Pr

ojectRepor
t

Topi
c:

Super
conduct
ivi
ty
Pr
ojectSubmi
tt
edby:

Sahasr
abdiBi
swal
Rol
lNo.:1802010730330076
+3,
3rdYear
,6t
hSemest
er
Paper:DSE4(
Proj
ect
)
Pr
ojectSuper
visor
:

Laxmi
pri
yaSahoo

TheDepar
tmentofPhy
sics
e-
TECHResi
dent
ial
Degr
eeCol
lege

1
 Decl
arat
ion

Iherebydecl arethatt heprojectwor kent i

tl
ed
'
Superconduct ivi
ty'submittedt oe-
TECHResi denti
al
DegreeCol l
ege, Dhenkanali sar ecordofanor i
ginalwork
donebyme, andthisprojectwor kissubmi t
tedi nthe
parti
alf ul
fi
lmentoft herequirement sfortheawar dof
thedegr eeofBachel orofSci encei nPhysi
cs.Ther esul
ts
embodi edint histhesishav enotbeensubmi tt
edt oany
otheruniversit
yori nsti
tut
ionf ortheawar dofanydegr ee.

Sahasr
abdi
Biswal
(
1802010730330076)

2
 Acknowl
edgement
Iwishtoexpressmysi
ncer
egrati
tudet oLaxmipri
ya
Sahoo, '
HeadoftheDepar
tment
'forpr
ov i
dingmean
opportunit
ytodomypr oj
ectworkin'Superconduct
ivi
ty'
.
Isincer
elythankLaxmipri
yaSahooforhi
sgui
dance
andencouragementincarr
yingoutthi
spr oj
ectwor
k.
Ialsot
hankthePri
nci
palofe-
TECHResident
ial
Degr
eeColl
egeforprov
idi
ngmetheoppor
tunit
yto
embarkonthi
sproj
ect.
Iwoul
dbepleasedtoext
endmyt hankstomyf
ri
end
whohav eal
way
shadt hei
rhel
pinghandduri
ngmyti
meof
need.

3
 Cer
ti
fi
cat
e
TheDepar
tmentofPhy
sics
e-
TECHResi
dent
ialDegr
eeCol
l
ege,
Dhenkanal

Thiscer t
if
iesthatMissSahasr abdiBi
swal ,astudent
ofTheDepar tmentofPhy si
csate- TECHResi denti
al
DegreeCollege,Dhenkanalin+3,3rdyear,
sciencebear i
ng
theRollNo.1802010730330076hassuccessf ul
ly
completedandsubmi ttedherprojectreportwiththetopic
'
Superconduct i
vi
ty'f
orconsiderat
ionintothe'Discipl
ine
Specif
icElecti
ve(DSE)-4' paperinthe6thsemest er
examinati
on.
Theori
ginalresearchworkwascarr
iedoutbyher
undermysupervisionintheacademi
cyear2020-
2021.On
thebasi
softhedecl arat
ionmadebyherIrecommendthi
s
proj
ectr
eportforev al
uati
on.

Laxmi
pri
yaSahoo
(
Headoft
heDepar
tment
)

4
 CONTENTS
Sl
.No. TI
TLE PAGENO.

I
. Abst
ract 06
I
I. I
ntr
oduct
ion 07
I
II
. Hi
stor
yofSuper
conduct
or 08
I
V. Cr
it
ical
Temper
atur
e 09
V. Pr
oper
ti
esofSuper
conduct
ors 10-
17
1.Zer
oEl
ect
ri
cal
Resi
stance
2.Cr
it
ical
Magnet
icFi
eld
3.Cr
it
ical
Cur
rent
4.Per
sist
antCur
rent
5.Mei
ssnerEf
fect
6.I
sot
opeEf
fect
7.JosephsonCur
rent
8.Ther
mody
nami
cEf
fect
VI
. Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion: 18-
19
1.Ty
pe-
ISuper
conduct
or
2.Ty
pe-
IISuper
conduct
or
VI
I. LondonEquat
ion 20-
24
VI
II
. Penet
rat
ionDept
h 25-
26
I
X. BCSTheor
y 27-
29
X. Appl
i
cat
ionofSuper
conduct
ors 30-
35
1.Tr
anspor
tat
ion
2.SQUI
D
3.Cr
yot
ron
4.Medi
cal
Appl
i
cat
ion
5.Super
conduct
ingEl
ect
romagnet
6.PowerCabl
e/Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
XI
. Adv
ant
agesandDi
sadv
ant
ages 36-
37
XI
I. Concl
usi
on 38
XI
II
. Ref
erence 39-
40

5
ABSTRACT:

I
n1911Hei
keKamer
li
nghOnnesunexpect
edl
ydi
scov
eredt
he

phenomenonofsuper
conduct
ivi
tyi
nHg. Super
conduct
ivi
tyal
l
ows

cur
rentt
opasst
hroughamat
eri
alwi
thnor
esi
sti
vi
tybel
ow acer
tai
n

cr
it
icalt
emper
atur
e.I
tal
soexhi
bitmei
ssneref
fectwhi
chcausest
he

super
conduct
ingmat
eri
alt
orepelmagnet
icf
iel
ds.Theappl
i
cat
ionof

t
hist
echnol
ogyi
sonl
yinanexcessi
vel
ycol
denv
ironment
.

To be abl
eto appl
ythe pr
oper
ti
es ofsuper
conduct
ing

mat
eri
als on a l
arge scal
e, super
conduct
ors must become

super
conduct
ing att
emper
atur
eswhi
char
eeasi
ert
o accompl
i
sh.

Recent
ly, howev
er t
he i
nvent
ions of hi
gh t
emper
atur
e

super
conduct
orsar
emader
emar
kabl
edi
scov
eri
es. I
nthepr
esent

wor
ld,
super
conduct
orsar
ebei
ngusedi
nal
mostal
lthef
iel
dssuchas

t
elecommuni
cat
ion,
medi
cal
,space,
def
enseet
c.

6
I
NTRODUCTI
ON:

Super
conduct
ivi
tyi
saf
asci
nat
ingandchal
l
engi
ngf
iel
dofPhy
sics.

Today
,super
conduct
ivi
tyi
sbei
ngappl
i
edt
omanydi
ver
sear
eassuchas:

t
heor
eti
cal and

exper
iment
al

sci
ence, mi
l
itar
y,

t
ranspor
tat
ion,

power pr
oduct
ion,

el
ect
roni
cs,
medi
cine

as wel
l as many

ot
her ar
eas.

Sci
ent
ist
s and

engi
neer
sthr
oughoutt
he wor
ld hav
e been st
ri
vi
ng t
o under
stand t
his

r
emar
kabl
ephenomenonf
ormanyy
ear
s.

Super
conduct
ivi
tyi
saphenomenoni
nwhi
chcer
tai
nmat
eri
alsexhi
bit

al
mostzer
oresi
sti
vi
tywhent
heyar
ecool
edt
osuf
fi
ci
ent
lyl
owt
emper
atur
e.

A mat
eri
alwhi
chexhi
bit
ssuper
conduct
ivi
tyi
scal
l
edsuper
conduct
oror

super
conduct
ingmat
eri
al.

7
HI
STORYOFSUPERCONDUCTOR:

Super
conduct
ivi
ty

wasf
ir
stobser
vedi
n1911

by Dut
ch Phy
sici
st H.
K.

