Structural Grammar and Spoken English

www.Anilrana13014.webbly.comGoogle search = Anilrana13014 & k8449r UUHF

 9. Structural Grammar and Spoken English (NC) 2 (1+1)
Structural Grammar: Introduction of Word Classes; Structure of Verb in English; Uses
of Tenses; Study of Voice; Study of Conjunctions and Prepositions; Sentence Patterns
in English. Spoken English: Conversations of different situations in everyday life; the
concept of stress; stress shift in words and sentences; silent letters in words and
pronunciation of words with silent letters, the basic intonation patterns.
Practical: Structural Grammar: Exercises in word classes, identification and study of verbs in
sentences, application of tenses and voice, exercises in conjunctions and prepositions, other structural
grammar exercises, report writing, letter writing (different types of letters). Spoken English:
Conversations of everyday life, the concept of stress; stress shift. Silent letters in words, basic
intonation patterns, preparing and address.

www.Anilrana13014.webbly.com Google search = Anilrana13014 UUHF

 Lecture No.1

Introduction to the Structure of English Language and to some

Word Classes.
English, being an international language, is taking a prominent place all over the
world. Because of world wide necessity English is not only a language but it helps a man
in acquiring knowledge and thereby developing his career. In fact, the language is no
more a language of conquest, but a language of quest.
Human beings first used different sounds to communicate different meanings.
Then they made graphical representations of the sounds in a written form. They went on
to form words and sentences. Finally they created rules to govern formation of sentences
and together they called them Grammar.
Any document grammatically written facilitates transfer of the author’s thoughts
to a reader whereas ungrammatically written one fails to do that.
English Grammar describes the properties of English language. Structural or
Prescriptive Grammar is inductive and the rules help a learner to know the sentence
formation. If the words are not arranged in correct order, we cannot communicate
effectively.
Mother Tongue is entirely different from a foreign language. The former comes
automatically since it is a practice, whereas the latter is acquired by a methodical
learning. It is essential for the learners to comprehend the structure of that language.
English is said to be a very flexible language and it is always growing. We need
continuous practice in writing. This facilitates written communication to become effective
communication - effective by its grammar and its meaning.
1.
Structure of Written English
Morphemes(minimum lexical units)
↓
Words(minimum meaningful lexical units)
↓
Phrases ( grammatically & semantically incomplete)
↓
Clauses ( Grammatically incomplete, but
semantically complete)

1
 ↓ ↑
Sentences ( Grammatically and semantically
complete)
• The basic elements in a word are called morphemes.
e.g. in - dependent - ly → independently
• The study of morphemes is called morphology.
• The study of words, that is, their formation and spelling is called Lexis
• The study of how words are organized into phrases, clauses and sentences is
called as Syntax.
Words are independent units. They are divided into some classes according to how they
work within phrases, clauses and sentences. These divisions are called as Parts of Speech
or Word Classes.
The traditional Parts of sentence are eight in number. However since article forms a part
and parcel of sentences, and the University Grammar of English has included article as
one of the parts of sentence, it is also included in the list apart from eight.
• Nouns
• Pronouns
• Adjectives
• Verbs
• Articles
• Prepositions
• Conjunctions
• Adverbs
• Interjections
Sentences
A sentence is commonly defined as “a complete unit of thought”. It
consists of many words. That is morphemes form words, words form sentences. There are
four types of sentences. They are:

Sentences

2
Statement Interrogative imperative Exclamatory
Normally a sentence expresses a fact or opinion, voices a question, conveys a
command or describes a special character of someone or something. It begins with a
capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or exclamation mark.
There are certain patterns in to which English sentences fall. The basic sentence
construction patterns are
1. SV - Bees / fly → Subject / verb
S / V
2. SVO - Devi / gave / a cheque → Subject/ Verb/ Object
S / V / O
3. SVC - Kothai / is a / dancer → Complement
S V C
4. a). SVCO - My hobby / is singing / karnatic songs
S V C O
b). SVOC - They / made / Dhony / the / captain
S V O C
5. a). SV (D) O (I) O - My professor / gave / an award / to me.
S V DO IO
b). SV (I) O (D) O - My professor / gave / me / an award.
S V IO DO
6. a) SVA - My friend / sings / excellently
S V A
7. SVOA - My mother / kept / sweets / in the box
S V O A
1. Subject - A subject is a word, phrase, or
clause that performs the action
2. Direct object - It is a word, phrase or clause that
follows a transitive verb and
answers the question “who” or
“what”
3. Complement - A word that completes a sentence
with verbs like "is, am, are"
describing the state or position of
the subject.

