UNIT - I, Chapter No.-2 SOLID STATE, 6 Hours, Max. Marks: 10 - 12

CHEMISTRY –IV NOTES PREPARED BY Dr.
DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI,

GFGC, K R PURAM, BENGALURU-36.
UNIT –I, Chapter No.- 2 SOLID STATE, 6 Hours, Max. Marks: 10 – 12
Review of crystalline and amorphous solids, anisotropy, types of crystalline solids,

space lattice and unit cell. Laws of crystallography – law of rational indices, law of
constancy of interfacial angles, law of constancy of symmetry elements.
Symmetry elements in crystals: plane of symmetry- rectangular and diagonal
planes. Axis of symmetry: two fold, three fold and four fold axes. Centre of
symmetry; illustration using a simple cubic crystal. Crystal systems –introduction
of crystal parameters –a, b, c and α, β, γ; classification into seven systems (an
example each, no diagrams required); Bravais lattices- explanation using cubic
system (diagrams of primitive, face centered and body centered cubes with an
example each). Weiss and Miller indices – calculation and use of h k l symbols;
sketching of 100, 110, 111 planes in a cubic crystal; calculation of inter planar
spacing in a simple cubic crystal, problems. X-ray diffraction of crystals -
derivation of Bragg’s equation and problems. Liquid crystals: explanation of the
liquid crystalline state; types –smectic, nematic and cholesteric; examples and
applications. Superconducting solids: explanation of the phenomenon of
superconductivity using mercury as an example; Tc high temperature
superconductors – example and applications.
Introduction: According to the molecular concept, matter is made up of

extremely small particles called molecules. In a solid, the molecules are not free
to move and they are closely packed in the form of crystal lattice because of
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CHEMISTRY –IV NOTES PREPARED BY Dr. DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI,
strong inter – molecular forces of attraction (Vander Waal’s forces). Hence they
got definite shape and volume. The solids are classified into two categories
1) Crystalline state and

2) Amorphous state.
1) Crystalline state: In crystalline state the constituents (molecules, atoms or
ions) are arranged in a definite geometrical configuration in a three
dimensional network which extends to very large distances compared with
the inter-atomic distances. For example, NaCl, sugar, sulphur, etc.
2) Amorphous solids: These are rigid, incompressible to some extent but do
not have definite geometrical shape. For example, Glass, rubber, plastics,
etc.
Differences between crystalline and amorphous solids

Crystalline solid Amorphous solid
1. It has definite and regular 1. It does not have definite
geometry geometry
2. It has long range order 2. It has short range order
3. It has sharp melting point 3. It has no sharp melting point
4. It is anisotropic in nature 4. It is isotropic in nature
5. Its properties like electrical, 5. Its properties like electrical,
thermal, mechanical and thermal,
refractive index are different in Mechanical and refractive index are
different direction in which it same in different direction in which
measure. it measure.
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Anisotropy: The property of crystalline solids in which the magnitude of physical

properties like electrical, thermal, mechanical and refractive index is different in
different direction in which it measure called anisotropy.
Types of crystalline solids: The crystalline solids classified into following types-
1) Ionic crystalline solid: The crystalline solid in which the cations and anions
arranged in a regular fashion throughout the crystal and they are held
together by electrostatic attractive forces called ionic crystalline solid.
Examples:- NaCl, LiF, CaSO4, CsCl, etc
2) Metallic crystalline solid: The crystalline solid in which the metal cations
surrounded by a sea of mobile valence electrons called metallic solid.
Example- Sodium (Na), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), etc
3) Covalent crystalline solid: The crystalline solid in which the atoms share
electrons with their neighbours and are arranged in a regular fashion
throughout the crystal is called covalent crystalline solid.
Examples:- Graphite, diamond, silicon carbide, boron nitride, silica, etc.
4) Molecular crystalline solid: The crystalline solid in which the molecules are
present at lattice point and they are held together by weak intermolecular
forces called molecular crystalline solid.
Example:- I2, O2, H2, NH3, H2O, etc.
Space lattice: A regular three dimensional arrangement of points in space is called