Onnesi
nthecour
seofhi
s

exper
iment
s on t
he

el
ect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ti
esof

met
alsatl
owt
emper
atur
es.

He obser
ved t
hat as

pur
if
iedmer
cur
yiscool
ed,

i
ts r
esi
stance v
ani
shed

abr
upt
ly at 4.
2 Kel
vi
n.

Abov
e t
his t
emper
atur
e,

t
her
esi
stancei
ssmal
l
,butf
ini
te.Ther
esi
stancebel
owt
hispoi
nt

i
ssosmal
lthati
tisessent
ial
l
yzer
o.

8
CRI
TICALTEMPERATURE:

The t
emper
atur
e at whi
ch t
he t
ransi
ti
on f
rom nor
mal st
ate t
o
super
conduct
ingst
atet
akespl
aceoncool
i
ngi
ntheabsenceofmagnet
icf
iel
dis
cal
l
edt
hecr
it
ical
temper
atur
e(TC)ort
het
ransi
ti
ont
emper
atur
e.

Tabl
e:Cr
it
icalt
emper
atur
eofsomesel
ect
edsuper
conduct
ors

9
PROPERTI
ESOFSUPERCONDUCTORS:

Thesuper
conduct
ingmat
eri
alshowssomeext
raor
dinar
ypr
oper
ti
eswhi
ch
maket
hem v
eryi
mpor
tantf
ormoder
ntechnol
ogy
.Ther
esear
chi
sst
il
lgoi
ngon
t
ounder
standandut
il
iset
heseext
raor
dinar
ypr
oper
ti
esofsuper
conduct
orsi
n
v
ari
ousf
iel
dsoft
echnol
ogy
. Suchpr
oper
ti
esofsuper
conduct
orsar
eli
sted
bel
ow:

1.Zer
oEl
ect
ri
cal
Resi
stance

2.Cr
it
ical
Magnet
icFi
eld

3.Cr
it
ical
Cur
rent

4.Per
sist
antCur
rent

5.Mei
ssnerEf
fect

6.I
sot
opeEf
fect

7.JosephsonCur
rent

8.Ther
mody
nami
cef
fect

1. Zer
oEl
ect
ri
calResi
stance:

I
nsuper
conduct
ingst
ate,t
hesuper
conduct
ingmat
eri
alshowst
hezer
o
el
ect
ri
cresi
stance(
inf
ini
teconduct
ivi
ty)
. Whent
hesameofsuper
conduct
ing
mat
eri
ali
scool
edbel
owi
tscr
it
icalt
emper
atur
e,i
tsr
esi
stancer
educessuddenl
y
t
ozer
o.

2. Cr
it
ical
Magnet
icFi
eld:

I
n 1913 Hei
ke Kammer
li
ngh Onnes obser
ved t
hatsuper
conduct
ivi
ty
v
ani
shesi
fasuf
fi
cient
lyst
rongmagnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
ed.Themi
nimum appl
i
ed
magnet
icf
iel
dnecessar
ytodest
roysuper
conduct
ivi
tyandr
est
oret
henor
mal

10
r
esi
sti
vi
tyi
scal
l
edcr
it
ical
magnet
icf
iel
d(Hc)
.

Whent
heappl
i
ed magnet
icf
iel
d exceedst
hecr
it
icalv
alue Hc,t
he
super
conduct
ingst
atei
sdest
roy
edandt
hemat
eri
algoesi
ntonor
malst
ate.The
cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d(Hc)dependsont
emper
atur
e. Thev
ari
ati
onofcr
it
ical
magnet
icf
iel
dwi
tht
emper
atur
eisshowni
nfi
gur
e.Thi
sty
peofgr
aphi
sknown
asmagnet
icphasedi
agr
am.

A speci
men i
s super
conduct
ing bel
ow t
he cur
ve and i
n nor
mal
conduct
ingst
ateoft
hemat
eri
ali
srest
oredi
fthemagnet
icf
iel
disgr
eat
ert
han
t
hecr
it
icalv
alue(Ho)ort
emper
atur
eoft
hespeci
meni
srai
sedabov
ecr
it
ical
t
emper
atur
eTc. I
not
herwor
ds,f
ort
hesuper
conduct
ingst
atet
oexi
st,t
her
e
mustbeasui
tabl
ecombi
nat
ionoft
emper
atur
eandmagnet
icf
iel
d.Foragi
ven
subst
ance,t
hev
alueofHcdecr
easesast
emper
atur
eincr
easesf
rom T=0kt
oTc
(
Cri
ti
cal
temper
atur
e).

Thecr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d (Hc)dependsupont
het
emper
tur
eoft
he
super
conduct
ing mat
eri
al. The r
elat
ion bet
ween cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d and
t
emper
atur
eisgi
venby
.

( )
T2
Hc= Ho 1- 2
Tc

Her
e,Ho cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
databsol
utezer
otempr
atur
e(Okel
vi
n)
oft
hemat
eri
al.

TC super
conduct
ingt
ransi
ti
ont
emper
atur
eoft
hemat
eri
al.

Ti
sthet
emper
atur
ebel
ow TC oft
hesuper
conduct
ingmat
eri
al.

HC Cr
it
ical
magnet
icf
iel
doft
hemat
eri
al

(
i) AtT=TC,
HC=0

11
 The cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d i
s zer
o at super
conduct
ing
t
ransi
ti
ont
emper
atur
e.

(
ii
) HC i
ncr
easesast
het
emper
atur
edecr
easesbel
owTC.

(
ii
i) AtT=0Kel
vi
n,HC =H0

3.Cr
it
ical
Cur
rent:

TheCr
it
icalMagnet
icFi
eldr
equi
redt
odest
roysuper
conduct
ivi
tyneednot
necessar
il
ybeappl
i
edext
ernal
l
y.Anel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
he
super
conduct
ingmat
eri
ali
tsel
fmaygi
ver
iset
onecessar
ymagnet
icf
iel
d.
Forexampl
e,whenacur
rentf
lowst
hroughasuper
conduct
ingwi
re,i
tgi
ve
r
iset
oit
sownmagnet
icf
iel
d.Ast
hecur
renti
sincr
easedt
oacr
it
ical
val
ue
i
c,t
heassoci
atedmagnet
icf
iel
dbecomesHc andt
hesuper
conduct
ivi
ty
di
sappear
s. Themi
nimum cur
rentt
hatcanbepassedi
naspeci
men
wi
thoutdest
roy
ingi
tssuper
conduct
ivi
tyi
scal
l
edcr
it
ical
cur
rent
.

4.Per
sist
entCur
rent
:

Whent
hesuper
conduct
ori
nthet
hef
orm ofar
ingi
spl
acedi
namagnet
ic
f
iel
d,t
henacur
renti
sinduced i
nitbyel
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ion.I
fther
ingi
sin
12
nor
mal
conduct
ingst
ate,
thecur
rentdecr
easesqui
ckl
ybecauseoft
her
esi
stance
oft
her
ing.

Si
nce t
he r
ing i
s i
n
super
conduct
ing st
ate,t
he r
ing has
zer
orei
stance.Oncet
hecur
renti
sset
up,i
tfl
ows i
ndef
ini
tel
ywi
thoutany
decr
ease i
nit
sval
ue. The cur
rent
per
sist
sev
enaf
tert
her
emov
aloft
hemagnet
icf
iel
d. Suchast
eadycur
rent
whi
chf
lowst
hroughasuper
conduct
ingr
ingwi
thoutanydecr
easei
nit
sst
rengt
h,
asl
ongast
hemat
eri
ali
sinsuper
conduct
ingst
ate,
iscal
l
edper
sist
entcur
rent
.