3
4. Object complement - A word, phrase, or clause that
directly follows and describes the
direct object.
5. Indirect object - A word, phrase, or clause that
follows a transitive verb and answers the
question ‘to or for whom or what’ the action
of the verb is performed.
6. Adjunct - a word that gives
additional information.
Clause structure
From the view point of Clause structure, sentences fall into three kinds.
Sentences

Simple Compound Complex

1. Simple sentence
It contains a single clause.
e.g. He has a car.
2. Compound sentence
It joins two coordinate clauses together.
E.g. I drank coffee / and / felt better
3. Complex sentences
It uses subordination to link clauses.
E.g. I believe that he remembers me.

Now let us have an introduction to some Word Classes

Noun

• It is a word to name a person, place, thing or idea.

– It can have a plural form:
table/tables; tree/trees
– It can be the subject / object of a sentence:
The tree had fallen across the road.
An elephant removed the tree.
– It can be at the head of a noun phrase.
my intelligent,eccentric Maths teacher.
4
Write Plurals

• thesis __________
• sheep __________
• phenomenon __________
• wolf __________
• antenna __________
• trench __________
• bacterium __________
• larva __________
• medium __________
• criterion __________

Adjective

• They are words that describe a noun

• Examples
• busy professor
• patriotic lieutenant
• solid commitment
• three-year-old child
• unhappiest, richest man
• main clause
• subordinate clause
• abstract noun
• finite verb
Identify the adjectives in each sentence
1. The lack of rain may affect the paddy crops of this season.
2. Make a brief outline of your scientific article before you write it.
3. The sharp knife cut my finger.
4. The battle between the countries lasted two months.
5. The calculator gives you an instant answer to basic mathematical calculations.
6. We left early so we could a good place in the auditorium.
7. My brother put another sofa in the spacious hall.
8. I will fly from Mysore to Chennai, Tamil Nadu ’s state capital.
9. We walked past the big stadium , and toward our house.
10. Moses likes to swim three times a week.
11. Don’t ask me the same question again and again.
12. Mr. John will assign a different project to each student.
13. We will complete the painting of our house this weekend.
14. The terrific cyclone devastated the coastal cities.

Verb
A verb is the action word in a sentence. It denotes the action of the Subject in a
sentence. Study the role of the words in bold letters in the following proverbs

Birds of a feather flock together

5
As you sow, so you shall reap
A rolling stone gathers no moss
Charity begins at home
Don't put all your eggs in one basket
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
April showers bring May flowers
A bad workman blames his tools.
A good beginning makes a good end.
A leopard cannot change its spots.
A loaded wagon makes no noise.
A smooth sea never made a skilled mariner.
Adverb

It qualifies the action of the verb and adds more information to an adjective or other
adverb
Examples
He has done the job admirably
awfully good, incredibly slowly

Functions of an Adverb:
Adverbs typically add information about time (rarely, frequently, tomorrow), manner
(slowly, quickly, willingly), or place (here, there, everywhere).

Common adverbs : actually, apparently, basically, briefly, certainly, clearly,

conceivably, confidentially, curiously, evidently, fortunately, hopefully, however, ideally,
incidentally, indeed, interestingly, ironically, naturally, predictably, presumably,
regrettably, seriously, strangely, surprisingly, thankfully, theoretically, therefore,
truthfully, ultimately, and wisely.

