Contents

Group Members...........................................................................................................................................i
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgement......................................................................................................................................iii
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS..........................................................................................................................1
CLASSIFICATION BY ORDER & DEGREE....................................................................................................2
TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION........................................................................................................2
CLASSIFICATION AS LINEAR OR NON-LINEAR..........................................................................................2
Determination of a differential Equation.................................................................................................3
Origin of Differential Equation.....................................................................................................................7
Geometric Application.............................................................................................................................7
Elimination of Arbitrary Constants..........................................................................................................7
Algebraic Elimination...............................................................................................................................8
Isolation of Constant.............................................................................................................................11
Family of curves.........................................................................................................................................13
Parameter..............................................................................................................................................13
FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION..........................................................17
VARIABLE SEPARABLE............................................................................................................................18
EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION...........................................................................................................23
Homogeneous Leading to Exact............................................................................................................33
Linear Differential Equation...................................................................................................................39
APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.............................................................................................51
GROWTH / DECAY OR DECOMPOSITION / INVESTMENT PROBLEMS..................................................51
Orthogonal Trajectory...........................................................................................................................59
Newton’s Law of Cooling.......................................................................................................................60
The Differential Operator (D).................................................................................................................79
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficient (HLDECC)................................81
Auxiliary Equation of the Given HLDECC................................................................................................81
Non-Homogenous Linear Differential Equation w/ Constant Coefficients (NHLDECC)..........................86
 Group Members
Ascaño, Kent Alwin A.
John Eugene Y. Fernandez
Mark Jeison Eiron O. Noriega
 Introduction

This book is a compilation that consist lectures, terms and

examples about the subject Differential Equations under Engr.
Jocelyn Antonio. The objective of this book is to be of future
reference for people who are willing and able to study the
subject.
The terms and problems in this book are given and solved
by Engr. Jocelyn Antonio.
If any typographical errors and misunderstood terms or
characters are in this book it is in due fault of the ones who
created this book.
 Acknowledgement
We would like to thank everyone who made contribution
for making this compilation possible. We hope that this would
remain beneficial throughout the years and also serve as an
inspiration to the readers.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An equation containing at least one derivative or which contains differentials

EXAMPLES ORDER DEGREE TYPE

dy 1 1 ODE
1. =2−5 x + y 3
dx
2. (y)3 + (y)4 + (y)2 =3 3 3 ODE

d3 y d y2 3 1 ODE
3.
d x3 ( )
+
dx
=x +3

2 2 2
∂ y 4∂ y 2 2 PDE
∂x (∂x∂y )
4. + 2
=3+ y

5. fyy+ fxy=1 2 1 PDE

2 3 6 ODE
d3 y 3
3 d y
6.
( ) √
dx
3
=
dx
3
+4
2
d3 y dy 3 2 ODE
7. ( ) √
dx 3
=
dx
+4

dy d3 y 3 1 ODE
8.
dx
dy
=
d x3 √
+4

1 1 ODE
9. =cos x−sin y
dx
CLASSIFICATION BY ORDER & DEGREE
1. ORDER OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
- The order of the highest – ordered derivative in the equation
2. DEGREE OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
- The power of the exponent of the highest ordered derivative in the equation.

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (ODE)
- Involves one or more dependent variable with respect to one or single
independent variable.
2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (PDE)
- Involves two or more independent variables and therefore contains partial
derivatives

CLASSIFICATION AS LINEAR OR NON-LINEAR

1. LINEAR
Conditions are:
A) The dependent variable y (or x) and all its derivatives must be of degree one
B) There’s no product of y (or x) and the derivative of y (or x)
C) There’s no transcendental functions involving y (or x)
2. NON- LINEAR – equation that is not linear
EXAMPLES DV IV ORDER DEGREE TYPE LINEARITY

1.xdy + ydx=0 x,y x,y 1 1 ODE Lin x , y

2.y+(y)2-x2 = 3y x,y x,y 2 1 ODE

d 3 y dy x,y x,y 3 1 ODE Lin x , y

3. - =y
d x 3 dx

∂2 y 5 ∂2 y x,y x,y 2 5 PDE

4.( 2 ¿ ¿ =9
∂x ∂ x∂ y

d2 y 3 d2 y x,y x,y 2 3 ODE

5.
d x2 √
=
d x2
+y

6. 2ywxx-wy = xy4 w x,y 2 1 PDE

7.(y + 2x)1/3 = (y)2 x,y x,y 2 2 ODE

8.dy + ( xy −e y ) dx=0 x,y x,y 1 1 ODE

Determination of a differential Equation

- A solution of differential equation defines a function such that when substituted into
the DE reduces the equation to an identity.
I- Conditions are:
a. The no. of arbitrary constants are equal to the order of DE;
b. Consistent with the DE.
c. Free from derivatives or differentials

2 Kinds of Constant

a. Absolute Constant- has fixed value

Ex. π, Avogadro’s number
b. Arbitrary Constant- with unknown value
Ex. C =2πr (where r= arbitrary constant)
II- Solution can be distinguished as explicit or implicit
Example: EXPLICIT

y= ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
y= C1e3x + C2e-3x
y= cos (ax +b)

Example: IMPLICIT

x 2+ y2 = r2
ay2 + by + ct = 0
y6 (1 + 4e-4x) = c3

III- Types of Solutions of an ODE

A. General Solution ( Complete/ Primitive)
- Contains a family of solutions ( family of curves)
Ex. x2 = Cy3 is the GS of 2ydx – 3xdy = 0
B. Particular Solution
- Obtained from the as by specifying the values of the arbitrary constants thus free from
arbitrary constants.
Ex. if C=4, then from the GS x2 = Cy3
C. Trivial Solution
- Solution of an ODE that is identically zero is y = 0
D. Assigned to the Singular Solution
- Cannot be obtained from the GS whatever values arbitrary constant.
1 2
Ex. GS: y = x +C for any value of C the trivial solution
4
y = 0 cannot be obtained, thus y = 0 is a singular solution.

IV- To prove that an Algebraic Equation is a solution of DE.

a. AE ------differentiate----- DE
b. DE -------integrate--------- AE
V- Algebraic Equation with an arbitrary constant
a. Differentiate the AE n times.
b. The corresponding DE is of order n
Example

1. Verify x 2=C y 3 is a solution of 2 ydx−3 xdy=0

Order: 1
2 3 x2
x =C y (implicit )but C= 3
y
2 1
2 x=C( 3 y ∙ y )
x2 2 1
2 x= 3 (3 y ∙ y )
y
3 x2 '
2 x= ∙y
y
dy
2 xy=3 x 2
dx

2 xydx=3 x 2 dy

2. Prove that y= ( x +C ) e−xis a solution of y ' + y=¿ e− x

Order: 1
y= ( x +C ) e−x (explicit )
y ' =( x +C ) e− x + ( e−x ) (1)
y ' =−e−x ( x +C )+ ( e−x )
y ' =− y + e−x
y ' + y=¿ e− x

3. Show that the AE y= Asin 3 x +3 cos 3 x is a solution of the DE

y ' ' + 9 y =0
Order: 2
y= Asin 3 x +3 cos 3 x
y ' = A ( 3 cos 3 x )+ 3(−3 sin 3 x)
y ' '=3 A (−3 sin 3 x ) – 9(3 cos 3 x )
y ' ' =−9 Asin 3 x −27 cos 3 x
y ' ' =−9( Asinx 3 x+3 cos 3 x )

But y= Asin 3 x +3 cos 3 x

 y ' ' + 9 y =0

4. Verify if y=2 ( e2 x −cosx−2 sinx ) is a solution of y ' ' + y =10 e2 x

Order: 2
y=2 ( e2 x −cosx−2 sinx )
y ' =2(2 e 2 x +sinx−2 cosx )
y ' ' =2(4 e2 x + cosx +2 sinx)
y ' ' =8 e 2 x + 2 cosx+ 4 sinx
but y ' ' + y=10 e 2 x
8 e 2 x +2 cosx+4 sinx+2 e 2 x −2 cosx−4 sinx = 10 e 2 x
10 e 2 x =10 e 2 x

5. Show that x=2 t+C , y=ct +3is a solution of 2( y )2−x y ' =3− y
x=2 t+C
x−c
t=
2

y=ct+3
y−3
t=
C

y=C ( x−C
2 )
+3

2 y−6=Cx−c 2
2 y ' −0=c−0
¿]
y−3=x y' −2¿
2¿

x=2 ( y−3
c )
+C

cx=2 y −6+C 2
C=2 y ' −0+0
C=2 y '
¿
x y ' = y−3+¿
2¿
 6. Prove that the DE x y ' =x 2 + y is a solution of the AE y=x 2 +C
x y ' =x 2 + y
dy
x =x 2 + y
dx
xdy=x 2 dx+ ydx
xdy− ydx =x2 dx
xdy− ydx
∫ x 2 =∫ dx
y
=x+C
x
y=x 2 +C

Origin of Differential Equation

Geometric Application

Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Given: General Solution of Differential Equation

Solution: Differentiate the given General Solution as many times as there are arbitrary
constants until a Differential Equation free from arbitrary constants is obtained

3 Techniques/Methods

1. Algebraic Elimination
-May use elimination by addition/subtraction or elimination by substitution
2. Eliminant Method
-May use determinants/matrices
Recall: System of Equation
a 1 x+ b1 y=c 1
a 2 x+ b2 y=c 2
a 3 x +b3 y=c 3
 a1 b 1 c 1

( a2 b 2 c 2 =0
a3 b3 c 3 )
3. Isolation of Constant
Algebraic Elimination

a. y=c1 + c2 +c 3 e−3 x

Solution:
y=c 1 +c 2+ c 3 e−3 x (3AC)
−3 x
y ' =0+0- 3 c 3 e
y=9 c3 e−3 x(eq.1)
y=−27 c 3 e−3 x (eq.2)
Equate Eq.1=Eq.2

( y=9 c3 e−3 x ¿ 3 →3y’’=27 c 3 e−3 x

y’’’=-27 c 3 e−3 x →y’’’=-27c 3 e−3 x
3 y + y=0

b. y=c1 cos 3 x +c 2 sin 3 x

Solution:
y=c1 cos 3 x +c 2 sin 3 x --(2A.C.)
y ' =−3 c 1 sin 3 x +3 c 2 cos 3 x
y ' ' =−¿9c 1 cos 3 x−9 c 2 sin 3 x
But y=c 1 cos 3 x+ c2 sin 3 x
y ' ' =-9y

y ' ' + 9 y =0

c. y=c1 e 2 x +c 2 e3 x
Solution:
y=c1 e +c 2 e3 x (2AC)(Eq.1)
2x

y=2c 1 e2 x +3 c 2 e 3 x(Eq.2)
y=4 c 1 e2 x + 9 c2 e 3 x (Eq.3)
 Equate Eq.1= Eq.2
( y=c1 e +c 2 e3 x ¿−2→−2 y=−2 c1 e 3 x −2 c 2 e 3 x
2x

y=2c 1 e2 x +3 c 2 e 3 x → y ' =2 c 1 e 2 x +3 c 2 e3 x

−2 y + y ' =c 2 e3 x →(Eq.4)

Equate Eq.2 =Eq.3

( y ¿¿ ' =2 c 1 e +3 c 2 e 3 x )−2 →−2 y ' =−4 c 1 e2 x −6 c 2 e 3 x ¿
2x

y ' ' =4 c1 e 2 x +9 c 2 e 3 x → y ' ' =4 c 1 e 2 x +9 c 2 e3 x

−2 y ' + y ' ' =3 c 2 e3 x →(Eq.5)
Equate Eq .4=Eq .5
(−2 y + y =c 2 e3 x )−3 → 6 y−3 y ' =−3 c 2 e 3 x
'

−2 y ' + y ' ' =3 c 2 e3 x →−2 y ' + y ' ' =3 c2 e 3 x

6 y−5 y ' + y ' ' =0

d. Cxy+ C2 x+ 4=0
Solution:
Cxy+ C2 x+ 4=0(1A.C)
[ C ( x y ' + y ) +C2 ( 1 )+ 0=0 ] ÷ C
xy + y +C=0
−( xy ’ + y)=C
Substitute C
−( xy ’ + y) xy +¿ ¿
- x 2 y y ' −x y 2 =[ ( xy ' )2+2 xy y ' + y 2 ] x+ 4=0
- x 2 y y ' −x y 2 + x 3 ¿

x 2 y y ' + x3 ¿

I. Eliminant Method
a. y ¿ c 1 e 2 x +c 2 e3 x
Solution:
y=c1 e 2 x +c 2 e3 x (2A.C)
y ’=2 c1 e 2 x + 3 c 2 e 3 x
y ’ ’=4 c 1 e 2 x +9 c 2 e3 x
↓
c 1 e + c2 e 3 x = y
2x

2 c 1 e 2 x +3 c 2 e3 x = y '
4 c 1 e 2 x +9 c 2 e3 x = y ' '
↓
1 1 y 11

[2 3 y ' 2 3=0
4 9 y' ' 4 9 ]
3 y ’ ’+ 4 y ’+18 y−(12 y+ 9 y ”+2 y ’ ’)=0
3 y ’ ’+ 4 y +18 y−12 y−9 y ’−2 y ’ ’=0

y ' ' −5 y ' +6 y =0

Or
1 1 y

[ 2 3
4 9
y ' =0
y' ' ]
3 y ’ ’+ 4 y ’+18 y−(12 y+ 9 y ”+2 y ’ ’)=0
3 y ’ ’+ 4 y +18 y−12 y−9 y ’−2 y ’ ’=0

y ' ' −5 y ' +6 y =0

b. y= Ax 4 + Bx3
Solution:
y= Ax 4 + Bx3 (2 A .C .)
y ’=4 Ax 3+3 Bx2
y ’ ’=12 Ax 2+ 6 Bx
↓
Ax + Bx = y → Ax 4 +Bx 3= y
4 3

( 4 Ax 3 +3 Bx 2= y ' )x → 4 Ax 4 +3 Bx3 =xy '