5.Mei
ssnerEf
fect
:

I
n1933,
W.Mei
ssnerand
R.
Ochsenf
eldf
ound t
hati
fa
super
conduct
ori
scool
edi
na
magnet
icf
iel
d,bel
ow cr
it
ical
t
emper
atur
e cor
respondi
ng t
o
t
hat f
iel
d,t
hen t
he l
i
nes of
magnet
ici
nduct
ionar
eexpel
l
ed
f
rom t
he mat
eri
al, at t
he
t
ransi
ti
on as shown i
nfi
gur
e.
Thi
sef
fecti
scal
l
ed Mei
ssner
ef
fect
.

Abov
e cr
it
ical
t
emper
atur
eshowssuper
conduct
ori
nnor
malst
ateandmagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orce
passt
hroughi
t.Bel
ow cr
it
icalt
emper
aut
rei
tshowssuper
conduct
ing st
atei
n
whi
chmagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orcear
eexpel
l
edoutofspeci
men.Mei
ssneref
fecti
s
r
ever
sibl
e,whent
het
emper
atur
eisr
aisedf
rom bel
ow cr
it
icalt
emper
atur
e(TC)
t
hen magnet
icf
luxsuddenl
ypenet
rat
est
hespeci
men. Si
ncet
hemagnet
ic
13
i
nduct
ioni
nasuper
conduct
ori
szer
o,henceasuper
conduct
or i
saper
fect
di
amagnet
ic.

Weknow t
hatmagnet
icFl
uxdensi
tyi
nsi
det
heconduct
orpl
acedi
na
magnet
icf
iel
disgi
venas

B=0(
H+M)
H–ext
ernal
appl
i
edmagnet
icf
iel
d
M –magnet
isat
ionpr
oducedi
nsi
det
hespeci
men
Forasuper
conduct
ionB=0HenceM =-H
Asuper
conduct
ori
saper
fectdi
agmagnet
icmat
eri
al,wi
tht
hemagnet
ic

suscept
ibi
l
ityequal
to-
1.

6. I
sot
opeEf
fect
:

Thecr
it
icalt
emper
atur
eTCv
alueofasuper
conduct
ori
sfoundt
ovar
ywi
th
i
tsi
sot
opi
c mass. Thi
svar
iat
ioni
nTC wi
thi
tsi
sot
opi
cmassi
scal
l
edt
he
i
sot
opi
c ef
fect
. The cr
it
icalt
emper
atur
e changes smoot
hlywhen we mi
x
di
ff
erenti
sot
opesoft
hesameel
ement
.Theexper
iment
alr
esul
tswi
thi
neach
ser
iesofi
sot
opesmaybef
it
tedbyar
elat
ionoft
hef
orm

M Tc=const
ant

I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hecr
it
icalt
emper
tur
eisi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
othe
squar
erootofi
sot
opi
cmassofsi
ngl
esuper
conduct
or ei
.Her sisot
opi
cef
fect
coef
fi
ci
entandi
tisappr
oxi
mat
elyequal
to0.
5.

M1/2Tc=const
ant

Butf
orsomemat
eri
alst
hev
alueofmayv
ary
.Thev
alueoff
orsome
mat
eri
alsi
sgi
venbel
ow:

14
7. JosephsonCur
rent
s:

I
ftwosuper
conduct
orsar
esepar
atedbyat
hinf
il
m ofi
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
al,
whi
chf
ormsal
owr
esi
stancej
uct
ion,i
tisf
oundt
hatt
hecooperpai
r(f
ormedby
phononi
nter
act
ion)ofel
ect
rons,cant
unnelf
rom onesi
deofj
unct
iont
othe
ot
hersi
de.Thecur
rent
,duet
ofl
ow ofsuchcooperpai
rs,i
scal
l
edJosephson
cur
rent
.

8. Ther
mody
nami
cEf
fect
s:

Thet
her
malpr
oper
ti
essuchasent
ropy
,ther
malconduct
ivi
tyandspeci
fi
c
heatcapaci
tyofsubst
ance change abr
upt
ly,when i
tpasses ov
eri
ntot
he
super
conduct
ingst
ate.

(
i) Ent
ropy – I
n al
l
super
conduct
ors,t
he ent
ropy
decr
easesmar
kedl
yoncool
i
ng
bel
ow t
hecr
it
icalt
emper
atur
e
Tc . Measur
ement
s f
or
al
umi
nium ar
epl
ott
edi
nFi
gur
e.

The decr
ease i
n ent
ropy
bet
weent
henor
malst
ateandt
he
super
conduct
ingst
atet
ell
sust
hat
t
hesuper
conduct
ingst
atei
smor
e
or
der
ed t
han t
he nor
mal st
ate,
becauset
heent
ropyi
sameasur
eoft
hedi
sor
derofasy
stem.

Someoral
loft
heel
ect
ronst
her
mal
l
yexci
tedi
nthenor
malst
atear
e
or
der
ed i
nthe super
conduct
ing st
ate. The change i
n ent
ropyi
s smal
l
,in
al
umi
nium oft derof10-4KB perat
heor om. TheSmal
lent
ropychangemust
meant
hatonl
yasmal
lfr
act
ion(
oft derof10-4)oft
heor heconduct
ionel
ect
rons

15
par
ti
cipat
eint
het
ransi
ti
ont
otheor
der
edsuper
conduct
ingst
ate.

(
ii
) Ther
mal Conduct
ivi
ty – The
Ther
mal conduct
ivi
ty of
super
conduct
ors under
goes a
cont
inuouschangebet
weent
het
wo
phases. I
tisusual
l
yloweri
sthe
super
conduct
ing phase. Thi
s
suggest
s t
hat t
he el
ect
roni
c
cont
ri
but
iondr
opsandpossi
blyt
he
super
conduct
ingel
ect
ronpl
ayi
ngno
par
tint
heheatt
ransf
er.

Var
iat
ion of t
her
mal
conduct
ivi
ty wi
tht
emper
atur
e
f
ort
ini
sshowni
nfi
gur
e.I
tcan
beseent
hatt
her
mal
conduct
ivi
tyi
sloweri
nsuper
conduct
ingst
ate.

(
ii
) Speci
fi
cHeat–Thespeci
fcheatCv
i
i
n a nor
mal conduct
or at l
ow
t
emper
atur
e, consi
sts of t
wo
cont
ri
but
ions,Ce
v f
rom t
heel
ect
rons
i
ntheconduct
ionbandandC1
v f
rom
t
hel
att
ice.Thus,

Cv=Ce
v+C
1
T+T3
v=

Ce
visl
i
near
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
o
eC1
Twhi
l v i
spr
opor
ti oT3,and
onalt
i
sexpl
ainedbyDeby
etheor
y. The
cont
ri
but
iont
othespeci
fi
cheatby
t
heel
ect
r Ce
ons( v)i
nthesuper
conduct
ingst
atei
spl
ott
edi
nfi
gur
eandi
s
16
compar
edwi
tht
hei
rcont
ri
but
ioni
nthenor
mal
stat
e.

