Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer Numerical
Control (CNC)
Objectives:

9 To understand the working principle and applications of CNC machines.

9 To be able to prepare CNC part programmes for machining 2-D
workpieces.
9 To understand the structure and flow of a CAM system.

Content:

Chapter 1 Numerical Control Fundamentals

Chapter 2 CNC Part Programming
Chapter 3 Computer Aided Manufacturing

Introduction

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a specialized and versatile form of Soft

Automation and its applications cover many kinds, although it was initially
developed to control the motion and operation of machine tools.

Computer Numerical Control may be considered to be a means of operating a

machine through the use of discrete numerical values fed into the machine, where
the required 'input' technical information is stored on a kind of input media such
as floppy disk, hard disk, CD ROM, DVD, USB flash drive, or RAM card etc. The
machine follows a predetermined sequence of machining operations at the
predetermined speeds necessary to produce a workpiece of the right shape and
size and thus according to completely predictable results. A different product can
be produced through reprogramming and a low-quantity production run of
different products is justified.

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Fig.1-1 CNC Machine Centre (Courtesy of Agie Charmilles)

The definition of CNC given by Electronic Industry Association (EIA) is as follows:

A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical

data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some
portion of this data.

In a simple word, a CNC system receives numerical data, interpret the data and
then control the action accordingly.

Chapter 1. Computer Numerical Control Fundamentals

Objectives:

9 To understand the working principle of CNC machines.

9 To understand the characteristics of the driving systems.
9 To understand the characteristics of the feedback devices.
9 To understand the applications of CNC machines.

1.1 Control Systems

1.1.1 Open Loop Systems

Open loop systems have no access to the real time data about the performance of
the system and therefore no immediate corrective action can be taken in case of
system disturbance. This system is normally applied only to the case where the
output is almost constant and predictable. Therefore, an open loop system is
unlikely to be used to control machine tools since the cutting force and loading of
a machine tool is never a constant. The only exception is the wirecut machine for
which some machine tool builders still prefer to use an open loop system because
there is virtually no cutting force in wirecut machining.

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Fig.1-2(a) Block Diagram of an Open Loop System

1.1.2 Close Loop Systems

In a close loop system, feed back devices closely monitor the output and any
disturbance will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high system accuracy
is achievable. This system is more powerful than the open loop system and can be
applied to the case where the output is subjected to frequent change. Nowadays,
almost all CNC machines use this control system.

Fig.1-2(b) Block Diagram of a Close Loop System

1.2 Elements of a CNC System

A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:

a. Input Device
b. Machine Control Unit
c. Machine Tool
d. Driving System
e. Feedback Devices
f. Display Unit

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Fig.1-3 Working Principles of CNC Machines

1.2.1 Input Devices

a. Floppy Disk Drive

Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been the
most common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of data transfer speed,
reliability, storage size, data handling and the ability to read and write.
Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be easily edited at any point as long
as you have the proper program to read it. However, this method has proven to be
quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a tendency to degrade
alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic fields and as well as the dust
and scratches that usually existed on the shop floor.

Fig.1-4 Floppy Disk Drive on a CNC machine

b. USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard drive with compact
size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the flash drive

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are impervious to dust and scratches that enable flash drives to transfer data from
place to place. In recent years, all computers support USB flash drives to read and
write data that make it become more and more popular in CNC machine control
unit.

Fig.1-5 USB Flash Drive on a CNC machine

c. Serial communication

The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is often
accomplished through a serial communication port. International standards for
serial communications are established so that information can be exchanged in an
orderly way. The most common interface between computers and CNC machine
tools is referred to the EIA Standard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and
CNC machine tools have built in RS232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is used
to connect a CNC machine to a computer which enables the data transfer in
reliable way. Part programs can be downloaded into the memory of a machine
tool or uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running a
communication program on the computer and setting up the machine control to
interact with the communication software.

Fig.1-6 Serial communication port on a CNC machine

Direct Numerical Control is referred to a system connecting a set of numerically

controlled machines to a common memory for part program or machine program
storage with provision for on-demand distribution of data to the machines. (ISO
2806:1980) The NC part program is downloaded a block or a section at a time into

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the controller. Once the downloaded section is executed, the section will be
discarded to leave room for other sections. This method is commonly used for
machine tools that do not have enough memory or storage buffer for large NC
part programs.