space lattice.
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Crystal lattice: When space lattice occupied by atoms, ions or molecules of a

crystalline solid in three dimensional space, the space lattice is called crystal
lattice.
Unit cell: The smallest repeating unit in crystal lattice which when repeated over
three dimensionally produces the complete crystal lattice called unit cell.
Crystallography: The branch of science which deals with the geometry,

properties and structure of crystalline substances, called crystallography.
Geometric crystallography is concerned with the external spatial arrangement of
crystal planes and the geometric shape of crystals.
Laws of crystallography: Geometric crystallography is concerned with the

external spatial arrangement of crystal planes and the geometric shape of
crystals. It is based on three fundamental laws given below:
1) The law of constancy of interfacial angles: “The angle between the

corresponding faces or planes forming the external surface of a crystal
remains constant for a given substance, no matter how the face is
developed”. This statement is called the law of constancy of interfacial
angles.
The substance may crystalline under different conditions to produce
crystals with faces of variable size and shape. The angle of inter section of
any two corresponding faces, however, would always be found to be the
same.
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For example, the interfacial angles in all sodium chloride crystals are found
to be 1200C, irrespective of their size and shape of faces.
0
120 0
0
120
120
2) The law of rationality of indices or intercepts: “It is possible to choose

along the three coordinate axes of unit distances (a, b, c) not necessarily of
the same length such that the ratio of the intercepts of any plane in the
crystal is given by (la: mb: nc) where l, m and n are simple integers like 1, 2,
3 or fractions of whole numbers”. This statement is called law of rational
indices or intercepts.
mb
nc O la X
a
c
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The geometry of a crystal may be completely defined with the help of

coordinate axes all meeting at a point (origin). The number and inclination
of these crystallographic axes are chosen in such a way that all the crystal
faces either intercept them at definite distances from the origin or are
parallel to some of the axes (i.e. intercepting at infinity).
3) The law of symmetry: “All crystals of the same substance possess the same
elements of symmetry”. This statement is called the law of symmetry.
Symmetry in crystals: the constituents of a crystalline solid (atoms, ions or

molecules) are arranged in an ordered, repetitive fashion in three dimensions.
The array is called space lattice. A peculiar regularity is observed in the
arrangement of these constituent units in a crystal. Crystals can be classified
according to this regularity in arrangements of atoms, ions or molecules or, in
other words, their symmetry.
The geometrical entity such as a plane or line with respect to which a

symmetrical operation is carried out is called the symmetry element.
Classification of elements of symmetry:
1) Plane of symmetry: It is an imaginary plane passing through the centre of a

crystal by which the crystal is divided into two halves such that one is the
mirror-image of the other. In a crystal, for example, there are two types of
planes of symmetry.
i) Type I planes of symmetry (rectangular planes of symmetry): These
are the planes situated midway and parallel to the opposite faces.
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These are also known as rectangular planes of symmetry. There

being six faces or three pairs of opposite faces in a cubic crystal,
three such planes are possible. A shown in figure.
a
a
a
ii) Type II planes of symmetry (diagonal planes of symmetry): These

are the planes touching the opposite edges. Since they lie on the
diagonal of opposite faces, these are also termed as diagonal planes
of symmetry. These being twelve edges in a cubic crystal or six such
pairs of opposite edges, six such planes are possible. As shown in
figure.
a
a
a
2) Line or axes of symmetry: It is an imaginary line passing through the centre

of a crystal about which the crystal may be rotated so that it presents
exactly the same appearance more than once in the course of a complete
revolution of 3600. Depending upon the number of times of the crystal
appears unchanged in the course of such rotation; it can have the following
three types of axes of symmetry.
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i) Axis of four – fold symmetry: Imagine a line passing through the