Thet
wocur
vesar
eobt
ainedbymeasur
ingt
hespeci
fcheatCv
i
wi
thandwi
thoutamagnet
icf
iel
dwhosest
rengt
hexceedst
hecr
it
icalf
iel
d
Hc(
T).Fr
om t
his,t
heel
ect
roni
ccont
ri
but
ionCe
vis obt
ainedbysubt
ract
ing
t
hel
att
icecont
ri
but
ionC1
v. Whent
hef
iel
disappl
i
edt
hemet
ali
sint
he
nor
malst
ate,andwheni
tisnotappl
i
edi
tisi
nthesuper
conduct
ingst
ate.
Thepr
esenceoft
hemagnet
icf
iel
dint
henor
malst
atedoesnotsi
gni
fi
cant
ly
modi
fyt
he cont
ri
but
ion t
othe speci
fi
c heatby t
he el
ect
rons i
nthe
conduct
ionband.

17
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFSUPERCONDUCTORS:

Super
conduct
orsar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes,
accor
dingt
othei
rbehav
iour
i
next
ernal
magnet
icf
iel
d.

(
1)Ty
pe-
ISuper
conduct
ors

(
2)Ty
pe-
IISuper
conduct
ors

1.
Type-
lSuper
conduct
ors:

Ty
pe-
ISuper
conduct
orsar
eal
soknownassof
tsuper
conduct
ors. The
magnet
izat
ion cur
ve f
or Ty
pe-
I
super
conduct
ori
sshowni
nfi
gur
e.Theyar
e
per
fect
lydi
amagnet
icandf
oll
ow Mei
ssner
’s
ef
fect v
ery st
ri
ctl
y and t
ransi
ti
on f
rom
super
conduct
ingt
onor
malst
atei
sabr
upt
.
They compl
etel
y expelt
he magnet
icf
iel
d
f
rom i
nter
ioroft
hesuper
conduct
ingphase
upt
o cr
it
ical f
iel
d st
rengt
h Hc . The
magnet
izat
ion ofsuper
conduct
orgr
owsi
n
pr
opor
ti
ont
otheext
ernalmagnet
icf
iel
dH
andt
henabr
upt
lydr
opst
ozer
oassoonast
heappl
i
edf
iel
dHexceedsHc.

I
f ext
ernal appl
i
ed Fi
eld H< Hc , Ty
pe-
I super
conduct
ors ar
e i
n
super
conduct
ingst
ateandper
fectdi
amagnet
.ButassoonasHexceedsHc,
the
super
conduct
orent
ersi
nnor
malst
ateandi
tsdi
amagent
icpr
oper
tydi
sappear
s
andt
hemagnet
icf
luxpenet
rat
est
hrought
hesuper
conduct
or. Si
nceasmal
l
magnet
icf
iel
disr
equi
red t
o dest
royt
hesuper
conduct
ing pr
oper
ti
esoft
he
speci
menhencet
hesesuper
donduct
orsar
ecal
l
edsof
tsuper
conduct
ors.The
v
alueofHc f
ormostoft
ype-
lsuper
conduct
orsi
sver
ylow (
about0.
1tesl
a).
Sl
i
ghti
mpur
it
ydoesnotaf
fectt
hesuper
conduct
ivi
tyoft
ype-
lsuper
conduct
ors.
Al
umi
nium,
leadandi
ndi
um ar
eexampl
esoft
ype-
lsuper
conduct
ors.

18
2.Ty
pe-
IISuper
conduct
ors:

Ty
pe-
IIsuper
conduct
orsar
e al
so

known as har
d super
conduct
ors.

Themagnet
izat
ioncur
vef
orTy
pe-

I
I super
conduct
or i
s shown i
n

Fi
gur
e.TheTy
pe-
IIsuper
conduct
or

i
s char
act
eri
sed by t
wo cr
it
ical

f
iel
dsHc and Hc . Theydonot
1 2

f
oll
ow Mei
ssner ef
fect st
ri
ctl
y.

Theydonotabr
upt
lyj
umpst
onor
malst
ateasmagnet
icf
iel
disi
ncr
eased.For

v
alueofmagnet
icf
iel
dbel
ow Hc,t
hesuper
1
donduct
orsexpel
sthemagnet
icf
iel
d

f
rom i
tsbodycompl
etel
yandbehav
esasaper
fectdi
amagnet
.Hc i
scal
l
edl
ower
1

cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d.Bel
ow Hc t
1
hemat
eri
ali
stot
all
yinsuper
conduct
ingst
ate.

Ast
hemagnet
icf
iel
dincr
easesf
rom Hc,
themagnet
icl
i
nesbegi
nst
openet
rat
es

t
hemat
eri
al.Thi
spenet
rat
ioni
ncr
easesunt
ilHc i
sreached.Hci
2
scal
l
edupper
2

cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d.Bet
weenHcandHct
1
hespeci
2
meni
sinmi
xedst
ate.Abov
e

Hct
2
hemagnet
izat
ionbecomeszer
oandext
ernalf
iel
dcompl
etel
ypenet
rat
est
he

super
conduct
orand dest
roy t
he super
conduct
ivi
ty. Hence abov
e Hc t
he 2

speci
meni
snor
malconduct
or.Bet
weent
wocr
it
icalf
iel
d Hc and Hc t
1
hef
iel
d 2

i
nsi
de t
he speci
men i
s notzer
o and hence Mei
ssneref
fecti
s notobey
ed

compl
etel
y.
Since a l
arge magnet
ic f
iel
d i
s r
equi
red t
o dest
roy t
he

super
conduct
ingpr
oper
ti
esoft
hespeci
menhencet
hesesuper
conduct
orsar
e

cal
l
ed har
d super
conduct
ors. Nb-
Sn, Nb-
Ti ar
e exampl
e of t
ype-
II

super
conduct
ors.
19
LONDONEQUATI
ON:

Toexpl
ainMei
ssneref
fectandzer
oresi
sti
vi
tyFr
it
zLondonandHei
nz
Londoni
n1935 pr
oposed amacr
oscopi
ctheor
yofsuper
conduct
ors. They
der
ivedt
wonew f
iel
dequat
ionst
oexpl
ainMei
ssneref
fectandzer
oresi
sti
vi
ty,
whi
char
eknownasLondonequat
ions.Thei
rpr
oposedequat
ionsar
econsi
stent
wi
tht
heMei
ssneref
fectandcanbeusedwi
thMaxwel
l
'sequat
ionst
opr
edi
ct
howt
hemagnet
icf
iel
dandsur
facecur
rentv
arywi
thdi
stancef
rom t
hesur
face
ofasuper
conduct
or.Thet
heor
yisbasedont
hei
deat
hatasuper
conduct
ori
s
composed ofnor
maland super
conduct
ing el
ect
rons. Atsuper
conduct
ing
t
emper
atur
e,t
heconduct
ioni
sonl
yduet
osuper
conduct
ingel
ect
ronsbutast
he
t
emper
atur
eincr
eases,t
he numberofsuper
conduct
ing el
ect
rons decr
eases
whi
l
ethenumberofnor
mal
elect
ronsi
ncr
eases.