( 12 Ax 2 +6 Bx= y ' ' ) x 2 →12 Ax 4 +6 Bx3 =x 2 y ' '
↓
 1 1 y 11

[ 4 3
12 6 ]
y' 4 3
y ' ' 12 6
3( x 2 y ' ' ¿+12 x y ' +24 y =0
(4 x 2 y ' ' + 36 y+ 6 x y ' )¿ 0
3 x 2 y ' ' +12 x y ' +24 y −4 x 2 y' ' −36 y −6 x y ' =0

−x 2 y ' ' + 6 xy−12 y=0

c. y=x 2 + Ae3 x + Be−2 x

Solution:
y=x 2 + Ae3 x + Be−2 x (2 AC )
y ’=2 x +3 Ae3 x −2 Be−2 x
y ’ ’=2+9 Ae3 x + 4 Be−2 x
↓
Ae + Be = y−x 2
3x −2 x

3 Ae 3 x −2 Be−2 x = y ' −2 x
9 Ae3 x + 4 ABe−2 x = y ' ' −2
↓
1 1 y−x 2 1 1

[ 3 −2
9 4 ]
y ' −2 x 3 −2
y ' ' −2 9 4
12( y−x 2 )−2 ( y ' ' −2 ) +9 ( y ' −2 x ) −[ 3 ( y ' ' −2 )−18 ( y −x 2) + 4 ( y ' −2 x ) ]=0
12 y−12 x 2−2 y ' ' + 4+ 9 y ' −18 x−3 y ' ' +6+18 y−18 x 2−4 y ' + 8 x=0
[ 30 y−30 x 2−5 y ' ' +5 y ' −10 x+ 10=0 ] ÷ 5
6 y−6 x 2− y '' + y ' −2 x+2=0

Isolation of Constant

a. Cy 3=3 x2 + y
Solution:
 Cy 3=3 x2 + y (1A.C)
3 x2 + y
C=
y3
y 3 ( 6 x + y ' )− ( 3 x 2 + y ) ( 3 y 2 + y ' )
0= 2
[ y3 ]

6 xy 3 + y 3 y ' −9 x 2 y 2 y '−3 y 3 y ' =0

6 xy 3−2 y ' y 3−9 x 2 y 2 y ' =0
y 2 ( 6 xy−2 y y ' −9 x 2 y ' ) =0
6 xy− y ’ (2 y+ 9 x 2 )=0
dy
But y ’=
dx
dy
6 xy− (2 y+ 9 x2 )=0
dx

6 xydx−( 2 y +9 x 2 ) dy=0 1
( 2 y +9 x 2) dy −6 xydx=0 2
(2 y +9 x 2)dy=6 xydx 3

b. x 2+ ( y−k )2 =r 2
Solution:
x 2+ ( y−k )2 =r 2(2AC)
[ 2 x+ 2 ( y−k ) ( y ' )=0 ] ÷ 2
x +( y −k ) y ’=0
x + yy ’−ky ’=0
x + yy '
k=
y'
y ' [ 1+ y y '' + ( y ' ) ( y ' ) ]−( x + y y ' ) y ' '
0= 2
( y')

y ’+ yy ’ y ”+( y ' )3−x y ' ' − y y ' y ' ' =0

y ' +¿
 c. y=Cx +C+1
Solution:
Y =Cx +C+1(1 AC )
y−1 u
C= ( )
x +1 v
( x +1 ) ( y ' )−( y−1 ) (1)
0=
( x+ 1 )2
( x + y ) y ’−( y −1)=0
dy
But y ’=
dx
( x + y )dy −( y−1 )=01
( y−1) dx−( x+1) dy=0 2

d. y=x 2 + Ae3 x + Be−2 x

Solution:
[ y=x 2 + Ae3 x + Be−2 x ] ÷ e2 x
ye 2 x =x 2 e2 x + Ae5 x + B (uv )
y (2 e 2 x )+ e2 x y '=x 2 ( 2e 2 x ) +2 xe2 x +5 Ae5 x +0
[ 2 ye−3 ex + e2 x y ' =2 x 2 e 2 x +2 xe 2 x +5 Ae 5 x ] ÷ e−5 x
2 ye−3 x +e−3 x y ' =2 x 2 e−3 x + 2 xe−3 x +5 A
(−3 ye ¿ ¿−3 x+ e−3 x y ' )+¿ ¿
[−6 ye−3 x +2 e−3 x y ' + e−3 y y ' ' −3 e−3 x y ' =6 x 2 e−3 x +4 xe−3 x −6 xe−3 x +2 e−3 x ] ÷ e 3 x
−¿6y+2y’+y’’−3 y ' + 6 x2 −4 x +6 x−2=0

−6 y− y ' + y ' ' + 6 x2 +2 x−2=0

Family of curves
-An equation involving a parameter as well as one of the coordinates in a plane may represent a
family of curves.

Parameter
-A constant usually denoted by a letter, but unlike the arbitrary constant it is not to be eliminated.
(Fixed)

EXAMPLE:

1. Find the DE of the given family of SL through (5,-3)

y− y1 =m( x−x 1)

y +3=m ( x−5 )( 1 AC )

y+3
m=
x−5

( x−5 ) ( y' ) −( y+ 3 ) (1 )
0=
( x−5 )2

( x−5 ) y ' −( y +3 ) =0

dy
( x−5 ) −( y+ 3 )=0
dx

( x−5 ) dy− ( y+3 ) dx=0 →1

( y +3 ) dx−( x−5 ) dy =0 →2

2. Find the DE of the family of Straight Line with slope and y-intercept equal.

y=mx+b

y=mx+m

y=m ( x+ 1 ) (1 AC )

y
m=
x+ 1

( x +1 ) y ' − y ( 1 )
0= ¿¿
dy
( x +1 ) − y=0
dx

( x +1 ) dy− ydx=0 → 1

ydx−( x +1 ) dy=0 → 2

3. Find the DE of the family of circle with center at (5,-1).

x 2+ y 2=r 2 at ( 0,0 )
¿

[ 2 ( x−5 ) ( 1 )+ 2 ( y −1 ) ( y ' )=0 ] ¿

( x−5 ) + ( y +1 ) y ' =0

dy
( x−5 ) + ( y +1 ) =0
dx
( x−5 ) dx + ( y +1 ) dy=0

4. Obtain the DE of the family of circle w/center on the x-axis

[ 2 ( x−h ) ( 1 )+ 2 y y ' =0 ] ÷ 2
x−h+ y y ' =0

1−0+ y y ' ' + y ' ( y ' )=0

1+ y y ' ' +¿

5. Find the DE of cardioids r =a ( 1−sinθ ) where ais the arbitrary constant

Let x=r ; y=θ

r =a(1−sinθ )

x=a ( 1−siny )

x
a=
1−siny

( 1−siny )( 1 ) −( x ) (−cosy ) y
0=
¿¿

( 1−siny )+ xcosy y ' =0

dy
( 1−siny )+ xcosy =0
dx
( 1−siny ) dx + xcosydy =0

( 1−sinθ ) dr +rcosθdθ=0

6. Find the DE of the family of parabolas having their vertices at the origin & their foci on
the y-axis

4 ay
x 3= → ( 1 AC )
2

x2
4 a=
y

y ( 2 x ) −x 2 y '
0=
y2

2 xy−x 2 y ' =0

dy
2 y−x =0
dx

2 ydx−xdy=0

7. Obtain the DE of the family of parabolas w/ the vertex on the x-axis, w/axis parallel to
the y=axis, & with distance from focus to vertex fixed as a.

¿
¿
[ 2 ( x−h ) ( 1 )=4 a y ' ] ÷ 2
x−h=2 a y '
¿
4 a2 ¿

a¿
8. Obtain the DE of the family of parabolas w/axis parallel to x-axis

¿
[ 2 ( y−k ) y ' =4 a ( 1−0 ) ] ÷ 2
( y−k ) y ' =2 a
( y−k ) y ' =2 a
( y−k ) y '' + y ' ( y ' ) =0
yy -ky +¿
k = yy +(y' {)} ^ {2}} over {y
0= y left [yy + y {y} ^ {'} +2y'y ¿ ¿−¿
yy y'''+y'(y ¿2+ 2 y ' ¿
3 y ' ¿¿¿
y ' ¿¿

3¿

9. Find the DE of family of straight line w/ algebraic sum intercepts fixed as k.

x y
+ =1
a b
x y
+ =1 ( 1 AC )
k−b b
1 1
( x ) + ( y ' )=1
k−b b
1 1
( 1 ) + ( y' ) =0
k−b b
'
1 y
+ =0
k−b b
b+ y ' ( k−b )
=0
( k−b ) b
b+ y ' ( k −b )=0
b+ k y ' −b y ' =0
b ( 1− y ' ) + k y ' =0
−ky '
b=
1− y '
 x y
'
− =1
ky k y'
k+
1− y ' 1− y '
x y ( 1− y ' )
− =1
k ( 1− y ' )+ k y ' k y'
'
1− y
x ( 1− y ' ) y ( 1− y' )
[ '
k−k y +k y '
−
ky ' ]
=1 k y '

x y ' ( 1= y ' ) y ( 1− y ' )=ky '

FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION
-May be expressed in the following form:

I. DERIVATIVE FORM

dy M (x , y )
=f ( x , y ) where f ( x , y ) =
dx N (x, y)

II. DIFFERENTIAL FORM

M ( x , y ) dx ± N ( x , y ) dy =0

Examples:

DERIVATIVE FORM DIFFERENTIAL FORM

2
a. y +3 y=3 x 2 e5 x a. x 2 ydx−e x dy =0
dy 3 x +5 y
b. = b. ( x 2−9 ) dr=r sec θdθ
dx 9 y +6

CONDITIONS:

Initial Values - Values of dependent variables and its derivatives are specified at different
values of independent variable.

Examples: y(0) = 2 and y ( 2 )=8

VARIABLE SEPARABLE
General Form: M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0
 Standard Form: f ( x ) dx+ g ( y ) dy=0
- Reduce the general formula of the equation to standard form. Integrate both sides
of the standard equation, thus the general solution (GS) is:
∫ f ( x )dx +¿ ∫ g ( y ) dy=C ¿
Examples:

dy
1. =60 xy
dx

Solutions: dy =60 xydx

60 xydx −dy
 General Solution
y

dy
∫ 60 xdx−∫ = 0 → Standard Form
y ∫

x2
60 ( )
2
−lny=C

30 x 2−ln y=C (1)

30 x 2−lny +lnC =0

2 c
30 x + ln =0 (2)
y
2.( xy + x ) dx+2 x 2 ydy =0

x ( y +1 ) dx+ 2 x 2 ydy =0
Solutions: GF
( y +1) x 2

dx 2 ydy
∫ +∫ = 0 SF
x y +1 ∫

1
[
lnx+2 1−
y +1 ]
dy=C

lnx +2 y−2 ln ( y +1 )=C (1 )

2
lnx +2 y−ln ( y +1 ) =C

x
ln +2 y=C (2)
y +1

3. 5 x 4 ( 1+ y 2 ) dx=dy
 5 x 4 ( 1+ y 2 ) dx−dy=0
Solutions: → GF
( 1+ y 2 )
dy
∫ 5 x 4 dy−∫ 1+ y 2 =∫ 0

x5
5 ( )
5
−tan−1 y=C

x 5−tan−1 y=C
4. tan 2 ydy =sin3 xdx
Solutions:
∫ sin 3 xdx−∫ tan2 ydy=∫ 0 → SF
∫ sin 2 ∙ sin xdx−∫ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
∫¿¿
∫ sin xdx−∫ cos2 x sin xdx−tan y + y =C
Let u = cos x du = −sin xdx
cos3 x
−cos x + −tan y + y=C
3
du 1 −1 u
Recall:∫ 2 2 = tan +c
u +a a a

−3 cos x +cos 3 x−3 tan y +3 y =C

II. HOMOGENOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

STANDARD FORM:

M (x , y )dx+ N (x , y )dy =0
Where M (x , y ) dx andN ( x , y) dy are both homogenous of the same degree

DEFINITION:
A function f (x , y ) is homogenous if f (rx , ry)=r n f ( x , y) replacing x and y with rx and
ry resulting to the original function f (x , y ) multiplied byr n . where r ∈ R

Ex. Testing for homogeneity:

 1.) F (x , y )=x 2−3 xy
F (rx ,ry ) = (rx 2 ¿−3 (rx)( ry)
=r 2 x2 −3 r 2 xy
=r 2 (x 2−3 xy )
= rn
HOMOGENOUS OF 2ND DEGREE
2.) F (x , y )=x 3+ 3 x 2 y
F (rx ,ry )=¿
¿ r 3 ( x 3 +3 r 2 y )
¿ rn
HOMOGENOUS IN 3RD DEGREE

3.) F (x , y )=ln x 2−lnxy

F (rx ,ry )=¿ ln ⁡(rx )2−ln ( rx ) (ry )
¿ ln ⁡r 2 x 2−ln ⁡r 2 xy
r2 x2
¿ ln
r 2 xy
¿ r 0 ln x 2−lnxy

HOMOGENOUS OF ZERO DEGREE

4.) F (x , y )= y−xtany
F (rx ,ry ) ¿ ry −rxtanry
¿( y−xtanry)
≠ f (x , y)
= Not Homo

Steps:
1. Let y=vx (¿ x=vy) if the given ODE is homogeneous of the same degree, by
changing the simpler term for dy or dx .
2. Take the differential:
dy =vdx + xdv Or dx=vdy + ydv
3. Substitute in the given ODE
4. Reduce the equation a form solvable by Variable-Separable.
5. Express the General Solution (GS) in terms of original variables of the given ODE.
6. Solve for the Particular Solution (PS) for any given conditions.