Distributed Numerical Control is a hierarchical system for distributing data

between a production management computer and NC systems. (ISO 2806:1994)
The host computer is linked with a number of CNC machines or computers
connecting to the CNC machines for downloading part programs. The
communication program in the host computer can utilize two-way data transfer
features for production data communication including: production schedule, parts
produced and machine utilization etc.

Fig.1-7 Serial communication in a Distributed Numerical Control system

d. Ethernet communication

Due to the advancement of the computer technology and the drastic reduction of
the cost of the computer, it is becoming more practical and economic to transfer
part programmes between computers and CNC machines via an Ethernet
communication cable. This media provides a more efficient and reliable means in
part programme transmission and storage. Most companies now built a Local Area
Network (LAN) as their infrastructure. More and more CNC machine tools provide
an option of the Ethernet Card for direct communication within the LAN.

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Fig.1-8 Ethernet port on a CNC machine

Fig.1-9 Ethernet network in a Distributed Numerical Control system

e. Conversational Programming

Part programmes can be input to the controller via the keyboard. Built-in
intelligent software inside the controller enables the operator to enter the required
data step by step. This is a very efficient way for preparing programmes for
relatively simple workpieces involving up to 2½ axis machining.

Fig.1-10 Conversational Programming in a CNC controller

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1.2.2 Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units
in the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop
Unit (CLU).

a. Data Processing Unit

On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part
programme into internal machine codes. The interpolator of the DPU then
calculate the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of BLU (basic length
unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the controller. The
calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.

b. Control Loop Unit

The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control
the driving system to perform the required motions. Other functions such as
machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are also controlled
by this unit according to the internal machine codes.

1.2.3 Machine Tool

This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high
accuracy and repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the
driving leadscrew of a CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually
machined to high accuracy and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and
Turcite in order to reduce the stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter
recirculating ball screws are employed to eliminate the backlash and lost motion.
Other design features such as rigid and heavy machine structure; short machine
table overhang, quick change tooling system, etc also contribute to the high
accuracy and high repeatability of CNC machines.

Fig.1-11(a) Ball Screw in a CNC machine Fig.1-11(b) Ball screw structure

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1.2.4 Driving System

The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy

and repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the
driving system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response
accurately according to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses
electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine
tools. The motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine
leadscrew to moves the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical
motors are commonly used.

a. DC Servo Motor

This is the most common type of feed motors used in CNC machines. The principle
of operation is based on the rotation of an armature winding in a permanently
energised magnetic field. The armature winding is connected to a commutator,
which is a cylinder of insulated copper segments mounted on the shaft. DC current
is passed to the commutator through carbon brushes, which are connected to the
machine terminals. The change of the motor speed is by varying the armature
voltage and the control of motor torque is achieved by controlling the motor's
armature current. In order to achieve the necessary dynamic behaviour it is
operated in a closed loop system equipped with sensors to obtain the velocity and
position feedback signals.

Fig.1-12 DC Servo Motor (Courtesy of Flexible Automation)

b. AC Servo Motor

In an AC servomotor, the rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator is

equipped with 3-phase windings. The speed of the rotor is equal to the rotational
frequency of the magnetic field of the stator, which is regulated by the frequency
converter.

AC motors are gradually replacing DC servomotors. The main reason is that there
is no commutator or brushes in AC servomotor so that maintenance is virtually not
required. Furthermore, AC servos have a smaller power-to-weight ratio and faster
response.

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Fig.1-13 AC Servo Motor (Courtesy of Flexible Automation)

c. Stepping Motor

A stepping motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical rotational motions of the motor shaft. This is the simplest device that
can be applied to CNC machines since it can convert digital data into actual
mechanical displacement. It is not necessary to have any analog-to-digital
converter nor feedback device for the control system. They are ideally suited to
open loop systems.

However, stepping motors are not commonly used in machine tools due to the
following drawbacks: slow speed, low torque, low resolution and easy to slip in
case of overload. Examples of stepping motor application are the magnetic head
of floppy-disc drive and hard disc drive of computer, daisy-wheel type printer, X-Y
tape control, and CNC EDM Wire-cut machine.

Fig.1-14 Stepping Motor (Courtesy Real-Time Microcomputer)

d. Linear Motor

A linear electric motor is an AC rotary motor laid out flat. The same principle used
to produce torque in rotary motors is used to produce force in linear motors.
Through the electromagnetic interaction between a coil assembly and a
permanent magnet assembly, the electrical energy is converted to linear
mechanical energy to generate a linear motion. As the motion of the motor is
linear instead of rotational, therefore it is called linear motor. Linear motors have
the advantages of high speeds, high precision and fast response. In the 1980s,

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machine tool builders started using linear motors with the common motion
control servo drives in the machine tool design.