Let m =massofel
ect
rons
-
e=char
geonel
ect
rons
ns=numberofsuper
condct
ingel
ect
ronsperuni
tvol
ume
nn=numberofnor
mal
elect
ronsperuni
tvol
ume
s=d
v r
if
tvel
oci
tyofsuper
conduct
ingel
ect
rons
⃗
E=el
ect
ri
cfi
eld.
Accor
dingt
oNewt
on’
ssecondl
aw,t
heequat
ionofmot
ionofel
ect
ron
i
nsi
deaconduct
ori
sgi
venas

⃗ ⃗
m v=-
d eE +Resi
sti
vef
orce…………….
.(1)
dt
However f
orsuper
conduct
ingel
ect
ronst
her
eisnor
esi
stance. Hence
r
esi
sti
vef
orcei
szero.

Ther
efor
eequat
ion(
1)becomes

⃗ ⃗
m vs=-
d eE ……………………………….
(2)
dt

20
 Thecur
rentdensi
tyofsuper
conduct
ingel
ect
ronsi
sgi
venas

⃗ ⃗
Js =-
nsevs…………………………………….
.(
3)

Thenegat
ivesi
gnshowst
hatdi
rect
ionofcur
rentdensi
tyi
sopposi
tet
o
dr
if
tvel
oci
tyofel
ect
rons

Fr
om equat
ion(
3)

⃗ ⃗
dJs=- d
nse vs

dt dt

⃗
dJsnse2 ⃗
Or = ×E ………………(
4)
dt m

Thi
s equat
ion(
4)i
s cal
l
ed Fi
rstLondon equat
ion. The f
ir
stLondon
equat
ionexpr
essesper
fectconduct
ivi
tyi
nthatt
heel
ect
ri
cfi
eldaccel
erat
est
he
superel
ect
rons.Taki
ngcur
lofequat
ion(
4),
weget

⃗ ⃗ n 2 ⃗ ⃗
d( se
 xJs)= ( xE ) …………(
5)
dt m

Fr
om Maxwel
leuqat
ion,
wecanwr
it
e

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 xE. ∂
=- B
∂t

Put
ti
ngt
hisv
aluei
nequat
ion(
5),
weget

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
d( n
 xJs)=-se∂B
2

dt m ∂t

I
ntegr
ati
ngw.
r.
t.t
ime,
weget

⃗ ⃗ nse2⃗
 xJs)=-m B ………………….
( (6)

21
 ⃗ ⃗
Themagnet
icf
luxdensi
tyB i
srel
atedt
ovect
orpot
ent
ialA as

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
B = xA

Put
ti
ngt
hisv
aluei
neuqat
ion(
6),
weget

⃗ ⃗ nse( 2 ⃗ ⃗
 xJs=-  xA)
m

⃗ -nse2⃗
Or Js= m A ………………(
7)

Thi
sequat
ion(
7)i
scal
l
edsecondLondonequat
ion.ThesecondLondon
equat
iondescr
ibest
heMei
ssneref
fect
.Itempl
i
est
hatwi
thi
nasuper
conduct
or
anext
ernal
magnet
icf
iel
ddecay
sov
ert
hechar
act
eri
sti
cdi
stance.

Agai
ntheamper
e’sci
rcui
tal
lawi
ndi
ff
erent
ial
for
m

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 xB = µ0Js………….(
8)

Taki
ngcur
lbot
hsi
des,
weget

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 x(xB )= µ0 ( xJs)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(.B )-2B =µ0 ( xJs)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
2B =µ0 ( xJs)(
- .B=0)

( )
⃗ µ0nse ⃗
2

 B= m B
-2

22
 ⃗ ⃗
2B =1 B ………….(
9)
2

Wher
e= m
µ0nse2

i
sknownast
heLondonpenet
rat
iondept
h.

Equat
ion(
9)i
nonedi
mensi
onbecomes

d2B=1B……………….
.(10)
dx2 2

Thi
sisasi
mpl
edi
ff
erent
ial
equat
ionwhi
chhassol
uti
on
B=A1e-x/+A2ex/
Wher eA1 andA2 ar econstant
s.Theseconst antscanbedet erminedby
apply
ing boundarycondi ti
ons. The soluton A2ex/ i
i s discar
ded because i t
i
ndicatesthatfi
eldincr easesaswemov einsi
dethesuper conductor.Theref
or e,
thesolut
ionis
B=B0e-x/………………………. (
11)
Wher existhedi stancefr
om surf
aceoft hespeci menandB0 i smagnet i
c
fl
ux densityatt he sur face ofsuperconductor
. Thi s equati
on shows t hat
magnet i
cfiel
dinsidet hesampl edecr
easesexponent i
all
ywi thdi
stancefr
om t he
surf
aceasshownf igure.

Forx=
Equat
ion(
11)becomses
B=B0e-1

Or B=Bo……………………….(
12)
e
ThusLondonpenet
rat
iondepthisdefi
nedasthemeasureoft
hedi
stance
fr
om thesurfaceofthesuperconductoratwhichthemagneticf
luxdensi
ty
decay
st o1/
eofitsval
ueatt
hesurfaceofthesuper
conduct
or.
I
fthi
cknessxoft
hemat
eri
ali
smuchl
esst
hant
hepenet
rat
iondept
h

i
.e.x<<orx0


23
 ThenEquat
ion(
11)becomes

BB0
i
.e.magneti
c Fl
ux densi
ty ev
ery
wher einsi
de the superconduct
ori s
const
antandequaltot
heval
ueatthesurfaceofsuper
conductor
.Thi sexpl
ains
fl
uxpenetr
ati
on.
I
fthi
cknessxoft
hesampl
eismuchl
argert
hant
he
penet
rat
iondept
hi.
e.x
>>t
hen
x∞


Ore-x/e-∞ =0

 Equat
ion(
11)becomes

B0
Thusmagnet
icFl
uxdensi
tyi
nsi
dethesampl
ewil
lzer
oi.
e.Mei
ssnerEf
fect
(
Per
fectdi
amagnet
ism)wi
l
lbeexhi
bit
edbythemat
eri
al.
Thus London equat
ions expl
ainf
lux penet
rat
ion and Mei
ssneref
fect
successf
ull
y.

24
PENETRATI
ONDEPTH:

Weknowt
hatf
luxdensi
tyi
nsi
deasuper
conduct
orchangesas

B=B0e-x/

I
fweputx=

ThenB=B0e-1

B
OrB= 0
e

Thuspenet
rat
iondept
hisdef
inedast
hedi
stancef
rom sur
faceoft
he
super
conduct
oratwhi
cht
hemagnet
icf
luxdensi
tydecay
sto1/
eofi
tsv
alueat
t
hesur
faceofsuper
conduct
or.I
tisgi
venas

(
0)= m ( att
emper
atur
e0k)
0nse2

Si
ncecont
ainsnswhi
chv
ari
eswi
tht
emper
atur
e.Thuspenet
rat
iondept
h
i
saf
unct
ionoft
emper
atur
eoft
hesampl
e.

ns=0
ForT>TC,

ns=maxi
AtT=0, mum

∴=mi
nimum

Thusi
ngener
ali
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easeoft
emper
atur
eoft
hesampl
e.
Theempi
ri
cal
rel
ati
onbet
weenandt
emper
atur
e(T)i
s

(
T)= (
0) ………………………….
(1)

⌊ ( )⌋
T 1/2
4
1- .
Tc

Wher
e(
0)i
spenet
rat
iondepat
hat0kand(
T)i
spenet
rat
iondept
hatTk.