Ex.
1. xydx=( x 2 +3 y 2 ) dy=0
 M ( x , y )=xy N ( x , y)=−x2 −3 y 2
M (rx , ry)=rxry ¿−¿
¿ r 2 ( xy ) ¿−r x −3 r 2 y 2
2 2

¿ r 2 (−x 2−3 y 2 )
HOMO of 2nd Degree
Let x=vy ,dx =vdy + ydv
( vy∗y ) ( vdy + ydv )−¿(( xy ¿2 + 3 y 2 ) dy =0
v 2 y 2 dy−v y 3 dv=v 2 y 2 dy−3 y 2 dy=0
v y 3 dv −3 y 2 dy =0
→ VS
y3
dy
∫ vdv−3 ∫ y =∫ 0
v2
−3 lny=C
2
v 2−6 lny=C
x
but v=
y
x 2
()
y
−6 lny=C

x 2−6 y 2 lny=Cy 2

2. ( x 2 +3 y 2 ) dx −2 xydy =0 ; y ( 1 ) =2
Let y=vx ; dy=vdx+ xdv
¿
x 2 dx +3 v 2 x 2 dx −2 x 2 v 2 dx+2 x 3 vdv=0
x 2 dx + v 2 x 2 dx+2 x 3 vdv=0
x2 ( 1+v 2 ) dx +2 x3 vdv =0
( 1+ v 2 ) (x 3)
dx 2 vdv
∫ +∫ =∫ 0
d 1+ v 2
lnx + ln ( 1+ v 2 )=lnC
2

e lnx (1+ v )=e lnC

(1+ v¿ ¿2)=C ¿
y
But r=
x
x + y2
2
x
[ ] x2
=C
 x2 + y 2
=C → GS
x
but y =2 , x=1
12+22
=C
12
5=C
x2 + y 2
=5
x

x 2+ y 2=5 x → PS

3. y 2 dx + ( x 2 +3 xy+ 4 y 2 ) dy=0 ; y ( 2 )=1

Letx=vydx=vdy+ ydv
y 2 ( vdy + ydv ) +¿
v y 2 dy + y 3 dv+ v 2 y 2 dy +3 vy 2 dy +4 y 2 dy =0
y 2 ( 4 v + v 2+ 4 ) dy+ y 3 dv =0
→ VS
( 4 v +v 2 + y ) ( y 3 )
dy dv
∫ y +∫ 4 v + v 2+ 4 =∫ 0
dv
lny +∫ =C
( v +2 )2
∫ u−2 du
lny+¿

1
lny− =C
v +2

x
but v=
y

1
lny− =C
x
+2
y

1
lny− =C
x+ 2 y
y
 y
lny− =C
x +2 y

( x +2 y ) lny− y=C ( x +2 y ) → GS

but y =1; x=2

[ 2+2 ( 1 ) ] ln 1−1=C [ 2+2 ( 1 ) ]

−1
=C
4

−1
( x +2 y ) lny − y= ( x+ 2 y )
4

4 ( x+2 y ) lny−4 y + ( x +2 y ) =0 → PS

4 ( x+2 y ) lny−4 y + ( x +2 y ) =0 → PS

EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Standard form: M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

General solution: f ( x , y )=C

STEPS:

a. Check if the equation is exact.

∂M ∂N
|
=
∂ y x=k ∂ x y=k |
b. Integrate partially equation in (a) with respect to x(or y) holding y(or x) as constant
∂F ∂F
∂ x y=k |
= M ( x , y )∨
∂ y x=k
=N (x , y) |
∫ dF=M ( x , y ) dx∨∫ dF=N ( x , y ) dy
F=f ( x , y )+T ( y )∨F=f ( x , y )+T (x)
c. Differentiate partially equation in (b) with respect to y(or x) holding x(or y)as
constant

∂F ∂
∂y |
x=k
=
∂y
[ f ( x , y )+T ( y ) ] ∨¿

∂F ∂
∂x |
y=k
=
∂x
[ f ( x , y ) +T ( x ) ]

d . Integrate T (y) or T(x) to obtain T(y) or T(x)

d. Substitute in (b) to obtain the GS

Examples:

1. ( 4 x 3 y 3−2 xy ) dx + ( 3 x 4 y 2−x 2 ) dy =0
∂M ∂N
∂y |x=k
( 4 x3 y 3−2 xy )
∂x |
y=k
(3 x 4 y 2−x 2 ¿

¿ 4 x3 ( 3 y 2 )−2 x (1) ¿ 3 y 2 ( 4 x 3 )−(2 x )

¿ 12 x 3 y 2−2 x =12 x3 y 2−2 x
ODE is Exact
Method 1:
∂F
|
∂ x y=k
❑
= M (x , y)
❑

∫ dF= ∫ ( 4 x3 y 3−2 xy ) dx
y=k y=k

x4 x2
F = 4 y3 ( ) ( )
4
−2 y
2
+T ( y)

F=x 4 y 3−x 2 y +T ( y )
∂F ∂ 4 3 2
| =
∂ y x=k ∂ y
[ x y −x y+T ( y ) ]
3 x 4 y 2−x 2=x 4 ( 3 y 2 )−x 2 ( 1 ) +T ( y )
3 x 4 y 2−x 2=3 x 4 y 2−x 2+T ( y )
∫ 0=∫ T ' ( y)
C=T ( y)

F=x 4 y 3−x 2 y +C

Method 2:
∂F
∂y
❑
|x=k
=3 x 4 y 2−x 2
❑

∫ dF= ∫ ( 3 x 4 y 2−x 2 ) dy
x=k x=k

y3
F=3 x 4 ( )
3
−x 2 y+T (x )
 F=x 4 y 3−x 2 y +T (x)
∂F ∂ 4 3 2
|
=
∂ x y=k ∂ x
[ x y −x y +T ( x ) ]
4 x3 y 3−2 xy=4 x 3 y 3 −2 xy +T ( x)
∫ 0=∫ T ' ( x )
C=T ( x)

F=x 4 y 3−x 2 y +C

Method 3:
❑ ❑

∫ ( 4 x 3 y 3 −2 xy ) dx + ∫ ( 3 x 4 −x 2 ) dy=0
y=k x=0

x4 x2
4 y3 ( ) ( )
4
−2 y
2
+C=0

x 4 y 3−x 2 y +C=0
Method 4:
❑ ❑

∫ ( 4 x 3 y 3 −2 xy ) dx + ∫ ( 3 x 4 −x 2 ) dy=0
y=0 x=k
3
3 x4 ( y3 )−x ( y )+C=0
2

x 4 y 3−x 2 y +C=0

2. ( 2 x 3−x y 2−2 y +3 ) dx −( x 2 y +2 x ) dy =0

Check for Exactness

∂M ∂N
|
∂ y x=k
( 2 x3 −x y 2−2 y +3 )
∂ x y=k |
(−x 2 y −2 x ¿

¿ 0−x ( 2 y )−2 ¿− y (2 x )−(2)

¿−2 xy −2 ¿−2 xy −2
ODE is Exact
Method 1:
∂F
∂ x y=k
❑
|( 2 x 3−x y 2−2 y+3 )
❑

∫ dF= ∫ ( 2 x3 −x y 2−2 y +3 ) dx
y=k y=k
 x4 x2
F=2 ( ) ( )
4
− y2
2
−2 y ( x )+3 x +T ( y)

x4 x2 y2
F=
− −2 xy +3 x+T ( y )
2 2
∂F ∂ x 4 x2 y 2
|=
∂ y x=k ∂ y 2
− [2
−2 xy +3 x +T ( y ) ]
1
−x 2 y −2 x=0− x 2 ( 2 y )−2 x ( 1 ) +0+T ( y )
2
2 2
−x y −2 x=−x y−2 x+ T ( y )
∫ 0=∫ T ( y)
C=T ( y)

x 4 x2 y2
F= − −2 xy +3 x+C
2 2

F=x 4−x 2 y 2−4 xy+ 6 x+C GS

Method 2:

∂F
∂y |
x=k
=(−x 2 y −2 x )

❑ ❑

∫ dF= ∫ ( −x2 y−2 x ) dx

x=k x=k

y2
F=−x 2 ( )
2
−2 x ( y ) +T ( x)

−x2 y 2
F= −2 xy +T ( x)
2
∂F ∂ −x 2 y 2
| =
∂ x y=k ∂ x 2[ −2 xy +T ( x) ]
−1 2
2 x3 −x y 2−2 y +3= y ( 2 x ) −2 y ( 1 ) +0+T ( x)
2
2 x3 −x y 2−2 y +3=−x y 2−2 y +T ( x )
∫ 2 x 3+ 3=∫ T ( x )
∫ (2 x 3 +3) dx=∫ dT ( x )
x4
2 ( )
4
+3 x +C=T ( x )
 x4
+3 x +C=T ( x)
2

−x2 y 2 x4
F= −2 xy + + 3 x +C
2 2

F=−x 2 y 2 −4 xy + x 4 +6 x +C GS

Method 3:
❑ ❑

∫ ( 2 x 3−x y 2−2 y +3 ) dx− ∫ ( x 2 y+ 2 x ) dy=0

y=k x=0

x4 2
2 x
2( ) ( )
4
−y
2
−2 y ( x )+3 x +C=0

x4 x2 y2
− −2 xy +3 x+ C=0
2 2

x 4 −x2 y 2−4 xy+ 6 x+C=0

Method 4:
❑ ❑

∫ ( 2 x −x y −2 y +3 ) dx− ∫ ( x 2 y+ 2 x ) dy=0
3 2

y=0 x=k

x4 y2
2 ( )
4
+3 ( x )−x 2 ( )
2
−2 x ( y ) +C=0

x4 x2 y2
+3 x− −2 xy+ C
2 2

x 4 +6 x−x 2 y 2−4 xy +C=0

3. ¿

Check for exactness:

∂M ∂N
∂y |
x=k
(2 xy−tany)
∂x |
y=k
¿
 ¿ 2 x ( 1 )−sec 2 y =2 x−sec 2 y (1)

¿ 2 x−sec 2 y=2 x−sec 2 y

ODE is Exact

Method 1:

∂F
∂x |
y=k
=2 xy−tany

❑ ❑

∫ df = ∫ ( 2 xy−tany ) dx
y=k y=k

2
x
F=2 y ( )
2
−tany ( x ) +T ( y )

F=x 2 y −xtany+T ( y)

∂F ∂ 2
∂y |
x=k
=
∂y
[ x y −xtany+T ( y ) ]

x 2−x sec 2 y=x 2 ( 1 )−x sec 2 y +T ( y )

x 2−x sec 2 y=x 2−x sec 2 y +T ( y )

∫ 0=∫ T ' ( y)
C=T ( y )

F=x 2 y −xtany+C GS

Method 2:

∂F
∂y |
x=k
=x 2−x sec 2 y

❑ ❑

∫ df = ∫ (¿ ¿ x2− x sec 2 y )dy ¿ ¿

x=k x=k
F=x 2 ( y )−xtany +T ( x )

F=x 2 y −xtany+T ( x)

∂F ∂ 2
∂x |
y=k ∂x
[ x y−xtany+ T (x )]
=

2 xy−tany= y (2 x )−tany ( 1 ) +T ' ( x )

2 xy−tany=2 xy −tany+T ' ( x)
∫ 0=∫ T ' ( x )
C=T ( x)

F=x 2 y −xtany+C GS

Method 3:
❑ ❑

∫ ( 2 xy−tany ) dx + ∫ ( x 2−x sec2 y ) dy=0

y=k x=0

x2
2y ( )
2
−tany ( x ) +C=0

x 2 y −xtany +C=0

Method 4 :
❑ ❑

∫ ( 2 xy−tany ) dx + ∫ ( x 2−x sec 2 y ) dy=0

y=0 x=k

x 2 ( y ) −x ¿

x 2 y −x tan y +C=0
4. Find the value of K so that ¿ is exact

∂M ∂N
∂y | x=k
x−2 y 3+ y 2 sin x
∂x |
y=k
−6 x y 2 −kycosx

¿ 0−6 y 2+ sinx ( 2 y )=−6 y 2 ( 1 )−ky (−sinx)

¿−6 y 2+ 2 y sin x=−6 y 2 +ky sin x

 Since ODE is Exact

∂M ∂N
∂y
= | |
∂x

−6 y 2 +2 y sin x=−6 y 2+ ky sin x

2=k

IV.INTEGRABLE COMBINATION
-Applies also to exact ODE

-uses common & familiar differentials.