centers of two opposite faces of a cube. On rotating the cube about
this line as axis, it will be found that the cube presents exactly the
same appearance four times in the course of rotation through 3600C.
Such an axis is, therefore, termed an axis of four –fold symmetry or a
tetrad axis. There being six faces or three pairs of opposite faces in a
cubic crystal, three such axes are possible. These are at right angles
to each other.
a
a
a
ii) Axis of three – fold symmetry: Imagine a line passing through the
opposite corners of a cube along the body diagonal.
On rotating the cube about this line as axis, it will be found that the
cube presents the same appearance three times in the course of
rotation through 3600. Such an axis is, therefore, termed an axis of
three – fold symmetry or a triad axis. There being eight corners or
four such body diagonally opposite pairs of corners in a cubic crystal
four such axes are possible.
Page 8 of 37
a
a
iii) Axis of two – fold symmetry: Imagine a line passing through the
centers of the two diagonally opposite edges of a cube.
On rotating the cube about this line as axis, it will be found that the
cube presents the same appearance two times in the course of
rotation through 3600. Such an axis is, therefore, termed an axis of
two – fold symmetry or a diad axis. There being twelve edges or six
such diagonally opposite pairs of edges in a cubic crystal, six such
axes are possible.
a
a
a
Thus, in all a cubic crystal have 13 lines of symmetry.
3) Centre of symmetry: A crystal may possess a centre of symmetry, i.e. a

point in it such that an imaginary straight line drawn from this point meets
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a similar feature (angle or plane) at equal distances on either side. Only one
centre of symmetry is possible in cubic crystal.
a
a
a
Crystal system: The shape of the crystal depends on the shape of the unit cell
which can be described by specifying the intercepts of the crystal faces on the
crystallographic axes and the angles between the axes. The intercepts on the X,Y
and Z axes are designated a,b and c respectively and the angle between the X and
Y axes is α, that between Y and Z axes is β and that between Z and X axes is γ.
Crystal parameters: Three intercepts (a, b, c) and three angles (α, β, γ) use to
describe the whole crystal called crystal parameters.
Bravais lattice: The combinations of a, b, c and α, β, γ, therefore, completely

describe all known crystal geometries in three dimensions called Bravais lattice.
There are 230 crystal forms possible. These forms may be grouped into 32 classes
on the basis of their symmetry. These classes may further be grouped into seven
systems of crystal structure as shown below.
Three intercepts (a, b, c) and three angles (α, β, γ) use to describe the whole
crystal called crystal parameters.
Page 10 of 37
1) Cubic system: Those crystals in which all three intercepts are in equal
length (a = b = c) and all angles between the axes are equal to 90 0 (α =
β= γ = 900) called cubic system.
Examples: NaCl, CaF2, Ag, Pb, Hg, Cu2O, diamond, Alum
2) Tetragonal system: Those crystals in which two intercepts are in equal

length and third intercept is not equal in length (a =b ≠c) and all angles
between the axes are equal to 900 (α = β= γ = 900) called tetragonal
system.
Examples: K4[Fe(CN)6], SnO2, TiO2, ZrSiO4, KH2PO4, NiSO4
Page 11 of 37
3) Orthorhombic or rhombic system: Those crystals in which all three

intercepts are not in equal lengths (a ≠b ≠c) and all angles between the
axes are equal to 900 (α = β= γ = 900) called Orthorhombic or rhombic
system.
Examples: KNO3, MgSO4.7H2O, Rhombic sulphur
4) Triclinic system: Those crystals in which all three intercepts are not in
equal lengths (a ≠b ≠c) and all angles between the axes are also not
equal to 900 (α≠β≠γ≠900) called triclinic system.
Examples: CuSO4.5H2O, K2Cr2O7, Boric acid
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5) Monoclinic system: Those crystals in which all three intercepts are not
in equal lengths (a ≠b ≠c) and two angles between the axes are equal
to each other and third angle is not equal to 900 (α=γ, β ≠900) called
monoclinic system.
Examples: Na2SO4.10H2O, NaHCO3, FeSO4.7H2O, monoclinic sulphur
6) Trigonal or rhombohedral system: Those crystals in which all three

intercepts are in equal length (a = b = c) and all angles between the axes
are equal to each other and they are not equal to 900 (α=β=γ≠900)
called Trigonal or rhombohedral system.
Examples: Calcite, KMnO4 and NaNO2
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7) Hexagonal system: Those crystals in which two intercepts are in equal

length and third intercept is not equal in length (a =b ≠c) and two angles
between the X & Y and Y & Z axes are equal to 900 and the angles
between the X & Z axes is equal to 120 0 (α=β = 900 γ=1200) called
hexagonal system.
Examples: Graphite, quartz and ice
SUMMARY OF TYPES OF CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