Use of Adverbs
• "To travel hopefully is a better thing than not to travel.“
• “I will not torment the emotionally frail.“
• The sprinter took the lead fast.
• After faltering, he hit the balls hard.
• Luckily the bus stopped in time
• Walk faster if you want to keep up with them
• They heartily endorsed the new proposal
• He moved slowly and spoke quietly.
• Investing all our money in shares is not a sound idea financially.
• He completely understands me
• I absolutely refuse to discuss this problem anymore
Fill in the blanks with appropriate adverbs
• 1.The train travels________
• 2.Buses depart________
• 3.We ran _____ to catch the bus.

6
 • 4.He speaks _______
• 5.He _____makes a mistake.
• 6.I have ______wondered about that.
• 7.He ______knows the answers.
• 8.We waited ________for the play to begin.
• 9.I _______opened the door.
• 10.I have ______considered all the possibilities.
• 11. ______was he at a loss for words.
• 12.It is ______hot today.
• 13.They ______get to work at eight o'clock.
• 14. ______ there were enough seats left for the concert.

Answers
1.quickly 2.regularly
3.Fast 4.seldom
5.Rarely 6.often
7.Usually 8.patiently
9.Slowly 10.carefully
11.Seldom 12.surprisingly
13.Usually 14.fortunately

7
 Lecture No. 2
Definition and functions of pronoun, conjunctions, prepositions and
interjections.
Pronouns

• Pronouns are small words used instead of a noun to avoid repetition of nouns.
e.g.s
Without pronouns
• John is my neighbor. John says that John likes to work harder.
With pronouns
• John is my neighbor. He says that he likes to work harder.
Usage

A pronoun can be used wherever a noun or a noun phrase can be used in a sentence:

• As the subject of a verb:

The dog was barking. It was barking.

• As the object of a verb:

I heard the fire alarm. Did you hear it?

• As the object of a preposition:

I was thinking about a quick snack. I was thinking about that, too.

There are different kinds of pronoun, with different functions. They are

• Personal pronouns
• Relative pronouns
• Interrogative pronouns
• Possessive and demonstrative pronouns
• Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns

Personal pronouns

I, me, you, he, her, them are called personal pronouns, because they cover the full range
of grammatical persons:

o the first person (I, we)

o the second person (you)
o the third person (he her them).

1
In English, only the personal pronouns have different forms or cases which show whether
they are subjects or objects:

• Personal Pronouns.

Subjective Case Objective C Possessive C

1st I me Mine
Singular 2nd You you yours
3rd He, She, It Him, her, it His, hers, its
1st We us ours
Plural 2nd you you yours
3rd They them theirs

Relative pronouns

"When I arrived at their house the big dog, which was called Rover, was barking
loudly because it was lonely."

In our example sentence the pronoun which refers back to the noun phrase the big dog.

The main relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which and that.

Their function is to link a relative clause to a preceding noun:

The man who had fixed the leak raised an alarm.

I enjoyed the film about precision farming that we saw.

The boy who I saw earlier whose key has been lost was visibly upset.

Interrogative pronouns

who, whom, whose, which, what, whoever, whichever, whatever

Interrogative pronouns are used in main clauses, to form a question:

• Who did it?

• What did he speak in the meeting?
• Whose purse is this?

They can also be used to introduce a subordinate clause:

• I wonder who did it?

2
 • I asked him what he spoke in the meeting?.
• I'm trying to find out whose purse this is.

Possessive and demonstrative pronouns ( Demonstratives alsdo called Pointers, are

four in number.: This, That, These and Those )

Possessive pronouns match the personal pronouns.

Their function is like that of the possessive determiners.

Personal pronouns:

Me you her him it we you they

Possessive pronouns:

mine yours hers his its ours yours theirs

Possessive determiners

my your her his its our your their

Possessive determiners introduce a noun or a noun phrase.

Possessive pronouns stand instead of the noun or noun phrase.

Demonstrative pronouns, like possessive pronouns, are very similar to determiners,

and like demonstrative determiners, they have distinct singular and plural forms:

this - these

that - those

I like this [determiner] book more than that [pronoun]

I like these books more than those.

Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

3
Reflexive pronouns match the personal pronouns. They combine a personal or
possessive pronoun with the morpheme - self (or selves):

myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Their special function is to refer back to a noun phrase earlier in the same clause. For
example:

The students studied themselves.

Reciprocal pronouns are the word groups each other and one another.

They also refer back to a noun phrase earlier in the same clause, but in a more complex
way.

The students helped each other.

Bad neighbours fight with one another

Conjunctions
Definition: A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a
sentence.

There are three kinds of Conjunctions. They are

1.Coordinating Conjunctions and their Usage

• and: in addition
• He tried and succeeded.
• but: however
• They tried but did not succeed.
• or: alternatively
• Did you go out or stay at home?
• nor: and neither
• I did not see the fog, nor did they.
• yet: however
• The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

2.Correlative Conjunctions and their Usage

• both ... and
• He is both intelligent and good-natured.
• either ... or
• I will either go for a walk or read a book.

4
 • neither ... nor
• He is neither rich nor famous.
• if ... then
• If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
• no sooner ... than
• No sooner had I reached the stop, than the bus came.
• not only ... but also
• She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
• rather ... than
• I would rather go swimming than go to the library.
• whether ... or
• Have you decided whether you will come or not?

3. Subordinating Conjunctions and their Usage

Time - after ,before, since, when, whenever,

while, until, once

Reason – because, since, so that, in order that, why

Concession – although, though, even though, while

Place – where, wherever

Condition – if, unless, until, in case, provided that, even if

Manner - as if, as though, how

Usage

After
1. later in time:
After the train left, we went home.
Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that:
Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.
Before
1. earlier than:
I arrived before the stores were open.
Because
1. for the reason that:
We had to wait, because we arrived early.
If
1. on condition that:
If she is here, we will see her.
Providing or provided
1. on condition that:
All will be well, providing you are careful.
Since
1. from a past time:

5
 I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because:
Since you are here, you can help me.

So or so that
1. consequently:
It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that:
I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal
English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.

Unless
1. except when, if not:
Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Whereas
1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to
everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.
Whether
1. if: I do not know whether she was invited.
While
1. at the time when:
While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand:
He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best.
As if
1. in a similar way:/to pose oneself.
She talks as if she knows everything.
As long as
1. if:
As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while:
He has lived there as long as I have known him.
Until or till
1. up to the time when:
I will wait until I hear from you.
As soon as
1. immediately when:
Write to me as soon as you can.
As though
1. in a similar way:
It looks as though there will be a storm.

6
 Even if
1. in spite of a possibility:
I am going out even if it rains.
In case
1. because of a possibility:
Take a sweater in case it gets cold.
Or else
1. otherwise:
Please be careful, or else you may have an accident

Articles

As mentioned earliar, articles form importamt part of a sentence. The two indefinite
articles- A and An and the definite article The play an important role in a text
whichcontains a few sentences or many sentences.

A or An can precede only singular count nouns; they mean one. They can be used in a
general statement or to introduce a subject which has not been previously mentioned.
A baseball is round. (General – means all baseballs)
I saw a boy in the street. (We don’t know which boy.)
An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. A is used before words that begin
with a consonant sound.
a book an apple
Some words can be confusing because the spelling does not indicate the pronunciation.
a house (begins with a consonant sound)
an hour (begins with a vowel sound)
a university (begins with a consonant sound)\
an umbrella (begins with a vowel sound)

The following words begin with a consonant sound and thus must always be preceded by
a.
European eulogy euphemism eucalyptus
house home heavy half
uniform university universal union

The following words begin with a vowel sound and thus must always be preceded by
am.
hour heir herbal honor
uncle umbrella unnatural Understanding

The initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will
determine whether is should be a or an.
an umbrella a white umbrella
an hour a whole hour

7
The. It is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is
common knowledge.
The boy in the corner is my friend ( The speaker and the listener know which boy.)
The earth is round (There is only one earth.)
With non-count nouns, one uses the article the if speaking in specified terms, but uses no
article if speaking in general.
Sugar is sweet. (general – all sugar)
The sugar on the table is form Cuba. (specific – the sugar that is on the table)

Normally, plural count nouns, when they mean everything within a certain class, are not
preceded by the .
Oranges are green until they ripen. ( all oranges)
Athletes should follow a well-balanced diet. (all athletes)
Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or
things with the same name and the speaker is specifying one of them.
There are these Susan Parkers in the telephone directory.
The Susan Parker that I know lives on First Avenue.
Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school, church, home, college, and
work do not use any article unless to restrict the meaning.
We are breakfast at eight o clock this morning.
We went to school yesterday.