Equat
ion(
1)canbewr
it
tenas

25
 ⌊ ⌋ ⌈ ( )⌉
T)2=
( T 4 -1……….
.(2)
1-
(
0) Tc

Thev
ari
ati
on of wi
thT i
sshown i
nfi
gur
e.
Equat
ion (
1)i
mpl
i
es t
hatsuper
conduct
ing el
ect
ron
densi
tyi
sgi
venas

⌊ ( )⌋
ns=n0 1-T ………….
4
.(
(3)
Tc
Thedensi
tyofsuper
conduct
ingel
ect
ronsi
ncr
easesf
rom zer
oatTct
on0
atT=0kasshowni
nfi
gur
e
Fr
om equat
ion(
3)
n0
ns
=1-
⌊ ( )⌋
T 4 -1
Tc
………………….
.(
(4)

Fr
om equat
ions(
3&4)

⌊ ⌋
T)2=n0
(
0) ns
(

n0 1/2
(
T)=(
0)
()
ns

26
BCSTHEORY:

Manyt
her
ori
esf
ort
he
ex
planat
ion ofphenomenon
of super
conduct
ivi
ty wer
e
pr
oposedl
i
keLondon’
stheor
y
et
c. ButBCSt
heor
yismost
wi
del
y accept
ed t
heor
y t
o
ex
plai
nphenomenonofsuper
conduct
ivi
ty. Thi
stheor
ywasgi
venbyBar
den,
CoopenandSchr
ief
fer
.Fort
hist
heor
yBar
den,CooperandSchr
ief
fergotNobl
e
Pr
izei
n1972.

Thi
stheor
yst
atest
hatt
heel
ect
ronexper
iencespeci
alki
ndofat
tract
ion
I
nter
act
ion,ov
ercomi
ngt
hecoul
ombf
orcesofr
epul
sionbet
weent
hem,asa
r
esul
tofcopperpai
rs.Atl
owt
emper
atur
e,t
hesepai
rsmov
ewi
thoutscat
ter
ing
i
.e.wi
thoutanyr
esi
stanet
hrought
hel
att
icepoi
ntsandt
hemat
eri
albecome
super
conduct
or. Hence t
he el
ect
ron-
phonon-
elect
ron i
nter
act
ion shoul
d be
st
ronger t
han el
ect
ron-
elect
ron i
nter
act
ion. BCS t
heor
y expl
ain
super
conduct
ivi
typhenomenonbyi
nvol
vi
ng2t
erms.

(
1)El
ect
ron-
phonon-
elect
roni
nter
act
ion

(
2)Cooperpai
r

El
ect
ron-
Phonon-
Elect
ronI
nter
act
ion:

El
ect
ron-
phonon-
elect
roni
nter
act
ioni
s
basi
s ofBCS t
heor
y. Accor
ding t
o BCS
t
heor
ylat
ti
cev
ibr
ati
onpl
ayani
mpor
tantr
ole
i
nsuper
conduct
ivi
typhenomenon.Consi
der
al
att
iceconsi
sti
ngofposi
ti
vei
ons. When
an el
ect
ron passes t
hrough t
he l
att
ice i
t
i
nter
act
swi
tht
hei
onsel
ect
rost
ati
cal
l
yi.
e.

27
coul
omb at
tract
ion t
akes pl
ace
bet
weenel
ect
ronandposi
ti
vei
ons.
As a r
esul
tlat
ti
ce getdi
stor
ted
and a r
egi
on of hi
gh posi
ti
ve
char
gedensi
tyi
scr
eat
edwhi
chi
s
cal
l
ed phonon. When anot
her
el
ect
ronent
erst
hel
att
icei
twi
l
lbe
at
tract
edbyt
her
egi
onofhi
ghposi
ti
vechar
gedensi
tyi
.e.phononandt
wo
el
ect
ronswi
l
lfor
m aweakl
i
nkbet
weent
hem i
nst
eadofcoul
ombi
anr
epul
sion
bet
weent
hem. I
nthi
swaysecondel
ect
ronhasi
nter
act
edwi
thf
ir
stel
ect
ron
t
hrough phonon. Thi
sty
peofi
nter
act
ion i
scal
l
ed el
ect
ron-
phonon-
elect
ron
i
nter
act
ion.Thei
nter
act
ioni
sst
rongonl
ywhent
het
woel
ect
ronshav
eequal
and
opposi
temoment
um andspi
ns.

Consi
dert
he f
ir
stel
ect
ron wi
th
⃗
wav
ev ork di
ect stor
tst
hel
att
ice,
ther
e
⃗
byemi
tt
ingaphononsofwav
evect
orq.
⃗ ⃗
Thi
sresul
tint
hewav
ev ork-qf
ect or
t
hef
ir
stel
ect
ron. Now i
fthesecond
⃗
el
ect
ronwi
thwav
ev ork',seekst
ect hel
att
ice,i
ttakesupt
heener
gyf
rom t
he
⃗ ⃗
l
att
iceandi
tswav
evect o k'+ q asshowni
orchangest nfi
gur
e.Twoel
ect
rons
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
wi
thwav
ev ork-q and k'+ q f
ect rom apai
rofel
ect
ronsknownascooper
pai
rs.

28
CooperPai
rs:

A cooperpai
risf
ormed whent
wo el
ect
ronsi
nter
actwi
theachot
her
t
hroughphononat
tract
ivel
yandbyov
ercomi
ngt
hecoul
omb’
srepul
siv
efor
ces.
Thebi
ndi
ngener
gyofcooperpai
risv
ery
smal
l
. As t
he super
conduct
ivi
ty
phenomenoni
sduet
othesecooperpai
rs
t
hus super
conduct
ivi
ty i
s a l
ow
t
emper
atur
ephenomenon. Theel
ect
rons
i
n cooperpai
rhav
e opposi
te spi
n and
hencet
otalspi
n ofcooperpai
riszer
o.
The di
stance ov
erwhi
ch t
wo el
ect
rons
combi
ne t
ofor
m a cooper pai
r or t
he smal
l
est di
mensi
on ov
er whi
ch
super
conduct
ivi
tycanbeest
abl
i
shedi
scal
l
edcoher
encel
engt
h.Ast
emper
atur
e
gr
eat
ert
hancr
it
icalt
emper
atur
eTccooperpai
rsar
ebr
okenr
esul
ti
ngi
ntr
ansi
ti
on
ofsuper
conduct
ingst
atei
ntonor
mal
stat
e.

29
APPLI
CATI
ONSOFSUPERCONDUCTORS:

Super
conduct
ors hav
e been a boon t
othe manki
nd and t
echnocr
ats.
Owi
ngt
oit
suni
quezer
oresi
sti
vi
typr
oper
ty,
ithasgotwi
despr
eadappl
i
cat
ioni
n
v
ari
ous f
iel
ds ofsci
ence and t
echnol
ogy
. Now a day
sit
’s bei
ng used i
n
t
elecommuni
cat
ion, medi
cal
,tr
anspor
tat
ion, def
ense, space and power
t
ransmi
ssi
on.Fewoft
hem ar
edescr
ibedbel
ow.

(
1)Tr
anspor
tat
ion:

TheMei
ssneref
fectcoul
dbeusedt
olev
itat
etr
ainsov
ert
hei
rtr
acks
al
l
owi
ngt
hem t
oreachaspeedofabout300mph.