Ex:

a . ¿ d ( x , y )=xdy ydx

b.¿d ( xy )= ydx−xdy
y 2

c .¿ d ( e x cosy ) =e x ( sinydy )+ cosy ( e x dx )

¿ e x cosydx−sinydy

Steps: (EXACT ODE)

a. Choose one term from dx ordy

b. Integrate partially taking y (¿ x) as constant
c. Differentiate
d. Integrate the left side
e. Combine the acquired terms to obtain the General Solution(GS)

Ex:
 1. xdy + ydx=3 x 2 dx

d ∫ ( xy )=∫ 3 x 2 dx

x3
xy=3 +C
3

xy−x 3 +C=0 → GS

2. y (2 xy +1)dx−xdy =0
2 xy 2 dx+ ydx−xdy=0
y2
ydx−xdy
2 xdx+ =0
y2

∫ 2 xdx +∫ d xy =∫ 0
()
x2 x
2 ( )
2
+ +C=O
y

x 2 y + x +Cy=0 →GS

2 2 dx
3. x y ( ydx+ xdy )+ =0
x
( x 2 y 2 ) d ( xy )+ dx =0
x
¿
let u=xy
du=xdy + ydx=d ( xy )
dx
∫ u 2 du+ ¿∫ x =∫ 0 ¿
u3
+lnx+C=0
3
u3 +3 lnx+C=0
¿

x 3 y 3 +3 lnx+C=0 → GS

1. ( 4 x 3 y 3−2 xy ) dx + ( 3 x 4 y 2−x 2 ) dy =0
 CHECK FOR EXACTNESS:
∂m ∂N
|
∂ y x=k
4 x3 y 3−2 xy
∂x |
y=k
3 x 4 y 2−x2

=4 x3 ( 3 y 2 )−2 x ( 1 ) ¿ 3 y 2 ( 4 x 3 )−2 x
=12 x3 y 2−2 x ¿ 12 x 3 y 2−2 x

ODE is exact
❑ ❑
3 3
∫ 4x y dx ∫ ∫ 3 x 4 y 4 dy
y=k x=k

x4 y3
4 y3 ( )
4
3 x4 ( )
3

x4 y3 x4 y3

d [ x 4 y 3 ]=x 4 ( 3 y 2 dy ) + y 3 ( 4 x3 dx )
d [ x 4 y 3 ]=3 x 4 y 2 dy +4 x3 y 3 dx
❑ ❑
− ∫ 2 xydx ∫ x 2 dy
y=k x=k

d [−x 2 y ]=− [ x2 dy + y ( 2 x ) dx ]

d [−x 2 y ] =− x2 dy−2 xydx

x 4 y 3−x 2 y +C=0 → GS

1. ( 2 xy−tany ) dx + ( x 2−x sec 2 y ) dy=0

❑ ❑

∫ 2 xydx ∫ x 2 dy
y=k x=k

x2
2y ( )2
x2 y

x 2 y d ( x 2 y )=x 2 dy + y ( 2 x ) dx
 ∫ d ( x 2 y )=x 2 dy +2 xydx
❑

∫ tanydx
y=k

−xtany

d (−xtany ) =−( xse c2 ydy +tanydx )

∫ d (−xtany )=−xse c2 ydy−tanydx

x 2 y −xtany+C=0

Homogeneous Leading to Exact

Standard Form:
M (x , y )dx+ N (x , y )dy =0
(Homogeneous)

Steps:
a. Check if ODE is a Homogeneous ODE.
1
b. Let μ= ;
Mx + Ny
Mx+ Ny ≠ 0
μ=¿integrating Factor
c. Check for Exactness:
(μ ¿ ( ODE )=Exact
d. Multiplyμ with the given ODE.
e. Proceed as in solving for exact ODE to obtain the G.S.(General Solution)
f. Solve the P.S.(Particular Solution) for a given condition.

Examples.
1. xydx−( x 2 +2 y 2 )=0
Solution:
xydx−( x 2 +2 y 2 )=0
(Homo of 2nd degree)

1 1 −1
Let μ= 2
= 2 2 3
= 3
( xy ) x + (−x 2−2 y ) y x y−x y−2 y 2 y
 [ xydx−( x2 +2 y 2 ) dy ] ÷ ( 2−1y ) 3

x2 1
−xdx
2 y2
+ (
+ dy=0
2 y3 y )
Check of Exactness:
δM −xy−2
=
δy 2
x=k
−x
(−2 y−3 )
2
¿ xy−3
δN x 2 y −3 −1
= +y
δx 2
y=k
−3
y
¿ (2x)+0
2
¿ xy−3
ODE IS NOW EXACT!

x2 1
−xdx
(
∫ 2 y 2 ∫ 2 y 3 + y dy =∫ 0
+ )
y=k; x=o or no x

−1 x 2
2 y2 2 ( )
+lny+ C=0

−x 2 2
2
+lny +Cy =0 →General Solution (G . S .)
4y

2. ( x 2+ y 2 ¿ dx−xydy =0
Solution:

( x 2+ y 2 ¿ dx−xydy =0
(Homo of 2nd Degree)

1 1 1
Let μ= 2 2
= 3 2 2
= 3
( x + y ) + x (−xy ) ( y ) x + xy −xy x

1
[ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx−xydy=0 ] ÷
x3
1 y2 y
( )
+ 3 dx− 2 dy =0
x x x
 Check for Exactness:
δM
=x−1 + x−3 y 2
δy
x=k
=0+ x−3 ( 2 y )
¿ 2 x−3 y
δN
=−x−2 y
δx
y=k
¿− y (−2 x−3)
¿ 2 x−3 y
ODE IS NOW EXACT!

1 y2 y
∫ ( x x )
+ 3 dx−∫ 2 dy=∫ 0
x
y=o or no y; x=k

1 y2
lnx− 2
x 2
+C=0 ( )
y2
lnx− 2 +C=0
2x
2 2 2
2 x lnx− y +Cx =0 →General Solution (G. S .)

3. xdx+(y−¿2x)dy=0
Solution:

xdx +(y-2x)dy=0
(Homo of 1st Degree)

1 1 1
Let μ= = 2 2 =
( x ) ( x ) + ( y−2 x ) y x + y −2 xy ( x− y )2

1
[ xdx + ( y−2 x ) dy =0 ] ÷
( x− y )2
xdx y−2 xdy
2
+ =0
( x− y ) ( x− y )2

Check for Exactness:

δM
=x ( x − y )−2
δy
x=k
=x (-2x) ( x− y )−3 (−1 )+( x− y )−2 ( 0 )
=2x( x− y )−3
 δN
=( y−2 x ) ( x− y )−2
δx
y=k
=(y−2 x ¿ (−2 ) ( x− y )−3 (1)+ ( x− y )−2 (−2)
= (-2y+4x)( x− y )−3 −2 ( x− y )−2
= ( x− y )−3 [ −2 y+ 4 x−2( x− y) ]
= ( x− y )3 [ −2 y + 4 x−2 x+2 y ]
= 2x( x− y )−3
ODE IS NOW EXACT!

xdx y−2 xdy

∫ ( x− y )2 +∫ =∫ 0
( x− y )2
y=k; x=0 or no x
( x− y + y ) dx
∫ =∫ 0
( x− y )2
y=k

( x− y ) dx ydx
∫ 2
+∫ =∫ 0
( x− y ) ( x− y )2
y=k; y=k
dx ydx
∫ x− y +∫ ( x− y )2 =∫ 0
( x− y ) −1
ln(x-y)+y [ −1 ]
+C=0

y 1
[
ln ( x− y )−
x− y
+ C=0 ÷ ]
( x− y)
(x-y)ln(x-y)− y +C ( x− y )=0 → General Solution (G . S .)

4. Determine if x 2 is an integrating factor ( μ ) of

( 8 xy−9 y 2) dx + ( 2 x 2−6 xy ) dy=0

Solution:

[ ( 8 xy −9 y 2 ) dx+( 2 x 2−6 xy ) dy=0 ] ÷ x 2

( 8 x 3 y−9 x 2 y 2 ) dx + ( 2 x 4−6 x 3 y ) dy =0

Check for Exactness:

δM
=8 x 3 y−9 x 2 y 2
δy
x=k
=8 x 3 ( 1 )−9 x2
=8 x 3−18 x 2 y
 δN
=2 x 4 −6 x3 y
δx
=8 x 3−6 y ( 3 x2 )
=8 x 3−18 x 2 y

Since it is exact, x 2 is theintegrating factor of the givenODE .

VI. DETERMINATION OF INTEGRATING FACTOR (NON-EXACT)

Standard Form: M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

Steps:

a.) Check for exactness of the given ODE

b.) If the ODE is not exact, then
∂M ∂ N
Let ¿ −
∂y ∂x
1 1
c.) Multiply with ∨ to obtain f(x) or g(y), that is:
N M
1 1
=f ( x )∨ g ( y )
N M
d.) Obtain the integrating factor ( )
f ( x ) dx −g ( y ) dy
¿ e∫ ∨¿ e∫
e.) Multiply with the given ODE
f.) Check again for exactness
g.) If exact, proceed as in solving for the exact ODE.
¿( ) ( ODE )=EXACT

Examples:
1. y ( 2 x + y 3 ) dx−x ( 2 x − y 3 ) dy=0
∂M ∂N
∂y |
x=k
2 xy + y 4
∂x |
y=k
−2 x 2+ xy 3

¿ 2 x ( 1 ) + ( 4 y )=−4 x+ y 3 ( 1 )
3

¿ 2 x+ 4 y 3=−4 x + y 3
 ODE is NOT EXACT
 ¿ 2 x+ 4 y 3−( −4 x + y 3 )
¿ 2 x+ 4 y 3 +4 x− y 3
¿ 6 x+ 3 y 3=3(2 x+ y 3)
1 1
∅= ( 3) (2 x + y3 )
N 2
−2 x + x y 3

1
¿ 3
( 3) (2 x + y3 )
x (−2 x+ y )
≠f (x)
1 1
∅= ( 3) (2 x + y3 )
M 2 xy + y 4

1
¿ 3
( 3) (2 x + y3 )
y (2 x + y )
3
¿ =g ( y)
y
∫ −g ( y )dy ∫ −( 3y ) dy −3 lny
−3
ln y
¿e =e =e =e
1
¿ y−3=
y3
[ y ( 2 x+ y 3 ) dx−x ( 2 x−x y 3 ) dy=0 ] ( y1 )
3

( 2 x y −2 + y ) dx− ( 2 x 2 y−3−x ) dy=0

Check again the exactness
∂M
|( 2 x y−2 + y ) ∂ N (−2 x2 y−3 + x )
|
∂ y x=k ∂ x y=k
¿ 2 x (−2 y−3 ) +1=−2 y −3 ( 2 x )+1
¿−4 x y−3 +1=−4 x y−3+ 1
∴ ODEis now Exa ct
❑ ❑

∫ ( 2 x y −2+ y ) dx− ∫ ( 2 x 2 y −3 −x ) dy=∫ 0

y=k x=0

x2
2 y−2 ( )
2
+ y ( x )+ C=0

x2
+ xy +C=0
y2

x 2+ x y 3 +C y 2=0GS

2. ( x 3 y3 +1 ) dx + x 4 y 2 dy=0
Check for exactness
∂M ∂N
∂y |x=k
x 3 y 3 +1
∂x | y=k
x4 y2
3 2 2 3
¿ x ( 3 y ) = y (4 x )
¿ 3 x 3 y 2=4 x 3 y 2
 ODE is NOT EXACT
3 2 3 2
¿ 3 x y −4 x y
¿−x 3 y 2
1 1
∅= 4 2 (−x 3 y 2)
N x y
1 −1
∅=
N x

∫ f (x ) dx ∫ ( −1
x )
dx
−lnx ln x
−1

¿e =e =e =e

1
¿ x−1=
x
[ ( x 3 y 3+1 ) dx + x 4 y 2 dy=0 ] ( 1x )

( x y + 1x ) dx+ ( x y ) dy=0
2 3 3 2

Check again the exactness

∂M 1 ∂N
∂ y x=k
x 2 y 3+
x ∂x| ( ) | y=k
( x3 y 2 )
2 2 2 2
¿ x ( 3 y )= y ( 3 x )
¿ 3 x 2 y 2=3 x 2 y 2
∴ ODEis now Exact
❑ ❑
2 3 1
∫
y=k
x (y +
x
dx −
x=0
)
∫ ( x 3 y2 ) dy =∫ 0

x3
y 3
( ) 3
+ lnx+C=0

x3 y 3
+lnx + C=0
3
x 3 y 3 +3 lnx+C=0

y 3 +ln x 3+ C=0GS
Linear Differential Equation

Standard Form:
dy
+ y .P(x) =Q(x)→ Linear∈ y
dx
General Form:
y. μ=∫ Q ( x ) . μ dx+ C
Where: μ=e∫ P (x)dx
Standard Form:
dx
+ x. P(y) =Q(y)→ Linear∈ x
dy
General Form:
x . μ=∫ Q ( y ) . μ dy+C
Where : μ=e∫ P ( y)dy

Recall: (Conditions in Linearity)

1. The Variable y (or x) and all its derivatives must be of degree one.
2. There’s no product of y (or x) and its derivatives. (ex. ydy , xdx ¿
3. There are no transcendental functions involving y (or x).

Examples:
dx
a. y +3x-3y+2=0
dy

Solution:
dx
y +3 x−3 y +2=0 → Linear∈X
dy
dx
y + 3 x −3 y +2=0
dy
y
dx 3 x 3 y−2
+ −
dy y y
=0( )
dx 3 3 y−2
dy
+x
y
= ( ) y
3 3 y −2
p ( y )= ; Q ( y ) =
y y
∫ P ( y ) dy ∫ ( 3y ) dy 3 lny lny
3

μ=e =e =e =e
3
μ= y
General Form:
 x . y 3= ∫ ( 3 yy−2 ) y dy +C ←General Form
3

x . y 3=∫ ( 3 y −2 ) y 2 dy +C
x . y 3=∫ ( 3 y 3 −2 y 2 ) dy +C
y4 y3
x . y =3 3
4 ( ) ( )
−2
3
+C

12 xy 3=9 y 4 −8 y 3+ C →General Solution

b. y’=1+3ytanx
Solution:
y ’=1+ 3 ytanx→ Linear∈ y
dy
−3 ytanx=1
dx
dy
+ y (−3 tanx )=1
dx
P(x) =−3 tanx ; Q ( x )=1
3
∫ P ( x ) dx −∫ 3 tanxdx
μ=e =e =e−3 (−lncosx )=e 3lncosx =e lncosx =cosx 3

General Form:
y . cos3 x=∫ ( 1 ) ( cos 3 x ) dx +C
y . cos3 x=∫ cosx ¿ ¿) dx+C
y . cos3 x=∫ cosxdx−∫ sin2 xcosxdx+C
Let u=sinx , du=cosxdx
3 sin3 x
y . cos x=sinx− +C
3
3 ycos 3 x=3 sinx−sin3 x +C → General Solution

c. x(x−2 ¿ y ' +2 y=0; y ( 3 )=6

Solution:
( x 2−2 x ) dy +2 y=0
dx
2
→ Linear ∈ y
( x −2 x )
dy 2
dx
+y 2
(
x −2 x
=0
)
2
P(x)= 2 ; Q ( x )=0
x −2 x
∫ x 22−2 2
∫ x ( x−2 ) dx
μ=e =e

By Partial Fraction:
 2 A B
∫ x ( x−2) = x + x −2
2=A(x-2)+Bx
2=Ax-2A+Bx
If x=2=−¿2A∴ A=−1
If x=0= A+ B ∴− A=B → B=1
dx x−2
∫ −dx
x
+
x−2 −lnx +ln ⁡( x−2)
ln
x x−2
μ=e =e =e =
x