Type of system Characteristics Example
1. Cubic system α=β=γ=900 and NaCl, CsCl, CaF2, Ag, Pb,
a =b =c Hg, Cu2O, diamond,
Alum
2. Tetragonal system α=β=γ=900 and K4[Fe(CN)6], SnO2, TiO2,
a =b ≠c ZrSiO4, KH2PO4, NiSO4
3. Orthorhombic or α=β=γ=900 and KNO3, MgSO4.7H2O,
rhombic system a ≠b ≠c Rhombic sulphur
4. Triclinic system α≠β≠γ≠900 and CuSO4.5H2O, K2Cr2O7,
Page 14 of 37
a ≠b ≠c Boric acid
5. Monoclinic system α=γ, β ≠900 and Na2SO4.10H2O,
a ≠b ≠c NaHCO3, FeSO4.7H2O,
monoclinic sulphur
6. Trigonal or α=β=γ≠900 and Calcite, KMnO4 and
rhombohedral a =b =c NaNO2
system
7. Hexagonal system α=β = 900 γ=1200 and Graphite, quartz and
a =b ≠c ice
Types of cubic system: The cubic systems are classified into three types
There are three types of cubic system. These are (i) Primitive cell or simple cubic
system (ii) A body centered cubic system and (iii) face centered cubic system.
These are shown in Figure
Page 15 of 37
= Na
= Cl
Structure of NaCl (FCC)
= Cs
= Cl
Structure of NaCl (FCC)
Calculation of number of particles/atoms per unit cell in simple cubic unit cell: In
simple cubic unit cell eight particles/atoms at eight corners and each corner atom
shared by other eight atom of unit cell.
1
∴ Number of particles/ atoms per unit cell of simple cube = x Number of corners
8
1
= x8
8
=1
Calculation of number of particles/atoms per unit cell in face centered cubic

(FCC) system: In face centered cubic unit cell, eight particles/atoms at eight
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corners and each corner atom shared by other eight atom of unit cell and six faces
and each face shared by two atoms of unit cell
1
∴ Number of particles/ atoms per unit cell of FCC system = x Number of corners
8
1
+ x Number of faces
2
1 1
= x8+ x6
8 2
= 1+3
=4
Calculation of number of particles/atoms per unit cell in body centered cubic

(BCC) system: In body centered cubic unit cell, eight particles/atoms at eight
corners and each corner atom shared by other eight atom of unit cell and one is
at centre, which is no shared by other unit cell.
1
∴ Number of particles/ atoms per unit cell of BCC = x Number of corners + 1
8
atom at centre
1
= x8+1
8
= 1+1
=2
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Weiss indices: The co-efficient of unit intercepts a, b and c is called Weiss indices
and characterized the given set of parallel and equidistant planes in the Weiss
system of indexing the planes.
For example, the crystal axes (3a, 2b, c), then Weiss indices are (3, 2, 1).
Miller indices: The reciprocals of Weiss coefficients with fractions cleared are
called miller indices.
Miller indices are represented as (h k l).
Procedure for determination of Miller indices:
1) Prepare the three column table for three unit cell axes. Write the three cell
axes at the top of the columns.
2) Enter the respective intercepts of the plane with the axes.
3) Write the reciprocals of the intercepts.
4) Clear the above fraction in the form of integers to obtain h, k, l.
5) Negative indices are written with a bar above the number.
Calculate the Miller indices for the following planes with intercepts given-
a) (a, b, c) b) (6a,3b,3c) c) (a, -2b,-3c) d) (2a,2b,∞) e) (∞,∞,1)
Solution (a)
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Intercepts a b c
Coefficient of intercepts 1 1 1
Reciprocals coefficient of 1 1 1
1 1 1
intercepts
Fraction cleared after taking 1 1 1
L.C.M. 1
Miller indices (hkl) (111)
Solution (b)
Intercepts a b c
Coefficient of intercepts 6 3 3
Reciprocals coefficient of 1 1 1
6 3 3
intercepts
L.C.M. 6
Solution (c)
Intercepts a b c
Coefficient of intercepts 1 -2 -3
Reciprocals coefficient of 1 −1 −1
1 2 3
intercepts
Fraction cleared after taking 6 -3 -2
L.C.M. 6
Page 19 of 37
Miller indices (hkl)