Magnet
icLev
itat
ion:

The di
amagnet
ic pr
oper
ty of a
super
conduct
ori
sthebasi
sofmagnet
icl
evi
tat
ion.
Whenmat
eri
ali
ssuper
conduct
ing,t
hemagnet
ic
f
luxl
i
neswi
l
lbeexpel
l
edf
rom t
hemat
eri
al. So
super
conduct
ingmat
eri
alst
rongl
yrepelex
ter
nal
magnet
s.I
fasmal
l
,li
ghtandpower
fulmagneti
s
keptov
erasuper
conduct
ingmat
eri
al,t
hemagnet
wi
l
lbel
evi
tat
edandi
twi
l
lfl
oati
nai
r. Thi
sis
cal
l
edmagnet
icl
evi
tat
ion.

Magnet
icl
evi
tat
ioncanbedemonst
rat
edusi
ngahi
ghTc super
conduct
or
l
i
keY1Ba2Cu3O7 compoundt
akeni
nbul
kandal
i
ghtwei
ghtandpower
fulmagnet
(
Samar
ium-
cobal
tmagnet
). TheY-
123compoundi
scool
edbypour
ingl
i
qui
d
ni
tr
ogenov
eri
t.Themagnetkeptov
eri
tjustf
loat
sinai
r.Magnet
icl
evi
tat
ion
ef
fectcanbeusedf
orhi
ghspeedt
ranspor
tat
ionsuchassuperf
astt
rai
ns,
wi
thoutf
ri
cti
onal
loss.

30
Magnet
icLev
itat
edTr
ain(
MAGLEVTr
ain)

Magl
evi
stheacr
ony
m of

magnet
icl
evi
tat
ion. Thi
str
ain

hassuper
conduct
ingmagnetbui
l
t

i
ntoi
tsbase. Thegui
dewayf
or

t
hemagl
evi
ssi
mil
art
other
ail

t
racks of t
he conv
ent
ional

r
ail
way
s. The t
rai
n wi
l
lbe set

af
loat abov
e t
he al
umi
nium

gui
dewaybymagnet
icl
evi
tat
ion.

Magnet
ic l
evi
tat
ion i
s

br
ought about by enor
mous

r
epul
si
on bet
ween t
wo hi
ghl
y

power
ful magnet
ic f
iel
ds, one

pr
oduced by t
he

super
conduct
ing magnet

i
nsi
det
het
rai
nandt
heot
her

byt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
nthe

al
umi
nium gui
deway
. The

cur
rent i
n t
he gui
deway

pr
oducest
henecessar
ymagnet
icf
iel
dtol
evi
tat
ethet
rai
nandhel
psi
npr
opel
l
ing

t
het
rai
nfor
war
d.

31
(
2)SQUI
D(Super
conduct
ingQuant
um I
nter
fer
enceDev
ice):

TheSQUI
D wor
kson
t
hepr
inci
pleofJosephson
ef
fect
.A SQUI
Dis si
mpl
y
t
wo Josephson j
unct
ions
connect
edi
npar
all
el.I
tisa
v
ery sensi
ti
ve
magnet
omet
er used t
o
measur
eext
remel
ysubt
lemagnet
icf
iel
ds,based on super
conduct
ing l
oops
cont
aini
ngJosephsonj
unct
ions.Asi
tisv
erysensi
ti
vet
ofl
uxchanges,
anysmal
l
changei
nfl
uxwi
l
lleadt
ochangei
ncur
rentandhencev
olt
agedev
elopedacr
oss
t
hej
unct
ion.

Wor
kingofSQUI
D:

Thev
olt
ageoft
hewhol
eSQUI
Dvar
ieswhent
hemagnet
icf
luxi
sappl
i
ed,
andgoesbackt
osamev
aluewhenev
eranaddi
ti
onalf
luxquant
um goest
hrough
t
her
ing.I
not
herwor
ds,t
heSQUI
D'sv
olt
agei
sper
iodi
cwhenamagnet
icf
iel
dis
pr
ogr
essi
vel
yappl
i
edt
other
ing,
andt
heper
iodoft
hisef
fecti
sthef
luxquant
um
(
discr
etev
alueoff
lux
).I
fthi
svar
iat
ioni
smeasur
ed,
onecandet
ermi
net
hesmal
l
changesi
n magnet
icf
iel
d.Al
so,asmagnet
icf
iel
d,cur
rentand v
olt
agear
e
dependentoneachot
her
,wecanmeasur
eany
onei
fot
heri
sknown.I
tcandet
ect
changesassmal
las10-15Vand10-21Tesl
a.

Appl
icat
ionofSQUI
D:

(
1)Ver
ymi
nut
emagnet
icsi
gnal
sar
edet
ect
edbyt
heSQUI
Dsensor
.

(
2)SQUI
Disusedasst
oragedev
icef
ormagnet
icf
iel
d.

(
3)TheSQUI
Disusedt
ost
udyt
inymagnet
icsi
gnal
sfr
om t
hebr
ainand

hear
t.

(
4)SQUI
Dmagnet
omet
ercandet
ectt
hepar
amagnet
icr
esponsei
nthel
i
ver
32
 andgi
vet
heamountofi
ronhel
dint
hel
i
veroft
hebodyaccur
atel
y

(
3)CRYOTRON:

The cr
yot
ron i
sa swi
tch t
hatoper
atesusi
ng super
conduct
ivi
ty. The

super
conduct
ingpr
oper
tyofamat
eri
aldi
sappear
swhent
heappl
i
edmagnet
ic

f
iel
disgr
eat
ert
hant
hecr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
d(Hc)
.Asuper
conduct
orpossesses

t
wost
ates,
thesuper
conduct
ingandnor
mal
.Theappl
i
cat
ionofamagnet
icf
iel
d

gr
eat
ert
han Hc cani
nit
iat
eachangef
rom super
conduct
ingt
o nor
maland

r
emov
aloft
he f
iel
drev
erses t
he pr
ocess. Thi
s pr
inci
plei
s appl
i
ed i
n

dev
elopmentofswi
tchi
ngel
ementcr
yot
ron.

Asuper
condcut
ingmat
eri
alAi
ssur
roundedbyanot
hersuper
conduct
ing

mat
eri
alB.Thecr
it
icalmagnet
icFi
eld(
Hc)ofmat
er
A
i
alAi
slesst
hant
hecr
it
ical

magnet
icFi
eld(
Hc)ofmat
B
eri
alB.

Hc<Hc
A B

Lett
het
emper
atur
eoft
hesy
stem be

bel
ow t
he t
ransi
ti
on t
emper
atur
es oft
he

t
womat
eri
als. Letacur
rentii
spassed

t
hrought
hemat
eri
alB.Whent
hemagnet
ic

f
iel
dpr
oducedbymat
eri
alB exceedst
he

cr
it
icalmagnet
icf
iel
dofAbecauseHc>Hc.
B A

Thust
hecur
renti
nmat
eri
alAcanbecont
rol
l
edbyt
hecur
renti
nmat
eri
alB.

Hence,
thi
ssy
stem canactasar
elayorswi
tchi
ngel
ement
.

33
4.Medi
cal
Appl
icat
ion:

Super
conduct
orshashel
pedmedi
cali
ndust
ryt
oagr
eatext
ent
.InMRIt
he

mai
nmagnet
icf
iel
disgener
atedbya

l
argesuper
conduct
ingel
ect
romagneti
n

whi
chanel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lows. The

weak r
esi
stance of super
conduct
ors

al
l
owsv
eryst
rongcur
rent
stof
lowwi
th

noheat
ingi
nthemat
eri
al,andhence

enabl
es t
o getv
ery hi
gh f
iel
d

v
alues of sev
eral t
esl
as.