General Form:
( x−2
2 )
y =0+ C
x−2
( )
x
y =C
But x=3, y=6
3−2
6 ( )
3
=C
C=2
x−2
y ( )x
=2

y (x−2)=2 x →Particular Solution

Check:
dy
x ( x−2) +2y=0
dx
x ( x−2 ) dy +2 ydx=0
→ Variable Separable
x ( x−2 ) y
dy 2 dx
∫ y +∫ x ( x −2 ) =∫ 0
dy dx
lny−¿ ∫ +∫ =0
x x−2
lny−lnx+ln ( x−2 )=lnC
y( x−2)
ln
e =e lnC
x

y (x−2)
=C
x

VIII- Bernoulli’s Equation

dy
Std. Form: + y ∙ P(x) = y n Q(x)
dx
Where n≠ 0
 ( 1−n) P ( x ) dx
μ=e∫
Gen Form: y 1−n ∙ μ = (1 – n) ∫ Q ( x ) μ ∙ dx+ C

dx
Standard Form: + x ∙ P(y) = x n Q(y)
dy
Where n≠ 0
( 1−n) P ( y ) dy
μ=e∫
Gen Form: x 1−n ∙ μ = (1 – n) ∫ Q ( y ) μ ∙ dy +C

Example:
1. y ( 6 y 2−x−1 ¿ dx−2 xdy=0
dy
+( 6 y 3−xy− y ¿ ¿ =0
dx 2x
dy (−xy− y )
+( 6 y 3 ¿ ¿ + =0
dx 2x 2x
dy (−x−1) −6 y 3
+y =
dx 2x 2x

(−x−1) 3
P ( x) : ; Q ( x ) :− ; n=3 ; 1−3=−2
2x x

∫−2( − 2x−1
x
)dx
x+1 x 1
= e∫ ( x )dx = e∫ x dx+ x dx = e x +lnx
μ=e
μ= xe x

GEN FORM: y−2 ∙ xe x = -2 ∫ ( −3x ) xe ∙ dx +C

x

y−2 ∙ xe x = 6 e x +C
xe x x
2 = 6 e +C
y
xe x = 6 y 2 e x + C y 2

2. xydx + ( x 2−3 y ) dy=0

xydx+ ( x2 −3 y ) dy=0
xy dy
dx
+( x2 −3 y ¿ ¿ =0
dy xy
2
dx x 3y
+ − =0
dy xy xy
 dx x 3
+ − =0
dy y x
dx 1 −3
+x =
dy y x

1
P ( y ): ; Q ( y ) :3; n=−1=1+1=2
y
1
μ=e∫
( 1−n) P ( y ) dy
= e∫ ( 2) y dy = e 2 lny
μ= y 2

2
GEN FORM: x 2 ∙ y 2 = 2 ∫ 3 y dy +C
6 y3
x2 y2 = +C
3

x 2 y 2 - 2 y 3+ C = 0

IX- COEFFICIENTS IN LINEAR IN 2 VARIABLES

Std Form: (a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1 ¿ dx + (a ¿ ¿ 2 x +b2 y +c 2) dy ¿ = 0
Where (a 1 , b1 , c 1, a2 ,b 2 , c 2 ¿ are constants.

Method of Solution
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0 = L1 = M( x , y )
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0 = L2 = N( x , y )

a 1 b1
CASE 1: If ≠ or L1 intersects L2at P(h , k )
a2 b 2
Then let
x=u+ h; dx=du
y=v +k ; dy=dv
-Where h and k can be obtained from the values of xand y whenever the two lines are
equated.
-Substitute to the given ODE to form a Homogeneous ODE, then introduce another
variable, sayw, therefore let ¿ vw ; du=vdw +wdv

a1 b1
CASE 2: If ¿ or L1 // L2
a2 b2
 Then let
u=a1 x +b 1 y Or ¿ a2 x+ b2 y ;
du = a 1 dx +b1 dy or a 2 dx +b2 dy
(Whichever is simple)

Substitute on the given ODE to form an equation solvable by variable- separable.

1. ( x + y +1)dx + ( 2 x+2 y +1 ) dy=0

a 1= 1 b 1= 1
a 2= 2 b 2= 2
a1 b1 1 1
¿ ; = ---------- L1 // L2
a2 b2 2 2
Let u=x + y ; x=u – y
du=dx +dy ; dx=du – dy
[ ( u− y )+ y+ 1 ] ( du−dy ) + [ 2 ( u− y ) +2 y +1 ] dy=0
( u− y+ y+ 1 )( du−dy ) + ( 2 u−2 y +2 y +1 ) dy=0
( u+1 ) ( du−dy ) + ( 2u+ 1 ) dy =0
( u+1 ) du−( u+1 ) dy+ ( 2u+1 ) dy=0
( u+1 ) du−udy−dy +2 udy+ dy=0
( u+1 ) du+udy
=0  VS
u
( u+1 ) du
∫ u +∫ dy=0

udu 1
∫ du dy=0
u ∫u ∫
+
u+ ln u+ y+C=0
But u=x+ y
x + y +ln ( x+ y )+ y+ C=0

2. ( 2 x− y ) dx + ( 4 x+ y−6 ) dy=0
a 1= 2 b 1= -1
a 2= 4 b 2= 1
a1 b1 2 −1
≠ ; = ---------- L1 perpendicular to L2
a2 b 2 4 1

Let x = u + h ∴ x = u + 1
y=v+k∴y=u+2
dx=du
dy =dv

Solving h and k
Equate L1and L2
L1=2 x− y
4 x + y−6
L1 =
6 x−6
x=1=h
2 (1) – y = 0
2 = y =k
Substitute:
[ 2 ( u+1 )−( v+ 2 ) ] du+ ¿
2 u+2 du−vdv−2 dv + 4 udv+ 4 dv+ vdv−4 dv=0
2 udu−vdu+ 4 udv+ vdv=0

Let u=vw ; du=vdw+wdv

[ 2 ( vw )−v ] ( vdw +wdv ) + ( 4 vw+ v ) dv=0

2 v 2 wdw−v 2 dw +2 v w2 dv−vwdv+ 4 vwdw+ vdv=0
2 v 2 wdw−v 2 dw +2 v w2 dv +3 vwdw + vdv=0
v 2 ( 2 w−1 ) dw+ v ( 2 w2 +3 w+1 ) dv =0
v2 ¿ ¿
( 2 w−1 ) dw
∫ 2 w2 +3 w+ 1 + ∫ dvv = ∫ 0
( 2 w−1 ) dw
∫ ( 2 w+1 ) (w+1) + ∫ dvv = ∫ 0

By Partial Fraction:
(2 w−1 ) dw A B
= +
( 2 w+1 ) (w +1) 2 w+1 w+1
2 w−1= A ( w +1 )+ B( 2 w+1)
for w :2= A +2 B
K :−1= A+ B
3 = B ∴ A=−1−3=−4
−4 dw 3 dw dv
∫ 2 w+1 +∫ w+1 +∫ v =∫ 0
v (w+1)3
=C
(2 w +1 )2
 u
But w=
v
u=x−1
v= y−2
3
x−1
( y−2 ) [ y−2
+1
2
] =C
x −1
2 [
y−2
+1 ]
3
x −1+ y−2
( y−2 ) [ y−2 ]
2
=C
2 ( x−1 ) +( y−2)
[ y−2 ]
( x + y −3)3
=C
(2 x−2+ y−2)2

( x + y−3)3= (2 x+ y−4 )2 C

X. SIMPLE SUBSTITUTION

Standard Form:
M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

Let u=f ( x , y ) or u=f ( x , y )

v=g( x , y )

General Form: f ( x ) dx+ g ( y ) dy=0

STEPS:

1. If a new variable is introduced, remove only one variable.

2. If the two variables are introduced, remove both the original variables.
3. Choose the simpler term for dy ordx .
4. Form an equation solvable by variable-separable.
5. Express the Gen. Solution in terms of the original variables.

Examples
 1. 2 dx+ ( 2 x +3 y ) dy=0

Let u=2 x +3 y ; du=2 dy +3 dy

2 dx+ udy=¿0 2 dx=du−3 dy

( du−3 dy ) +udy=0

du+ ( u−3 ) dy=0

→VS
u−3

du
∫ u−3 +∫ dy=∫ 0
ln ( u−3 ) + y +C=0

but u=2 x+3 y

ln ( 2 x+3 y −3 ) + y +C=0 →GS

2. ( 2 x+ y +6 ) dx+ ( 2 x + y ) dy=0
Let u=2 x + y ; du=2dx +dy
du−2 dx=dy
( u+6 ) dx +udy=0
( u+6 ) dx +u ( du−2 dx )=0
( u+6−2 u ) dx+udu=0
( 6−u ) dx +udu=0
→ VS
6−u
udu
∫ dx−∫ u−6 =∫ 0
6 du
x−∫ du+∫ = 0
u−6 ∫
x−u+6 ln (u−6 )+C=0
x−( 2 x+ y )+ 6 ln ( 2 x + y−6 ) +C=0

−x− y +6 ln ( 2 x+ y−6 )+C=0→ GS

3. y 2 ( xdy + ydx ) =( xy+ 1 ) dx

 Let u=xy ; du=xdy + ydx

x 2 y 3 du−( u+1 ) dx=0

u 3
x2
x ()
du−( u+1 ) dx=0

u3 du−x ( u+1 ) dx=0

→ VS
(u+1)

u3 du
∫ u+1 −∫ xdx=∫ 0
1
∫ (u2−u+ 1− u+1 ) du−∫ xdx=∫ 0
u3 u 2 x2
− +u−ln u+1 − +C=0
( )
3 2 2

2 u3−3 u2 +6 u−6 ln ( u+1 )−3 x 2+ C=0

2¿

4. x 2 y 3 ( xdy+ ydx )=( xy +1 ) dy

Let u=xy ; du=xdy + ydx

x 2 y 3 du−( u−1 ) dy=0

2
u
( ) y du−( u+1) dy=0
y
3

u2 ydu−( u+1 ) dy=0

y ( u+1 )
2
∫ uu+1
du dy
−∫ =0
y

1
∫ (u−1+ u+1 ) du−∫ dyy =∫ 0
u2
−u+ln ( u+1 )−lny +C=0
2
u2−2u+2 ln ( u+1 )−2lny +C=0

( xy )2−2 xy +2 ln ( xy +1 ) −2lny + C=0

2
( xy )2−2 xy +ln xy +1 +lnC=0
( )
y

xy +12
xy ( xy−2 ) +ln | |y
=0

x
5. xy ( xdy− ydx )= y +1 dy ( )
x ydx−xdy
Let u= y ; du=
y2

xy=uy y 2 du=xdy − ydx

xy (− y 2 du )= (u+ 1 ) dy

−uy 4 du=( u+1 ) dy

( u+1 ) dy+u y 4 du=0

→VS
(u+1) y 4

y−3 du
+∫ du−∫ +C=0
−3 u+1

y−3
+u−ln ( u+1 ) +C=0
−3

−1 x x
3y y
3
y ( )
+ −ln +1 +C=0
 −1+3 x y 2−3 y 3 ln ( xy +1)+C y =0 →GS
3

y 2
6. dx +dy =( x+ y ) 1+ ( )
x
( xdy − ydx)

Let u=x+ y ; du=dx +dy

y dv = xdy− ydx → x 2 dv=xdy− ydx
v=
x x2
2
du=u ( 1+ v ) ( x2 dv )

u 2
du=u ( 1+ v )
2
[( ) ]
1+v
dv =u3 dv

du−u 3 dv=0
→ VS
u3

du
∫ u3 −∫ dv=∫ 0

u−2
−v +C=0
−2

−1
−v +C=0
2u 2

y
but u=x + y ; v=
x
−1
−2 y
[ 2 ( x+ y ) x
2
− + C=0
]
1 y
+ + C=0
2( x + y ) x
2

1+2 y ¿
 APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

GROWTH / DECAY OR DECOMPOSITION / INVESTMENT PROBLEMS

dP
 Growth =KP
dt
dP
 Decay or Decomposition =−KP
dt
dP
 Investment Problem =iP
dt
Where P = no. of population/inhabitants/amount
dP
= rate of change of population /
dt
Inhabitants/amount

K ( ¿ i ) = Proportionality constant

= Interest (in decimal)

GROWTH
1. If the population of country doubles in 75 years, in how many years will it
triple under the assumption that the rate of increase is proportional to the no.
of inhabitants?

Conditions
t=0 P=P0
t=75years P=2P0
t=? P=3P0

dP
=KP
dt

dP
∫ =K ∫ dt
P
 lnP=Kt +C
2 P0 75
ln P ] P = Kt ]0 Working Equation
0

ln 2 P0−ln P0 =K ( 75−0 )

2 P0
ln =K ( 75 )
P0

ln2
ln 2=K ( 75 ) K=
75

From the Working equation

3 P0 t
ln P ] P =K t ] 0
0

3 P 0 ln 2
ln = t
P0 75

75 ( ln3 ) t=118.87 years

t=
ln 2

2. In a certain culture of bacteria, the rate of the increase is proportional to the

amount present.
a.) If it is found that the no. doubles in 4hours, how many may be expected at
the end of 12 hours?

Conditions
t=0 P=P0
t=4 hours P=2P0
t=12 hours P=?

dP
=KP
dt

dP
∫ =K ∫ dt
P

lnP=Kt +C
2 P0 4
ln P ] P = Kt ]0 Working Equation
0
 2 P0
ln =K ( 4 )
P0

ln 2
ln 2=K ( 4 ) K= =0.173286 …
4

From the Working equation

P 12
ln P ] P =K t ] 0 0

P ln 2
ln = ( 12 )=3 ln 2
P0 4
P
ln 3
P0
e =e ln 2

P
=8
P0

P=8 P 0
b. If there are 104 at the end of 3 hours, and 4 ×104 at the end of 5hours, how
many were there at the beginning?