(6 ̅̅̅
3 ̅̅̅
2)
Solution (d)
Intercepts a b c
Coefficient of intercepts 2 2 ∞
1 1 1
Reciprocals coefficient of =0
∞
2 2
intercepts

L.C.M. 2
Solution (e)
Intercepts a b c
Coefficient of intercepts ∞ ∞ 1
1 1 1
Reciprocals coefficient of
=0 =0 1
∞ ∞
intercepts

L.C.M. 1
Drawing the lattice planes: Particular crystal plane can be drawn by using
following general procedure
Choose origin on
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unit cell
Write reciprocal of
miller indices
Find reciprocal
value miller
indices
Draw Unit cell
Mark intercepts
along three axes
Draw the plane by
joining three
incepts.
Problem: 1) Draw the (100) plane
Ans: (100) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

Choose origin on 0 0 0
unit cell
Write reciprocal of 1 1 1
1 0 0
miller indices
Find reciprocal 1 ∞ ∞
value miller
indices
Draw Unit cell a b c
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Mark intercepts   
along three axes
Draw the plane by   
joining three
incepts.
X
0
(100) Plane
Z

unit cell
1 1 0
miller indices(010)
Find reciprocal 1 1 ∞
value miller
indices
Page 22 of 37
along three axes

joining three
incepts.
X
0
Z (110) Plane

unit cell
1 1 1
miller indices(010)
Find reciprocal 1 1 1
value miller
indices
along three axes
Page 23 of 37

joining three
incepts.
X
0
Z (111) Plane
Problem: 4) Draw the (222) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS).

unit cell
2 2 2
miller indices(010)
2 2 2
value miller
indices
along three axes
Page 24 of 37

joining three
incepts.
X
0
Z (222) Plane
Problem: 5) Draw the (321) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

unit cell
3 2 1
miller indices(010)
3 2 1
value miller
indices
along three axes
Page 25 of 37
joining three
incepts.
X
0
Z (321) Plane
̅𝟏𝟏) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

Problem: 6) Draw the (𝟏
Ans: (1̅11) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

unit cell
Write reciprocal of −1 1 1
1 1 1
miller indices(010)
Find reciprocal −1 1 1
1 1 1
value miller
indices
along three axes
joining three
Page 26 of 37
incepts.
X
0
Z ( 1 11) Plane
̅𝟏𝟏) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

Problem: 7) Draw the (𝟐
Ans: (2̅11) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

unit cell
Write reciprocal of −1 1 1
2 1 1
miller indices(010)
−1
Find reciprocal 1 1
2
value miller
indices
along three axes
joining three
incepts.
Page 27 of 37
-Z
-X X
0
Z
-Y ( 12 11) Plane
Relationship between inter-planar distance and miller indices of crystal

planes in crystal system:
1 h2 k2 l2
2
= 2
+ 2
+
[d(hkl) ] a b c2
Where (hkl) are miller indices, a, b, c are the intercepts along X, Y, Z axes, d is
inter-planar distance
For simple cubic system, a = b=c
1 h2 k2 l2
Then, 2
= 2
+ 2
+
[d(hkl) ] a a a2
1 h2 + k2 + l2
=
[d(hkl) ]2 a2
a
∴ d(hkl) =
√h2 +k2 +l2
For (100), (110) and (111)
a
d(100) = =a
√12 +02 +02
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a a
d(110) = =
√12 +12 +02 √2
a a
d(111) = =
√12 +12 +12 √3
X – Ray diffraction of crystal: A crystal lattice is considered to be made up of

