 22nd, 1992 which was notified by the Central Government through Official
Gazette on April 20,1993 as it gote rectification by the State legislatures and was assented
to by the President of India. After notification the Panchayati Raj institutions have now got
Constitutional legitimacy.

After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IX has been added to the Constitution
with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Eleventh schedule enumerating
the powers and functions of Panchayti Raj Institutions has been incorporated. The Act
provides for Gram Sabha, a three-tiermodel of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs
and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.
 
The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992
The Act provides constitutional status to urban local bodies. After part VIII of the
Constitution a separate part IXA has been added to the Constitution with the addition in
Article 243A and fresh schedule called Twelfth schedule enumerating the powers and
functions of urban local bodies has been incorporated. The Act provides Municipal
Panchayat, Municipal Council and Municipal Corporation, reservation of seats for SCs and
STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1993

It has amended Article 323-B and added a new clause (h) providing for establishment of
tribunals for rent control cases.

The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994

This Amendment Act raises the reservation quota of government jobs and seats for
admission in the educational institutions in favour of socially and educationally backward
classes to 69 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Further, the Amendment Act has been included in the
Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to exempt it from the purview of judicial scrutiny.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) Act, 1995

This Amendment has added a new clause (4-a) to Article 16 of the Constitution which
empowers the State to make any provisions for reservation in promotions in Government
jobs in favour of SCs and STs, if it is of opinion that they are inadequately represented in
the services under the State. This has been done to nullify the effect of the Supreme Court
Judgment in the Mandal Commission Case (Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India) in which the
Court has held that reservation in promotions cannot be made.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) act 1995

This amendment has amended the Ninth schedule of the Constitution and inserted 27 Land
Reform Act of Various States in the Ninth Schedule. After this the total number of Act
included in the Ninth Schedule has gone upto 284. now these Acts cannot be challenged in
the courts on the plea for the violation of Fundamental Rights.

The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act 1999

By this Act the Government has extended the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes
and the Scheduled Tribes as well as fro the Anglo-Indians in the House of the People and in
the Legislative Assemblies of the States for another ten years.
The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000
Based on the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commissions, an alternative scheme
for sharing taxes between the Union and the State has been enacted by the Constitution
(Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000. Under the new scheme of devolution of revenue
between Union and the States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of union taxes and duties
is to be assigned to the States in lieu of their existing share in the income-tax, excise duties
special excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger fares.

The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000

By this amendment the unfilled vacancies of a year which reserved for the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for being filled up in that year in accordance with any
provision of reservations made under Article 16 of the Constitution shall be considered as a
separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years, and such class of
vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they
were filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent reservation against total number
of vacancies of that year.

The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000

The amendment provides that nothing in Article 335 shall prevent the State from making
any provisions in favour of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
for relaxation in qualifying marks in any examination or lowering the standards of
evaluation for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of services or
posts in connection with affairs of the Union or of a State.

The Constitution (Eighth-third Amendment) Act, 2000

The Act amended0 Article 243M of the Constitution to provide that no reservation in
Panchayats need be made in favour of the Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh wholly
inhabited by tribal population.

The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001

The Act amended provisions to Article 82 and 170(3) of the Constitution to readjust and
rationalise the territorial constituencies in the States, without altering the number of seats
allotted to each State in the House of People and Legislative Assemblies of the States,
including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Constituencies, on the basis of the
population ascertained at the census for the year 1991 so as to remove the imbalance
caused due to uneven growth of population/electorate in different constituencies.

The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2001

This Act amended Article 16 (4A) of the Constitution to provide for consequential seniority
in the case of promotion by virtue of rule of reservation for Government servants belonging
to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002

With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act
inserts a new Article, namely, Article 21A conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to
14 years the right to free and compulsory education. The Act amends in Part-III, Part –IV
and Part-IV(A) of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003

The Amendment provides for readjustment of electoral constituencies, including those
reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, based on the population
census for the year 2001, without affecting the number of seats allocated to States in the
legislative bodies.

The Constitution (Eighty-Eight Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act amends Article 268, 270 and VIIth Schedule of the Constitution. It adds 92C just
after 92B and makes provisions for Tax on Services.

The Constitution (Eighty- ninth Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act adds Article 338A and provides for the creation of National Commission for
Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act amends Article 332 and adds section (6) regarding representation in the Bodo
Territorial Areas District in the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Ninety-one Amendment) Act, 2003

The Act makes provisions for limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at the center and
in the States and gives teeth to debar a defector from holding any remunerative political
post for the remaining tenure of the legislature unless re-elected.

The Constitution (Ninety- two Amendment) Act, 2003

The Amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Bodo, Dogari, Maithili and Sanhali in the VIII
Schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these four languages, the number of
languages in the VIII Schedule goes upto 22.

Ninety- third Amendment (2005)

Providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the
Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, in private unaided educational institutions.
 
Ninety-fourth Amendment (2006)
The Constitution provides that there shall be Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may
in addition be in charge of the welfare of the Scheduled Casts and backward classes or any
other work in the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.