Conditions
t=0 P=P0=?
t=3hours P=1x104
t=5hours P=4x104
dP
=KP
dt
dP
∫ P =K ∫ dt
4
4 ×1 0 5
ln P ] 1× 1 0 =K t ] 3 4

4 × 10 4
ln = K (5−3)
1 ×1 04

ln 4 ln22 2 ln 2
=K = =K =ln 2
2 2 2
4
1× 1 0
 ln P ] P 0
=ln 2 ( 3 )=3 ln 2
4
1 ×1 0
P0
ln
e =e ln 2

1 ×1 04 =8 P0
 P0=1250 bacterias

3. A bacteria culture is known to grow at a rate proportional to the amount

present. After 2 hours, 1000bacteria are observed in the culture and after
6hours, 3000.
a.) Find an expression for the no. of bacteria at any time, t.

Conditions
t=0 P=P0
t=2 P=1000
t=6 P=3000
t=? P=?

dP
=KP
dt
dP
∫ =K ∫ dt
P
3000 6
ln P ] 1000=K t ]2
3000
ln =K (6−2)
1000

ln 3
=K
4
P t
ln P ] 1000=K t ]2
P 3
ln =ln (t −2)
1000 4
P t ln 3
ln = ln 3−2( )
1000 4 4
P
ln =0.27465 t−0.54930614 …
1000

P=1000 e 0.27465 t −0.54930614 …

b. Determine the no. of bacteria originally in the culture.

Conditions:
t=0 P=P0
 t
ln −0.54930614 …
4
P=P 0=1000 e
¿ 1000 e 0.27465t−0.54930614

P=577.35 bacteria

c. Determine the no. of bacteria after 8hours

Conditions:
t=8 P=?
P ln 3
ln = (8−2)
1000 4
P ln 3 3 ln 3
ln = ( 6) =
1000 4 2
−3
ln 3
2
P=1000 e

P=1596.15 bacteria

DECOMPOSITION
4. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present and n as a half-
life of 1600 years. Find an expression for the amount present after 6400 years in
terms of the original amount.
 Half- life the time required for the 50% of the originated substance to
decompose.
Conditions;
t=0 ; P=P o
t 1 =1600 yrs; P=0.5 P o
2
t=6400 yrs ; P=?

dP
=−KP
dt
dP
∫ P =−∫ K dt
0.5 P o
ln =−K (1600−0)
Po
0.5
ln =−K
1600
K = 0.000433216…
 ln P ¿ P =−K t ¿ ¿ 6400 ¿
Po 0
P
ln =−0.00043
Po
P
=e−2.7725
Po

P=0.0625 …. Po

5. Radium decays at a rate proportional to the amount present. If half of the

original amount disappears in 1600 year. Find the % lost in 100 years.
amt lost P −p
% lost = x 100= o x 100
initial amt Po
Conditions:
t=0 ; P=P o
t 1 =1600 ; P=0.5 Po
2
t=100 ; P=?

ln P ¿ 0.5 P o=−K t ¿ ¿ 1600 ¿

Po 0
ln P ¿ P =−K t ¿ ¿ 100 ¿
Po 0
P
ln =−0.000433216 … . .
Po
P=e−0.0433216 …. Po
P=0.95760332807 … … P o

amt lost
% lost = x 100
initial amt
P o−0.95760332807 Po
% lost = x 100
Po
P o (1−0.95760332807)
% lost = x 100
Po
% lost = 4.24

6. A certain radioactive material is known to decay at a rate proportional to the

amount present. Initially there are 500 mg present, and after 3 hrs, it is observed
that the material has lost 10% of its original mass.
a. Find an expression for the remaining mass at any time, t.
 Conditions:
t=0 ; P=500
t=3 ln ; P=500−0.10(500)
t=? ; P=?

dP
=−KP
dt
dP
∫ P =−∫ K dt
ln P ¿ 450 =−K t ¿ ¿ 3 ¿
500 0
450
ln =−K (3)
500
K=0.035120171… … .

ln P ¿ P =−K t ¿ ¿ t ¿
500 0

P
ln =0.035120171 … ….. t
500

P=500 e 0.035120171… ….. t

b. Determine the mass of the material after 5 hrs.

t=5 ; P=?
P=500 e 0.035120171… ….. t
P=419.48

c. Determine the time at w/c the mass has decayed to ½ its initial mass.
t 1 =? ; P=0.5(500)
2
P
ln =0.035120171 … …t 1
500 2

t 1 =19.74
2
INVESTMENT PROBLEMS
1. A woman plans to a single sum in a deposit account with a guaranteed interest
rate of 6 ¼% per year. How much should she deposit if she wants the account to
be worth $30,000 at the end of the 5-year period?

Conditions
t=0 P0=?
t =5 P=$ 30,000
i=¿ 6 ¼% i=0.0625
Solution
dP
=iP → V . S
dt

dP
∫ = idt
P ∫
30,000 5
ln P ] P 0
=i t ]0
30,000
ln
P0
e =e( 0.0625 ) (5)

30 ,000 ( 0.0625 ) (5)

=e
P0

P0=$ 21 , 948.47

2. A man currently has $15,000 and plans to invest it in an account that accrues
interest continuously. What interest rate must he receive if his goal is to have
$40,000 in 3 years?

Conditions:
t=0 P0=$ 15,000
t=3 P=$ 40,000
i=?

Solution:

dP
=iP → VS
dt
 dP
∫ dt =∫ idt
40,000 3
ln P ] 15,000 =i t ]0

40,000
ln =i(3)
15,000

i=0.32694

i=32.69 %

Orthogonal Trajectory
A curve that cuts every member of a given family of curves at 90 ° angle . If we let C 1 to
be the orthogonal trajectory and C 2 be a number of family if curves, then

−1
slope of C 1=
slope of C 2

dy
However, slope of curve at any point p(x , y ) is defined by .
dx

−1
mC = 1
mC 2

dy 1
y'= →− →O .T .
dx dy
dx

M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

N ( x , y ) dx−M ( x , y ) dy =0

A x 2+ Bxy +C y 2 + Dx+ Ey + F=0

(no xy term)

1. If coefficient of x 2= coefficient of y 2
→Circle
2. If coefficient of x 2 and y 2 is of unlike sign
→Hyperbola
3. If coefficient of x 2≠ coefficient of y 2 but of same sign
 →Ellipse
4. Coefficient of one tern is squared
→Parabola

Find the Orthogonal Trajectory of

1. x 2+ y 2=C2
2 x+2 y y ' =0
−2 x −x dy
y'= = = → slope of the family of circles
2y y dx
dy 1 y
dx
=−
( )
−x
y
= → slope of O . T .
x

∴ xdy= ydx
ydx−xdy=0
→VS
y∙ x
dx dy
∫ x −∫ y =∫ 0
lnx−lny=lnC
x
ln
e y =e lnC
x=Cy → family of SL

Newton’s Law of Cooling

The rate of change of the temperature of the body immersed in a medium (surrounding)
whose temperature differs in it is proportional to the difference in temperature between it and
the medium

In mathematical form:
d μB
=−k ( μ B−μ m ) → cooling
dt

Where: μ B = temperature of the body (℉ , ℃)

μm = temperature of the medium (surrounding) (℉ , ℃)
k = proportionality constant

If the body is heated

d μB
=k ( μm −μB )
dt

Note: in cooling: μ B> μ m

in heating: μ B< μ m

Example:

1. A body at a temperature of 50℉ is placed outdoors where the temperature is 100℉. If

after 5 min, the temperature of the body is 60℉,
a. Find an expression for the temperature of the body at any time, t;

Conditions:

μm =100℉
t=0 μ B=50 ℉
t=5 min μ B=60 ℉
t=? μ B=?

In heating:
d μB
=k ( μ B−μm ) → VS
dt
60 5
d μB
∫ 100−μ =∫ kdt
50 B 0
60 5
−ln ⁡(100−μ B ) ]50=kt ]0 →WE
100−60
−ln =k (5)
100−50
k =0.0446287 …
μB t
−ln ⁡(100−μ B ) ] 50=kt ]0
100−μB
ln
e =e−0.0446287 …t
100−50

100−μ B −0.0446287 …t
=e
50

μ B=100−50 e−0.0446287 …t

b. Determine how long will it take for the body to reach 75℉;
t=? μ B=75 ℉
100−μ B
ln =−0.0446287 … t
100−50
 100−75
ln =−0.0446287 … t
100−50

t=15.53 min

c. Determine the temperature of the body after 20 min

t=20 min μB =?
μ B=100−50 e−0.0446287 …(20)

μ B=79.52 ℉

2. An object is cooled from 90℃ to 45℃ in 12 min in a room where the temperature is kept
constant at 28℃. How much longer will it take the body to decrease its temperature by
35℃?
Conditions:

μm =28 ℃
t=0 μ B=90 ℃
t=12 min μ B=45℃
t=? μ B=35 ℃

In Cooling:

d μB
=−k ( μ B−μ m ) → VS
dt

45 12
d μB
∫ μ −28 =−k ∫ dt
90 B 0
45 12
ln ⁡(μ B −28) ] 90=−kt ] 0 →WE
45−28
ln =−k (12)
90−28
k =0.10782687…
35 t
∴ ln (μB −28) ] 90=−k t ] 0
35−28
ln =−0.10782687 … t
90−28

t=20.23 min
 3. A metal bar at a temperature of 100℉ is placed in a room at a constant temperature of
0 ℉. If after 20 min, the temperature of the bar is 50℉,
a. Find an expression for the temperature at any time, t;
Conditions:

μm =28 ℃
t=0 μ B=90 ℃
t=12 min μ B=45℃
t=? μ B=35 ℃

In cooling:

d μB
=−k ( μ B−μ m ) → VS
dt
45 12
d μB
∫ μ −28 =−k ∫ dt
90 B 0
45 12
ln ⁡(μ B −28) ] 90=−kt ] 0 →WE
45−28
ln =−k (12)
90−28
k =0.10782687…
35 t
∴ ln (μB −28) ] 90=−k t ] 0

35−28
ln =−0.10782687 … t
90−28

t=20.23 min

4. A metal bar at a temperature of 100℉ is placed in a room at a constant

temperature of0 ℉ . If after 20 min, the temperature of the bar is 50℉ ,
b. Find an expression for the temperature at any time, t;
Conditions:
μm =0 ℉
t=0 μ B=100 ℉
t=20 min μ B=50 ℉
t=? μ B=?
 In cooling:
d μB
=−k ( μ B−μ m ) → VS
dt
50 20
d μB
∫ =−k ∫ dt
100 μ B−0 0

50 20
ln ⁡(μ B ) ]100 =−kt ]0 →WE

50
ln =−k ( 20)
100

k =0.03465735 …
μB t
ln ⁡(μ B ) ] 100 =−kt ]0
μB
ln
100
e =e−0.03465735… (t )

μ B=100 e−0.03465735 …(t )

c. Find the time it will take for the bar to reach 25℉
t=? μ B=25 ℉
μB
ln =−0.03465735 … t
100
25
ln =−0.03465735 … t
100

t=40 min

d. Find the time required for the bar to reach -10℉

t=? μ B=−10 ℉
−10
ln =−0.03465735 … t
100
∴∈cooling :μ B > μ m
The cannot
¯ attain a temperature of −10 ℉
 5. At 10:00 A.M., the thermometer reading 70℉ is taken outdoors where the temperature is
15℉. At 10:05 A.M., the temperature reading is 45℉. At 10:10 A.M., the thermometer
is taken back indoors where the temperature is fixed at 70℉. Find the reading at 10:20
A.M.

10:00 A.M. μ B=15 ℉ 10:05 A.M. 10:10 A.M. μ B=70 ℉ 10:20 A.M.
t=0 → t = 5 min → t = 10 min → t = 20 min
μ B=70 ℉ μ B=45℉ μ B=? μ B=?

COOLING HEATING

In Cooling:

d μB
=−k ( μ B−μ m ) → VS
dt
45 5
d μB
∫ μ −15 =−k ∫ dt
70 B 0

45 5
ln ⁡(μ B −15) ]70 =−kt ]0

45−15
ln =−k (5)
70−15

k =0.12122716…
μB 10
ln ⁡(μ B −15) ]70=−kt ]0
μ B −15
ln
70−15
e =e−0.12122716… (10)

μ B −15 −1.2122716 …
=e
55

μ B=15+55 e−1.2122716 …
 μ B=31.363636 ℉

In Heating:

d μB
=k ( μ B−μm ) → VS
dt
μB 20
d μB
∫ 70−μ ∫ kdt =
31.3636 B 10

μB 20
−ln ⁡(70−μ B ) ]31.3636=kt ] 10

70−μ B
ln =−0.12122716 … ( 20−10 )
70−31.3636

μ B=58.50 ℉

IV. MIXTURE FLOW PROBLEMS

ds ds entering ds leaving
= -
dt dt dt

ds
= C1r1 – C2 r2
dt

ds
Where = rate of change of the amount of salt at any time t
dt

s = amount of salt (lb, g, kg)

C = concentration

amount of salt S
C2= =
VT VT

Where V T =V P+V entering – V leaving

But V =(rate)(time)=rt
Example

1. A tank initially holds 100gal of brine containing 1lb of salt. Another brine solution
containing 1lb of salt per gallon is poured into the tank at a rate of 3gal/min. While the
well-stirred mixture leave the tank at the same rate, find the amount of salt at anytime t.
Find the time where the mixtures contains 2lb of salt.