regular layers or planes of atoms equal distance apart. Since the wavelength of X
– rays is comparable to the inter-atomic distances, Laue suggested that crystal can
act as grating to X – rays. Thus when a beam of X –rays is allowed to fall on a
crystal, a large number of images of different intensities are formed. If the
diffracted waves are in the same phase, they reinforce each other and a series of
bright spots are produced on the photographic plate placed in their path. On the
other hand, if the diffracted waves are out off phase, dark spots are caused on the
photographic plate. From the overall diffraction patterns produced by a crystal,
we can arrive at the detailed information regarding the position of particles in the
crystal. The study of crystal structure with the help of X – rays is called X – rays
diffraction of crystal.
Emergent rays in phase Consective(bright) line

Greating
Incident X - rays
Distructive (dark) line

Emergent rays out of phase
Page 29 of 37
Bragg’s equation: Bragg worked out a mathematical relation to determine inter-

atomic distances from X –ray diffraction patterns. i. e. nλ = 2d sin 𝜃. This relation
is called the Bragg’s equation. Where d = inter-planar distance, 𝜃 =angle of
reflection, λ = wavelength of X –ray and n = order of reflection.
Bragg’s equation show that
1) The X – ray diffracted from atoms in crystal planes obey the laws of
reflection.
2) The two rays reflected by successive planes will be in phase if the extra
distance travelled by the second ray is an integral multiple of wavelength.
Derivation of Bragg’s equation for crystal:
A beam of X – rays falling on the crystal surface. Two successive atomic planes
of the crystal are shown separated by a distance d. let the X – rays of wavelength
λ strike the first plane at an angle 𝜃. Some of the rays will be reflected at the
same angle. Some of the rays will penetrate and get reflected from the second
plane. These rays will reinforce those reflected from the first plane if the extra
distance travelled by them (XQ +QZ) is equal to integral number (n) multiple of
wavelength (λ).
i.e. nλ = XQ +QZ -------------------- (1)
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L N
P R
M
A  
A'

X Z d
B B'
Q d
C C'
d
D D'
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑋𝑄
Consider a triangle XMQ, sin 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑀𝑄
But, MQ = d
∴ XQ = d sin 𝜃 -------------------(2)
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑄𝑍
Similarly, consider a triangle QMZ, sin 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑀𝑄
But, MQ = d
∴ QZ = d sin 𝜃 -------------------(3)
Substitute the values of XQ and QZ from equations (2) and (3) in equation (1).
nλ = d sin 𝜃 + d sin 𝜃
∴ nλ = 2d sin 𝜃
This equation is known as the Bragg’s equation for crystal.
Where, n = order of reflection, λ = Wavelength of X – rays, d = Interplanar

distance and 𝜃 = angle of reflection
Page 31 of 37
Problems on Bragg’s equation of crystals:
1) The first order reflection maximum for (110) planes of NaCl occurs at 8.4 0.
Calculate the wavelength of X –ray radiation if d110 is 0.63nm.
Solution: Given that, order of reflection (n) = 1, angle of reflection(𝜃) = 8.40,

Inter-planar distance (d110) = 0.63 nm then wavelength of X –rays (λ) = ?
2 𝑑110 x sin 𝜃 2x0.63 nm x sin 8.40

We know that, the Bragg’s equation, λ= =
𝑛 1
=0.184 nm
2) At what angle will the second order reflection occur for a crystal of inter-
planar distance 0.282 nm. The wavelength of X –rays used is 0.058nm.
3) With X –rays of wavelength 0.154nm, the lowest glancing angle was found
to occur at 18.20. Calculate the inter-planar distance in the crystal.
4) In an experiment, the second order reflection of X –ray from a crystal was
found to be at an angle of 300. The wavelength of X –ray used was 0.15 nm.
Calculate inter-planar distance.
5) In an experiment using X –rays of wavelength 2.54 x 10-10m, the value of 𝜃
for the first order reflection was found to be 300. Calculate the inter-planar
distance.
6) Abeam of X rays of wavelength 0.154 nm produces a first order reflection at
5.50 from 100 planes. Calculate the distance between the successive planes
of molecules in the crystal.
7) Calculate the angle at which (a) first order reflection (b) second order
reflection occurs in an X – ray spectrometer when x –rays of wavelength
Page 32 of 37
0.154 nm are diffracted by the atoms of (111) planes of a crystal of

interplanar dimensions 0.415 nm.
Liquid crystals: Some organic solids having long rod like molecules which do
not melt to give the liquid substance directly. They, instead, pass through an
intermediate state called the liquid crystal state or simply liquid crystal. Thus
the liquid crystals are intermediate between the liquid state and the solid
state.
 