Super
conduct
ors hav
e hence

been at t
he or
igi
n of t
he

emer
genceofnewgener
ati
onof

MRIcoi
l
sfort
hel
astt
eny
ear
s

andhav
ehel
pedenhanci
ngt
he

qual
i
tyoft
he i
mages and t
he

comf
ortofpat
ient
s. Suchf
iel
d

i
ntensi
ti
escoul
dnotbeobt
ained

wi
thacopperel
ect
romagnetbecauset
hehi
ghr
esi
stanceoft
heconduct
orcoul
d

cause,whenst
rongcur
rent
sfl
ow,Joul
eef
fectl
osses(
ther
maldi
ssi
pat
ion)so

st
rongt
hecoi
lwoul
dmel
t.

Magnet
ocar
diogr
aphy (
MCG) and Magnet
oencephal
ogr
aphy (
MEG)

34
sy
stemsbasedonSQUI
Dsar
ewor
kingoncl
i
nical
resear
chonhear
tandbr
ain.

5.Super
conduct
ingEl
ect
romagnet
s

Super
conduct
ors ar
e used i
n t
he
const
ruct
ionofsuper
conduct
ingel
ect
romagnet
s
t
hat car
ryl
arge r
esi
stancel
ess cur
rent
s and,
t
her
efor
e,pr
oduce l
arge magnet
icf
iel
ds(
=5_
10
Tesl
a). I
fwe use super
conduct
ing wi
ref
or
magnetwi
ndi
ngs,cur
rent
soft
heor
derof100
amper
escanbecar
ri
edbyv
eryf
inewi
res.Thus
smal
l
-si
ze magnet
s can be const
ruct
ed. The
pr
inci
ple i
s i
l
lust
rat
ed i
n f
igur
e i
n whi
ch a
super
conduct
ingcoi
lisi
mmer
sedi
nli
qui
dhel
i
um
(
4 kel
vi
n). St
art
ing f
rom zer
o,t
he cur
renti
s
i
ncr
easedunt
ilt
hemagnet
icf
iel
dBr
eachest
he
desi
redv
alue.Att
hatpoi
ntt
heswi
tchSi
scl
osed.
Thecur
rentnowf
lowst
hrought
heswi
tch.Thepowersuppl
yist
hent
urnedof
f.
Thecur
rentwi
l
lcont
inuet
ofl
ow t
hrought
hecoi
lindef
ini
tel
ywi
thoutr
esi
sti
ve
l
osses.

6.PowerCabl
e/Tr
ansmi
ssi
on:

Unl
i
keconv
ent
ionalcopperoral
umi
num cabl
es,wi
resmadeofmat
eri
als
ex
hibi
ti
ngsuper
conduct
ivepr
oper
ti
escancar
rymassi
veamount
sofcur
rent
wi
thoutdangerofov
erheat
ingbecauset
her
eisnor
esi
stanceandt
her
efor
eno
wast
edener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatduet
oel
ect
ronf
ri
cti
on. Super
conduct
ors
woul
del
i
minat
elossofel
ect
ri
ci
tyasi
tisdi
str
ibut
edf
rom powerpl
ant
stohomes
andbusi
nesses.Thei
rusewoul
dsav
espacebecausef
arl
esssuper
conduct
ive
cabl
ewoul
dber
equi
redi
ncompar
isont
onor
malconduct
ivewi
re,aswel
las
ener
gy,
muchl
essofwhi
chwoul
dbeneededt
opr
eventcabl
esf
rom ov
erheat
ing.

35
ADVANTAGESANDDI
SADVANTAGES:

ADVANTAGES:

 Si
mpl
eandcompact

 Si
l
enceduet
ono-
mov
ingpar
ts

 Mor
erel
i
abl
esi
ncet
her
ear
enomov
ingpar
ts

 Hi
ghef
fi
ciency

 LowRunni
ngcost

 Mi
nimal
mai
ntenancer
equi
red

 Canwor
kef
fect
ivel
yinzer
ogr
avi
ty

 Hi
ghPowerdensi
ty

36
DI
SADVANTAGES:

 Thei
nit
ial
inv
est
menti
smor
eascompar
edwi
thconv
ent
ional
ref
ri
ger
ati
on.

 Di
ff
icul
tformai
ntai
ningcr
yogeni
ctemper
atur
erequi
redf
orcool
i
ng.

 Notappl
i
cabl
eforconsumerel
ect
roni
cs.

 Lar
gemagnet
sisamaj
orexpense.

 Lackofaccur
ateanal
yti
cal
model
s.

 Per
manentmagnet
shav
eli
mit
edf
iel
dst
rengt
h.

 Pr
otect
ionofel
ect
roni
ccomponent
sfr
om magnet
icf
iel
ds.

37
CONCLUSI
ON:

Super
conduct
ors ar
e al
way
s amazi
ng i
nthi
s wor
ld.Dev
eloped and

dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esofourwor
ldar
econst
ant
lyt
hinki
ngaboutt
hissuperpower
.

Pr
oduct
ionand t
ransmi
ssi
onofel
ect
ri
ci
tyshoul
d bei
mpr
oved st
il
lmor
eto

conser
vef
orf
utur
egener
ati
on.Wi
tht
hedi
scov
eryofhi
ghTc super
conduct
orsa

newr
evol
uti
onhasst
art
edi
nthef
iel
dofsuper
conduct
ivi
ty.Nowsci
ent
ist
sar
e

wor
kingondesi
gni
ngsuper
conduct
orst
hatcanoper
ateatr
oom t
emper
atur
e.

Thuswecanusel
i
qui
dni
tr
ogeni
nst
eadofexpensi
veHel
i
um.Nowi
tsel
fsome

Yt
tri
um compoundsar
egi
vi
ngacr
it
icalt
emper
atur
eascl
oseas138K.I
fwear
e

abl
etomakel
i
ttl
emor
eimpr
ovementt
henwecanseeanewwor
ldwhi
chwi
l
lrun

onsuper
conduct
ors.

38
REFERENCE:

1.^
 JohnBar
deen;
LeonCooper
;J.R.Schr
if
fer(
December1,
1957)
. 
Theor
y
ofSuper
conduct i
vi
ty.
 Physi
calRevi
ew. 108.
p.
 1175.
 Bibcode:
1957PhRv..
108.1175B. 
doi:
10.
1103/physrev.
108.1175.
 I
S
BN 978-
0-677-00080-
0.Retri
eved 
June6,  
2014.
 r
epr
intedinNikolaĭ
Nikol
aevi
chBogol i
ubov(1963)TheTheor
  yofSuper
conductivi
ty,
Vol.4,
CRCPr
ess,
 
ISBN 
0677000804,
p.73

2.^
 JohnDai
nti
th(
2009)
. 
TheFact
sonFi
l
eDi
cti
onar
yofPhysi
cs 
(4t
h ed.
).
I
nfobasePubl
i
shi
ng.p.
 238.
 I
SBN 
978-
1-4381-
0949-
7.

ab
3.^
 Jumpupt
o: JohnC.Gal
   l
op(
1990)
. 
SQUI
DS,
theJosephsonEf
fect
s
andSuper
conduct
ingEl
ect
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