C 1=1lb/ galr 1=3 gal /mint=0 s=1lb

V P=100 galr 2=3 gal /minC 2=?

t=0 s=1lbt=? s=?t=? s=2lb

ds ds entering ds leaving
= −
dt dt dt

ds
=C 1 r 1−C2 r 2
dt

ds
=( 1 ) ( 3 )−C 2 (3)
dt

S S S
C 2= = =
VT 100+3 t−3 t 100

ds S 3 ( 100 )−3 s
=3− ( 3 )=
dt 100 100

ds 3
dt
+s
100 ( )
=3 LINEAR ∈S

3
P (t)= ; Q ( t )=3
100
3 3t
∫ 100 dt
µ=e∫ P t dt=e
( )
=e 100
3t 3t
( )
S e 100 =∫ 3 e 100 dt +C

3t 3t
Se 100
=3
100 100
3 (
e +C )( )
 3t 3t
100 100
Se =100 e +C
−3 t
S=100+ C e 100

t=0 ; s=1

1=100+C e 0

−99=C
−3 t
100
S=100−99 e

at t=? ; s=2
−3 t
100
2=100−99 e
−3 t
−98
ln =ln e 100
−99

−98 −3 t
ln =
−99 100

t=0.34 min

Example

2. A tank initially holds 10gal of freshwater. A brine solution containing ½lb of salt per
gallon is poured into the tank at a rate of 2gal/min. While the well-stirred mixture leaves
the tank at the same rate, find the amount of salt at t=6min.

1 lb 2 ga l
C 1= r 1= t=0
2 gal min

Vp=10 gal r 2=2 gal /min C 2=?

t=0 ; s=0t=6 min ; s=?

ds ds entering ds leaving
= −
dt dt dt
 ds
=C 1 r 1−C2 r 2
dt

ds 1
dt
= ()
2
(2 )−C2 (2)

S S S
C 2= = =
VT 10+ 2t−2 t 10

ds S S
=1− ( 2 )=1−
dt 10 5

ds 1
dt
+S()
5
=1 LINEAR ∈S

1
P ( t ) = ; Q ( t )=1
5

∫ 15 dt t
µ=e∫ P t dt =e
( )
=e 5
t t
S e =∫ 1 ( e ) dt+ C
5 5

t t
S e 5=
1
( )
5 5
e +C

t
S=5+C e 5

at t=0 ; s=0

0=5+C e 0

−5=C
−t
5
S=5−5 e

at t=6 ; s=?
−6
5
S=5−5 e

s=3.49lb

Example
 3. Pure H 2 O is poured at the rate of 3gal/min into a tank containing 300lb of salt dissolved
in 100gal of H 2 O and the solution kept well-stirred pours out of 2gal/min. Find the
amount of salt in the tank at the end of 100min.

3 gal
r 1= C =0t=0 s=300 lb
min 1

Vp=100 gal r 2=2 gal /min

t=0 ; s=300lbt=100 min ; s=?

ds ds entering ds leaving
= −
dt dt dt

ds
=( 0 )( 3 )−C2 (2)
dt

S S S
C 2= = =
VT 100+3 t−2 t 100+t

ds −S −S 2
= ( 2 )= VAR . SEPARABLE
dt 100+t 100+t

ds −2
∫ dt
s ∫ 100+t
=

s 100
ds −2
∫ =∫ dt
300 s 0 100+t

S
ln =−2 ¿
300
S
ln 200
=−2 ln 2=e ln2
−2
300
e =−2 ln
100

S
=2−2
300

S=300(2−2 )

s=75lb

Example
 4. A tank is filled with 20gal of brine in which is dissolved 3 lb of salt. Brine containing 3lb
of salt per gallon enters at 2 gallon per minute. The well-stirred mixture leaves at 1
gal/min. Find the amount of salt in the tank at any time t. Find the amount of salt in the
tank at t= 10min.

3 lb 2 gal
C 1= r 1= t=0
gal min

s=3lb Vp=20 gal r 2 =1 gal /min

t=? ; s=?t=10 min ; s=?

ds ds entering ds leaving
= −
dt dt dt

ds
=( 3 )( 2 )−C2 (1)
dt

S S S
C 2= = =
VT 20+ 2t−t 20+t

ds S
=6−
dt 20+t

ds 1
dt
+S (
20+t )
=6 LINE AR IS S

1
P (t)= ; Q ( t )=6
20+t
1
∫ 20+t dt
µ=e∫ P t dt =e =e ln ⁡(20+t )=20+t
( )

S ( 20+t )=∫ 6 ( 20+t ) dt+C

t2
(
S ( 20+t )=6 20t +
2 )
+C=120 t+ 3 t 2 +C

at t=0 ; s=3

3(20+0) = 0+0+C

60 = C

S ( 20+t )=120 t+3 t 2+ 60

at t=10min ; S=?
 S(20+10)=120(10)+ 3(10)2+ 60

s=52lb

V. SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

In electric circuits, the fundamental laws are collectively called as “Kirchoff’s Law”

Circuits are made of:

a) Resistance (Ω), capacitance (farad), and inductance (henrys)

b) Voltage source (V or emf) and Current source (ampere or A)

Kirchoff’s Law

1. Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

2. Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 In R-L circuit, no capacitor (C)
 In R-C circuit, no inductor (L)

Formula:

1 di
iR + ∫ idt + L =E
c dt

Where:

dq
i= ; q=∫ idt (change∈coulomb)
dt

E, R, C, Q are constants

Example

1
1. Use KVL to find the constant Emf (E) if C = farad, R = 20Ω,
20

q = 0 when t = 0 and q=2 when t = 1sec. Assume L= 0.

1 di
iR + ∫ idt + L =E
c dt

dq
but i= ; q=∫ idt
dt
 dq 1
[ dt
( R ) + q=E ÷ R
C ]
dq 1 E
dt
+q
RC R( )
= → LINEAR∈q

1 E
P (t)= ; Q ( t )=
RC R
1 t
∫ RC dt
µ=e∫ P t dt =e
( )
=e RC
t t
( )
q e RC =
E
R
∫ e RC dt+ K
t t
E RC RC
q e RC =
R T ( )
e +K

−t
q=EC + K e RC

t=0 ; q=0

0=EC + K e 0

K=−EC
−t
q=EC −EC e RC
−t
q=EC ( 1−e RC )

1
at t=1; q=2 coul ; C= farad ; R=20 Ω
20

solving for E

q
E= −t
C (1−e RC )

2
E= −1

1
20
(1−e
20
1
20( ) )
E=6.33 V
Example

2. An R-L circuit with no source of emf has an initial current give Io. Find the current at
any time t.

di R E
dt
+i
L L ( )
= LINEAR ∈ L

R E
P (t)= ; Q ( t )=
L L

∫ RL dt RT
µ=e∫ P t dt =e
( ) L
=e
RT RT
( )= EL ∫ e
i e L L
dt+C

RT RT
E L L
ie L = ( )
L R
e +C

RT RT
E L
ie L = e +C
R
−RT
E L
i= + C e
R

t=0 ; i=I o ; no source of emf E=0

I o=0+ C e 0

C=I o
−Rt
L
i=I o e

VI. Mechanics
Newton’s Law of Motion
 a) First Law (Law of Inertia)
b) Second Law (Law of Acceleration)
c) Third Law (Law of Action-Reaction)

Acceleration – directly proportional to the change in velocity & inversely

proportional to the change in time.

dv
a=
dt

DE governing the motion of a vertically falling body

dv
F=m
dt

F=ma

Where F=net force ; m=mass ; V =velocity ; t=time

2 Forces acting on a body

1. Force due to gravity by the weight of the body = mg
2. Force due to air resistance =−kv

k = proportionality constant
= (-) (opposes the velocity)

F=mg−kv

dv
[m =mg−kv ¿ ÷m
dt

dv kv
+ =g
dt m

If air resistance if negligible: k=0

dv
=g
dt

Conditions:
 dv kv
Upward direction: F=−mg−kv= + =−g
dt m

dv kv
Downward direction: F=mg−kv= + =g
dt m

Towing direction: F net =F forward −Fresistance

At rest t = 0 ; d = 0 ; v = 0

dv
At terminal velocity = 0 (limiting velocity)
dt

ds
At max height: V =0 ; =0( max−min)
dt

1 2
Alternate formulas: S=Vot− g t
2

Vf =Vo−¿

V f 2 =V o2−2 gs

m cm ft
Gravity (g) = 9.8 2
=980 2 =32 2
s s s

English SI
Mass lb−s 2 N −s2
Slugs ( ) Kg( )
ft m
Acceleration ft /s 2 m/s 2
Force lb f N

Example

1. A ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 49m/s Find the velocity after
1, 5, 9 sec. Find its maximum height before returning. Assume no air resistance.

dv
=−g VARIABLE SEPARABLE
dt

∫ dv=−g∫ dt
V =−¿+C 1
 At t=0 ; V =49 m/s

49=−9.8 ( 0 )+C 1

C 1=49

V =−9.8 t+ 49

m
at t=1 s :V =−9.8 (1 ) + 49=39.2
s

m
at t=5 s :V =−9.8 ( 5 ) +49=0
s

m
at t=9 s :V =−9.8 ( 9 ) + 49=−39.2
s

at max height :V =0

¿ V =−9.8 t+ 49

ds
=−9.8+49 VARIRABLE SEPARABLE
dt

∫ ds=∫ (−9.8 t+ 49 ) dt
t2
S=−9.8 ( )
2
+ 49 t+C 2

S=−4.9 t 2+ 49 t+C 2

at t=0 ; s=0

0=0+0+C 2

C 2=0

S=−4.9 t 2+ 49 t

at V =0 ; t=5 s
2
Smax=−4.9 ( 5 ) + 49 ( 5 )

smax =122.5 m
Example

2. A mass of 2kg is dropped with a velocity of 3m/s. a. Find an expression for the
velocity of the object if the force dues to air resistance is 50V

dv kv
+ =g
dt m

dv 50 v
+ =9.8
dt 2

dv
+25 v=9.8 LINEAR∈V
dt

P ( t ) =25 ;Q ( t )=9.8
P ( t ) dt 25dt
µ=e∫ =e∫ =e 25t

V ( e 25t )=9.8∫ e25 t dt + C

V e 25t =9.8 ( 251 ) e 25 t

+C

V =0.392+ C e−25 t

at t=0 ;V =3 m/s

3=0.392+C e 0

C=2.608

V =0.392+ 2.608 e−25 t

b. Find the limiting velocity for the object.

dv
limiting velocity =0
dt

dv kv
+ =g
dt m

mg 2(9.8)
V= =
k 50

V =0.392m/ s
Example

3. A boat is being towed of the rate of 12 mi/hr. At the instant that the towing line is
cast off a man in the boat begins to row in the direction of motion, exerting a force of
20lb. if the combined weight of the man and the boat is 480lb & the resistance in
pounds is equal to 1.75V, where v is measured in ft/s find the speed of the boat after
½ min.

Towing Direction

F net=Ff −Fr =30−1.75 v

480 lb dv
[
( ) ft dt
32 2
s
=20−1.75 v ]÷ 15

dv 20−1.75 v
=
dt 15

dv 4 7 v
= −
dt 3 60

dv v 4
dt
+7
60 3 ( )
= LINEAR ∈V

7 4
P (t)= ; Q ( t )=
60 3
7 7t
∫ P ( t ) dt ∫ 60 dt
µ=e =e =e 60
7t 7t
V ( e )= ∫ e
4
60 60
dt+C
3
7t 7t
4 60 60
V e 60 = ( )
3 7
e +C

7t 7t
80 60
Ve = 60
7
e +C( )
 −7 t
80 60
V = +C e
7

mi 5280 ft 1 hr 88
at t=0 ;V =12 x x = ft /s
hr 1 mi 3600 s 5

88 80
= +C e 0
5 7

216
C=
35
−7 t
80 216 60
V= + e
7 35

1
at t= min=30 s ; V =?
2
−7 (30)
80 216 60
V= + e
7 35

V =11.61 ft /s

The Differential Operator (D)

-Transforms a function into another function

Example:

dy
Dy= =y’
dx

d² y
D ² y= =y’ ’
dx ²

d³ y
D ³ y= = y ’’’
dx ³

-Differentiates the equation on its right.

Ex:

d 2 2x
1. Dx ²= ( x )=¿
dx
3x d 3x
2. D e = ( e )=¿
dx 3 e3 x
3. D 2 ( x e x ) =D ( Dx e x )
 ¿D ( dxd x e ) x

¿ D(x e x + e x )

¿ Dx e x + D e x

¿ x ex+ ex+ ex

¿ x e x +2 e x

¿
e x ( x +2)

When x = π

4. D 3 sin x =D 2 ( Dsin x )
¿ D 2 ( D cos x )
¿ D ( Dcos x ) =D (−sin x )
¿−cos x

x=π

D 3 sin x =−cos ( π )=− (−1 )

D ³ sin x=¿ 1

5. ( D−3 ) (e 5 x )
¿ D e5 x −3 e 5 x
¿ 5 e 5 x −3 e 5 x
¿
2 e5 x
6. ( D2 +2 D+1 ) (x e−x )
¿ D 2 ( x e− x ) + 2 D ( x e−x ) + x e− x
¿ D ( Dx e−x ) +2 (−x e−x +e−x ) + x e−x
¿ D (−x e−x + e−x )−2 x e−x +2 e−x + x e− x
¿−(−x e−x +e−x ) −e−x −2 x e−x +2 e−x + x e− x
¿−e− x −e− x −2 x e− x +2 x e−x + x e− x

¿0

7. ( D 2−a2 ) ( sin ax )
 ¿ D 2 sin ax−a² sin ax
¿ D ( Dsin ax ) −a ² sin ax
¿ D ( a cos ax )−a2 sinax
¿−a ² sin ax−a ² sin ax

¿−¿2a²sin ax

8. Given: y=e 2 x ; z =cos x

Find: ( D2 +3 D ) ( y + z )
=( D 2 +3 D ) y + ( D 2 +3 D ) z
¿ D2 y+3 Dy+ D2 z +3 Dz
¿ 4 e2 x +3 ( 2 e 2 x ) + (−cos x ) +3 (−sin x )
2x 2x
¿ 4 e + 6 e −cos x−3 sin x

=10 e 2 x −cos x−3sin x

Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficient

(HLDECC)
Form: (a 0 Dn +a 1 Dn−1 +a2 Dn−2 +…+a n−1 D+a n) y=0

Example: ( 2 D3−3 D2 +5 D ) y=0 HLDECC

( 2 D3−3 D2 +5 D ) y=e x NHLDECC

( 2 D3−x D2+5 D ) y=0 HLDEVC

( 2 D3−x D2+5 D ) y=e x NHLDEVC

GS: y c = y 1 + y 2 + y 3 +… y n }independent solutions

Complementary solution

Auxiliary Equation of the Given HLDECC

Form: (a 0 m n +a 1 m n−1+ a2 m n−2 +…+ an−1 m+ an ) y=0

e mx a solution of auxiliary equation if and only if m is the

root of the auxiliary equation

Root whatever is the order of the equation.