Crystalline solid Liquid crystals Normal liquid
Cooling Cooling
Examples: p –Ozoxyanisole, Ethyl p –azoxy benzoate, p-cholesteryl benzoate
Types of liquid crystals: According to their molecular arrangement, the liquid

crystals are classified into three types.
1) Smectic ( soap –like) liquid crystals: The liquid crystals have layered
structure with well defined interlayer spacing in one direction only called
smectic liquid crystals. The properties of these liquid crystals are similar to
soaps.
Examples: Ethyl p- azoxy benzoate, ethyl p- azoxy cinnamate and n – octyl –
p- azoxy cinnamate.
Properties of smectic liquid crystals:
a) They do not flow like normal liquids
b) The different planes or sheets glide over one another
Page 33 of 37
c) When they spread over a glass surface, they form a series of terraces or
strata
d) They have complex structure
e) They appear fan- like structure in polarized light.
f) They do not affected by a magnetic field.
2) Nematic(Thread – like) liquid crystals: The liquid crystals in which
molecules are parallel to each other like sod straws (thread like) but they
are free to slide or roll individually called nematic liquid crystals.
Examples: P- methoxy cinnamic acid, dibenzal benzidine, p – azoxy
phenetole
Properties of nematic liquid crystals:
i. They flow more readly than smectic liquid crystals
ii. They having low coefficient of viscosity
iii. They do not conduct electricity in their pure form
iv. They appear thread like in polarized light
v. They affected magnetic field.
3) Cholesteric liquid crystals: The liquid crystals which have some smectic and
some nematic characters are called cholesteric liquid crystals.
 
Smectic liquid crystal Cholesteric liquid crystal Nematic liquid crystal
Cooling Cooling
Example: Cholesteryl myristate, ethyl anisal- p aminocinnamate

Properties of cholesteric liquid crystals:
a) They have very high optical rotation
b) They diffract light
Page 34 of 37
c) They appeared coloured in polarized light

d) They having helical structure
e) They have more than one transition temperature
Applications of liquid crystals:
i) Liquid crystals are used in gas –liquid chromatography because their

mechanical and electrical properties lying between crystalline solid and
isotropic liquids.
ii) Liquid crystals are used in digital display like pocket calculator, digital
wrist watch because they consume very little electrical power.
iii) Liquid crystals are used as solvent for the study of structure of
anisotropic molecules of spectroscopically
iv) The cholesteric liquid crystals are used to detect tumors in the body by a
method called thermography.
Superconducting solids: The phenomenon, in which at very low temperature(

between 2K and 5K), the solids offering no resistance to the flow of electric
current is known as super conducting solids.
This temperature (5K) is too low to apply the phenomenon usefully in daily life.
Attempts are now being made to produce and discover such solids which are
superconducting at workable and economically manageable temperatures.
High temperature superconducting solids: The phenomenon, in which at high

temperature ( about 125K), the solids offering no resistance to the flow of
electric current is known as high temperature super conducting solids.
Page 35 of 37
Examples:
Solids Temperature at which solid show superconductor
Tl2Ca2Ba2Cu3O10 125K
Bi2Ca2Sr2Cu3O10 105K
YBa2Cu3O7 90K
Applications of high temperature superconductors:
1) High temperature superconductors are used in the production of sensitive