Fig.1-15 Linear Motor (Courtesy of Renishaw)

Among different designs of linear motors, permanent magnet brushless motors

demonstrate a high force density, high maximum speed, and stable force constant.
The lack of a brushed commutator assembly has the advantages of fewer
maintenance, higher reliability and better smoothness.

An iron core brushless linear motor is similar to a conventional brushless rotary

motor slit axially and then rolled out flat. The unrolled rotor is a stationary plate
consisting of magnets tiled on an iron back plate and the unrolled stator is a
moving coil assembly consisting of coils wound around a laminated steel core. Coil
windings are typically connected in conventional 3 phase arrangement and
commutation is often performed by Hall-effect sensors or sinusoidal. It has high
efficiency and good for continuous force.

An ironless linear motor consists of a stationary U shaped channel filled with

permanent magnets tiled along both interior walls. A moving coil assembly
traverses between two opposing rows of magnets. Commutation is done
electronically either by Hall-effect sensors or sinusoidal. The ironless linear motor
has the advantages of lower core mass, lower inductance and no cogging for
smooth motion as the ironless motors have no attractive force between the
frameless components.

Fig.1-16 Ironcore and Ironless Linear Motor (Courtesy of ETEL)

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1.2.5 Feedback Device

In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and
speed of the axes need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices
are normally used, positional feed back device and velocity feed back device.

a. Positional Feed Back Devices

There are two types of positional feed back devices: linear transducer for direct
positional measurement and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear
measurement.

Linear Transducers - A linear transducer is a device mounted on the

machine table to measure the actual displacement of the slide in such a
way that backlash of screws; motors, etc would not cause any error in the
feed back data. This device is considered to be of the highest accuracy and
also more expensive in comparison with other measuring devices mounted
on screws or motors.

Fig.1-17 Linear Transducer (Courtesy of Heidenhain)

Rotary Encoders - A rotary encoder is a device mounted at the end of the

motor shaft or screw to measure the angular displacement. This device
cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error may occur due to
the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally, this error can be
compensated for by the machine builder in the machine calibration
process.

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Fig.1-18 Incremental and Absolute Rotary Encoder

b. Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated
from a tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is
essentially a small generator that produces an output voltage proportional to the
speed. The voltage generated is compared with the command voltage
corresponding to the desired speed. The difference of the voltages can is then
used to actuate the motor to eliminate the error.

Fig.1-19 Tachogenerator (Courtesy of Callan)

1.2.6 Display Unit

The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the
operator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present

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status such as the position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate,
the part programmes, etc.
In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the graphics simulation
of the tool path so that part programmes can be verified before the actually
machining. Much other important information about the CNC system can also
displayed for maintenance and installation work such as machine parameters, logic
diagram of the programmer controller, error massages and diagnostic data.

Fig.1-20 Display Unit for CNC machines (Courtesy of Heidenhain)

1.3 Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to
produce the following types of product:

• Parts with complicated contours

• Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability
• Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on
conventional machines
• Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during
the development stage of a prototype
• In cases where human errors could be extremely costly
• Parts that are needed in a hurry
• Small batch lots or short production runs

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are as
following:

• Drilling Machine
• Lathe / Turning Centre
• Milling / Machining Centre
• Turret Press and Punching Machine
• Wirecut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)
• Grinding Machine
• Laser Cutting Machine
• Water Jet Cutting Machine
• Electro Discharge Machine
• Coordinate Measuring Machine
• Industrial Robot

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Chapter 2. CNC Part Programming

Objectives:

9 To understand the Dimension Systems in CNC Part Programming.

9 To understand the structure of a CNC Part Programme.
9 To understand the G-codes and other functions of a CNC Part
Programme.

2.1 Axis of motion

In generally, all motions have 6 degrees of freedom. In other words, motion can
be resolved into 6 axes, namely, 3 linear axes (X, Y and Z axis) and 3 rotational
axes (A, B, and C axis).

Fig.2-1 Axis of Motion

2.2 Dimension Systems

2.2.1 Incremental System

This type of control always uses as a reference to the preceding point in a

sequence of points. The disadvantage of this system is that if an error occurs, it
will be accumulated.

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