Ex: D ² y order 2 m=2

 D³ y order 3 m=3

Case 1: ROOTS are REAL and DISTINCT

Simply replaces Dy with m

Factor

Gen. Solution: y 1=C 1 em 1 x

y 2=C 2 em 2 x

y n=C n e m xn

y c = y 1 + y 2 +…+ y n

y c =C 1 em x +C 2 em x + …+Cn e m x
1 2 n

Ex:

1. ( D 3−2 D 2−15 D ) y=0

m ³−2m ²−15 m=0
m ( m 2−2 m−15 )=0
m ( m−5 ) ( m+3 )=0
m=0 ,5 ,−3
GS: y c =C 1 e0 x +C 2 e5 x +C 3 e−3 x

y c =C 1+ C2 e5 x + C3 e−3 x

2. ( D 5−3 D 4−5 D 3 +15 D 2+ 4 D−12 ) y=0

( m5−3 m4 −5 m3+15 m2 +4 m−12 )
Synthetic Div:
1−3−515 4−12
1−2−7 812
1−2−7 812 0
−2 8−2−12
1−4 1 6 0
3−3−6
1−1−2 0
2
m −m−2=0
 ( m−2 ) ( m+1 )=0
m=1 ,−2, 3 , 2 ,−1

GS: y c =C 1 e x +C 2 e−2 x +C 3 e3 x +C 4 e 2 x +C 5 e− x

3. ( D 2−3 D+2 ) y =0 ; y ( 0 )=1 ; y' ( 0 )=0

( m2−3 m+2 ) =0
( m−2 ) ( m−1 )=0 m=2 ,1
GS: y c =C 1 e2 x +C 2 e x
y ' =2 C1 e 2 x + C2 e x
0=2C 1 e0 +C 2 e0
C 2=−2 C1
C 2=−2 (−1 )
C 2=2

Case 2: ROOTS are REAL and REPEATED

- If m is repeated x emx is also a solution

Where: e mx 1st time

x emx 2nd time

x ² emx 3rd time

x n−1 e mx 4th time

Example:

1. ( 9 D 3 −6 D 2+ D ) y =0
9 m 3−6 m 2 +m=0
m ( 9 m2−6 m+1 )=0
m (3 m−1 )2=0
1 1
x x
GS: y =C e0 x +C e 2 +C x e 2
c 1 2 3

1 1
x x
y c =C 1+ C2 e 2 +C 3 x e 2

2. y IV −2 y ' '' + y ' ' =0

( D4 −2 D3+ D2 ) y =0
m 4 −2 m3 +m 2=0
 m 2 ( m2 −2m+1 ) =0
2 2
m ( m−1 ) =0 m=0, 0, 1, 1
GS : y c =C 1 e +C 2 x e +C 3 e +C 4 x e x
0x 0x x

y c =C 1+ C2 x+C 3 e x + C4 x e x

3. ( 4 D 2 +4 D+1 ) y =0 ; y ( 0 )=1; y' ( 0 )=2

4 m 2+ 4 m+1=0
−1 1
( 2 m+1 ) ²=0 m= ,−
2 2
−1 −1
x x
GS : y =C e 2
+C 2 x e 2
c 1
−1 −1 −1
−1 x −1 x x
' 2 2 2
y= C e +C 2( xe +e )
2 1 2
−1 −1 −1
−1 x 1 x x
y'= C1e 2 − C2 x e 2
+ C2 e 2
2 2
−1
2= C 1 e0−0+C 2 e 0
2
−1
2= C +C
2 1 2
−1 1 5
2= ( 1 ) +C 2 C 2=2+ =
2 2 2
−1 −1
2
x 5 2
x
GS : y=e + xe
2

Case 3: ROOTS are IMAGINARY and DISTINCT

(conjugate complex roots)

Roots: m=a± bi

GS: y c =eax ¿

Example:

d2 y dy
1. 2
−2 +5 y=0
dx dx
( D2−2 D+5 ) y=0
m2−2 m+ 5=0
 −b ± √ b2−4 ac
Quadratic Equation: x=
2a
2
+2 ± √ (−2 ) −4 ( 1 ) (5 ) 2± √−16 2± 4 i
m= = =
2( 1) 2 2

a=1
m=1 ± 2i
b=2

GS : y c =e x ¿

Completing the square:

m2−2 m+ 5=0
m 2−2 m+ 1=−5+1
( m−1 )2=−4
m−1=√−4
m=1 ± 2i
2. ( D ²−2 D+2) y=0
m 2−2 m+ 2=0
m 2−2 m+ 1=−2+1
( m−1 )2=−1
a=1
m=1 ±i
b=1

GS : y c =e x (C 1 cos x +C 2 sin x)

3. ( D 5 + D 4 −7 D 3−11 D 2−8 D−12 )=0

m5 +m4−7 m³−11 m ²−8 m−12=0

Synthetic Div:
11−7−11−8−12
−2 210 2 12
1−1−5−7−6 0
−26−2 6
1−3 1−3 0
303
1010

m ²+1=0
 a=0
m=0 ± i
b=1

GS : y c =C 1 e−2 x +C 2 x e−2 x + C3 e3 x + e2 x ¿

y c =C 1 e−2 x +C 2 x e−2 x +C3 e 3 x +C 4 cos x+C 5 sin x

Case 4: ROOTS are IMAGINARY and REPEATED

Roots: m=a± bi

GS: y 1=eax (C1 cos bx +C 2 sin bx )

y 2=x e ax ¿
ax

y 3=x 2 e ( C 1 cos bx+C 2 sin bx )

y n=x n−1 e ax ( C1 cos bx +C 2 sin bx )

Example:

1. ( D 5 +18 D 3 +81 D ) y =0
m5 +18 m3 + 81m=0
m ( m 4 +18 m 2+ 81 )=0
2
m ( m 2+ 9 ) =0
m 2=−9
m= √−9=± 3i
a=0
m=0 ,± 3 i
b=3
0x 0x ax
GS: y c =C 1 e + e ( C 2 cos 3 x +C3 sin 3 x ) + x e ( C 4 cos 3 x +C5 sin 3 x )

y c =C 1+ C2 cos 3 x+C 3 sin 3 x + x C 4 cos 3 x + x C 5 sin 3 x

2. ( D 6 +2 D 4 + D 2 ) y=0
m6 +2 m 4 +m2=0
m 2 ( m 4 +2 m2 +1 ) =0
2
m 2 ( m2 +1 ) =0
m 2=−1
 m= √−1=±i
a=0
m=0,0 ,± i, ± i
b=1

GS : y c =C 1 e 0 x +C 2 x e0 x + e0 x ( C 3 cos x +C 4 sin x )+ x e 0 x ( C5 cos x +C 6 sin x )

y c =C 1+ C2 x+C 3 cos x+C 4 sin x + x C 5 cos x + x C6 sin x

Non-Homogenous Linear Differential Equation w/ Constant Coefficients

(NHLDECC)

Form: (a o Dn + a ,0 n−1+ …+an−1 D+an ¿ y=R( x )

General Solution: y= y c + y p
Particular solution

Complimentary Solution

I. Undetermined Coefficients
Steps:

a. Find y c .
b. Find y p. Determine the roots of R(x). Think of a case that suits in R(x). If the root already
exists in y c , then it is said to be in its second time, third time, and so on.
c. Differentiate y p. Depending on the highest order of the given ODE. ( usually 2nd order)
d. From the given ODE, replace Y with y p. Then distribute, and then expand.
e. Substitute the differentiated y p. , simplify then solve for the values of the arbitrary
constants.
f. Substitute the obtained values of arbitrary constants in y p
g. Form the General Solution: y= y c + y p

Example:

1. ( D 2−3 D−4 ) y=5 e 4 x

m2−3 m−4=0
( m−4 ) ( m+1 )=0 ∴ m=4 ,−1

∴ y c =C1 e 4 x +C 2 e−x

For y p : R ( x )=5 e 4 x ¿)

y p=c 3 x e 4

Dy p=c 3 ( 4 x e 4 x +e 4 x )=4 C 3 x e4 x + C 3 e 4 x

D 2 y p=4 C3 ( 4 x e 4 x + e4 x ) +4 C3 e 4 x

d 2 y p=16 C 3 xe 4 x +8 C 3 e4 x

From the given ODE: ( D 2−3 D−4 ) y p=5 e 4 x

D2 y p=3 D y p−4 y p=5 e 4 x

4x 4x 4x 4x
16C 3 x e +8 C3 e −3 ( 4 C3 x e + C3 e )

−4 C3 x e 4 x =5 e 4 x

∴ C3=1

∴ y p=x e4 x

General Solution: y= y c + y p

y=C 41 x + C−x 4x
2 +xe

Example:

2. ( D 2−3 D+2 ) y =1+ 3 x + x 2

m 2−3 m+2=0

(m-2)(m-1)=0 ∴ m=2,1

∴ y c =C1 e 2 x + C2 e x

For y p: R ( x )=1+3 x+ x 2 ∴ ( m=0,0,0 ) case 2

y p=C 3 e0 x + C4 e 0 x +C 5 x 2 e0 x
y p=C 3 +C 4 x +C 5 x 2

Dy p =C 4 +2C 5 x

D 2 y p=2 C5

∴ ¿ the givenODE : ( D2 −3 D+ 2 ) y p =1+ 3 x + x 2

D 2 y p−3 D y p+ 2 y p =1+ 3 x + x 2

2 C5−3 ( C4 + 2C 5 x ) +2 ( C 3+ C 4 x +C 5 x 2 )=1+3 x + x 2

2C 5−3 ¿

2 1
For x :2 C5 =1∴ C5 =
2

x :−6 C 5+ 2C 4 =3

−6 ( 12 )+ 2C =3
4

2 C 4=3+3=6 ∴C 4 =3

k :2 C5 −3C 4 + 2C 3=1

−2 ( 12 )−3 ( 3 )+ 2C =1
3

9
∴ 2C 3=1+8=9 ∴C 3=
2

9 1
y p= +3 x+ x 2
2 2

∴ General Solution : y= y c + y p

1 9
y=C 1 e2 x +C 2 e x + x 2 +3 x+
2 2

Example:

3. ( D 2−D−2 ) y=10 cosx

m2−m−2=0
( m−2 ) ( m+1 )=0 ∴ m=2 ,−1

∴ y c =C1 e 2 x + C2 e−x

for y p : R ( x )=10 cosx

∴ y p=e 0 x ( C3 cosx +C 4 sinx )

y p=C 3 cosx +C 4 sinx

D 2 y p=−C 3 cosx −C 4 sinx

From the give ODE:( D2−D−2 ) y p=10 cosx

D 2 y p−D y p−2 y p=10 cosx

(−C 3 cosx−C 4 sinx )−( −C3 sinx+ C4 cosx )−2 ( C3 cosx+C 4 sinx )=10 cosx
−C 3 cosx −C 4 sinx+C 3 sinx−C 4 cosx−2 C3 cosx −2C 4 sinx=10 cosx

−3 C3 cosx −3 C4 sinx+C 3 sinx−C4 cosx=10 cosx

for cos x :−3 C 3−C 4=10

sinx :−3 C 4 +C 3=0

C 3=3 C 4

∴−3 ( 3 C 4 ) −C 4=¿10

−9 C 4−C 4 =¿10

10
C 4= =−1
−10

∴ y p=−3 cosx−sinx

General solution : y= y c + y p

y=C 1 e2 x +C 2 e−x −3 cosx −sinx

 II. Variation of Parameters
-applicable if roots can't be determined.

-usually used for 2nd orders only.

Steps:

a. Find y c b. Find y pby replacing the arbitrary constants with A∧B .

c.Change A & B w/ A∧B respectively then equate to zero. 1

d. Differentiate 1 then equate to R(x). 2

e. From 1, solve A in terms ofB. 3

dB
f. Substitute 3 in 2 to obtain the value of B. ( B= ¿
dx

f. Substitute Bin 3.

dA
h. Obtain the value of A. ( A= ¿
dx

i. Substitute A & B in y p .

J. Form the general Solution: y= y c + y p

Example:

1. ( D¿¿ 2−5 D+6) y=2 e 2 x ¿

m 2−5 m+6=0

(m−3)(m−2)=¿0∴ m=3,2

∴ y c =C1 e 3 x +C2 e 2 x

For y p : y p= A e 3 x + B e2 x e 3 x +B ' e 2 x =01

3 A ' e3 x +2 B' e 2 x =2 e 2 x 2
 −B ' e 2 x ' −x
Form 1: A’ = 3x
=−B e 3
e

∴ substitute 3∈2

A ' 3 (−B' e− x )( e3 x ) + 2 B' e2 x =2 e2 x

−3 B' e 2 x +2 B' e 2 x =2 e2 x

−B' e 2 x =2e 2 x

B’ =−2

dB
=−2VS
dx

∫ dB=−2 ∫ dx
B = -2x

∴ A ' =−(−2 ) e−x

A’ = 2e− x

dA
=2e− xVS
dx

∫ dA=∫ 2e− x dx
A = -2e− x

∴ y p=−2 e−x e 3 x −2 x e 2 x

y p=−2 e2 x −2 x e2 x

General Solution: y= y c + y p

y=C 1 e3 x +C 2 e2 x −2 e2 x −2 x e2 x

y=C 1 e3 x +C 2 e2 x −2 e2 x −2 x e2 x

y=C 1 e3 x +C 3 e2 x −2 x e 2 x