magnetometers based on SQUIDs(Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices (“SQUIDs”)
2) High temperature superconductors are used in the fast digital circuits
(including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux
quantum technology),
3) High temperature superconductors are used in the powerful
superconducting electromagnets which is used in maglev trains, Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
machines, magnetic confinement fusion reactors (example; tokamaks), and
the beam-steering and focusing magnets used in particle accelerators
4) low-loss power cables
5) High temperature superconductors are used in the RF and microwave filters
(example, for mobile phone base stations, as well as military ultra-
sensitive/selective receivers)
6) High temperature superconductors are used in the fast fault current
limiters
Page 36 of 37
7) high sensitivity particle detectors, including the transition edge sensor, the
superconducting bolometer, the superconducting tunnel junction detector,
the kinetic inductance detector, and the superconducting nanowire single-
photon detector
8) High temperature superconductors are used in the railgun and coilgun
magnets
9) High temperature superconductors are used in the electric motors and
generators.
Page 37 of 37

UNIT - I, Chapter No.-2 SOLID STATE, 6 Hours, Max. Marks: 10 - 12

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UNIT - I, Chapter No.-2 SOLID STATE, 6 Hours, Max. Marks: 10 - 12

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CHEMISTRY –IV NOTES PREPARED BY Dr.

DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI,

UNIT –I, Chapter No.- 2 SOLID STATE, 6 Hours, Max. Marks: 10 – 12

Review of crystalline and amorphous solids, anisotropy, types of crystalline solids,

Introduction: According to the molecular concept, matter is made up of

1) Crystalline state and

Differences between crystalline and amorphous solids

Anisotropy: The property of crystalline solids in which the magnitude of physical

Space lattice: A regular three dimensional arrangement of points in space is called

Crystal lattice: When space lattice occupied by atoms, ions or molecules of a

Crystallography: The branch of science which deals with the geometry,

Laws of crystallography: Geometric crystallography is concerned with the

1) The law of constancy of interfacial angles: “The angle between the

2) The law of rationality of indices or intercepts: “It is possible to choose

The geometry of a crystal may be completely defined with the help of

Symmetry in crystals: the constituents of a crystalline solid (atoms, ions or

The geometrical entity such as a plane or line with respect to which a

Classification of elements of symmetry:

1) Plane of symmetry: It is an imaginary plane passing through the centre of a

These are also known as rectangular planes of symmetry. There

ii) Type II planes of symmetry (diagonal planes of symmetry): These

2) Line or axes of symmetry: It is an imaginary line passing through the centre

i) Axis of four – fold symmetry: Imagine a line passing through the

Thus, in all a cubic crystal have 13 lines of symmetry.

3) Centre of symmetry: A crystal may possess a centre of symmetry, i.e. a

Bravais lattice: The combinations of a, b, c and α, β, γ, therefore, completely

2) Tetragonal system: Those crystals in which two intercepts are in equal

3) Orthorhombic or rhombic system: Those crystals in which all three

6) Trigonal or rhombohedral system: Those crystals in which all three

7) Hexagonal system: Those crystals in which two intercepts are in equal

SUMMARY OF TYPES OF CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

Calculation of number of particles/atoms per unit cell in face centered cubic

Calculation of number of particles/atoms per unit cell in body centered cubic

Miller indices are represented as (h k l).

Procedure for determination of Miller indices:

a) (a, b, c) b) (6a,3b,3c) c) (a, -2b,-3c) d) (2a,2b,∞) e) (∞,∞,1)

Miller indices (hkl)

Fraction cleared after taking 1 1 0

Fraction cleared after taking 0 0 1

Problem: 1) Draw the (100) plane

Ans: (100) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

Problem: 2) Draw the (110) plane

Ans: (110) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

along three axes

Problem: 3) Draw the (111) plane

Ans: (111) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

Draw the plane by   

Problem: 4) Draw the (222) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS).

Ans: (222) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

Draw the plane by   

Problem: 5) Draw the (321) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

Ans: (321) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

̅𝟏𝟏) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

Ans: (1̅11) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

̅𝟏𝟏) plane (OUT OF SYLLABUS)

Ans: (2̅11) plane can be draw by using following general procedure

Relationship between inter-planar distance and miller indices of crystal

For simple cubic system, a = b=c

For (100), (110) and (111)