Use the following generalizations as a guide for the use of the article the.
Use THE with Don’t use THE with
oceans , rivers, seas, gulfs, plural lakes Singular lakes
the Red Sea, the Atlantic Lake Geneva, Lake Erie
Ocean , the Persian Gulf, the Great
Lakes mounts
mountains Mount Vesuvius, Mount McKinley
the Rocky Mountains, the Andes planets, constellations
earth, moon Venus, Mars, Earth, C n
the earth , the moon

Use THE with Don’t use THE with

schools, colleges, universities when the schools, colleges, universities when the
phrase phrase
begins with school, etc. begins with a proper noun.
the University of Florida, the College of Santa Fe Community College, Cooper’s
Arts and Art
Sciences School, Stetson University
ordinal numbers before nouns cardinal numbers after nouns
the First, World War, the third chapter Word War One, chapter three

8
wars (except world wars)
the Crimean War, the Korean War
certain countries or groups of countries countries preceded by New or an adjective
with more than one word (except Great such as a direction New Zealand, South
Britain) the United States, the United Africa, North Korea
Kingdom, the Central African Republic.
countries with only one word
France, Sweden, Venezuela
continents
Europe, Africa, South America
States
Florida, Ohio, California
historical documents
the Constitution, the Magna Carta
ethnic groups
the Indians, the Aztecs
sports
baseball, basketball
abstract nouns
freedom, happiness
general areas of subject matter
mathematics , sociology
holidays
Christmas, Thanksgiving

Exercise 4 : Articles
In the following sentences supply the articles (a,an, or the) if they are necessary.
If no article is necessary, leave the space blank.
1. Jason’s father bought him _______ bicycle that he had wanted for his birthday.

2. ____ Statue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from ____ France to ____ united
States.

3. Rita is studying ____ English and ____ math this semester.

4. ______ judge asked ______ witness to tell ______ truth.

5. Please give me ____ cup of ____ coffee with ___ cream and ___ sugar.

6. ____ big books on ________ table are for my history class.

7. No one in ____ Spanish class knew ____ correct answer to _____ Mrs. Perez’s
question.

8. My ___ car is four years old, and it still runs well.

9
9. When you go to _____ store, please buy ______ bottle of _____ chocolate milk
and ___ dozen oranges.

10. There are only ____ few seats left for ___ tonight’s musical at _____ university.

11. John and Marcy went to ___ school yesterday and then studied in ____ library
before returning home.

12. ___ Lake Erie is one of ____ five Great Lakes in ___ North America.

13. On our trip to ___ Spain, we crossed _____ Atlantic Ocean.

14. ____ Mount Rushmore is the site of ____ magnificent tribute to ___ four great
American presidents.

15. What did you eat for ____ breakfast this morning?.

16. Louie played _____ basketball and _______ baseball at ____ Boy’s Club this
year.

17. Rita plays _____ violin and her sister plays ____ guitar.

18. While we were in _____ Alaska, we saw ______ Eskimo village.

19. Phil can’t go to _____ movies tonight because he has to write ___essay.

20. David attended ____ Princeton University.

21. Harry has been admitted to ____ School of Medicine at _____ Midwestern
University.

22. Mel’s grandmother is in ___ hospital, so we went to visit her ____ last night.

23. ____ political science class is taking _____ trip to _______ United Arab Emirates
in _____ spring.

24. ______ Queen Elizabeth II is ________ monarch of ______ Great Britain.

25. _____ Declaration of Independence was drawn up in 1776.

26. Scientists sent ______ expedition to ____Mars during ___ 1990s.

27. Last night there was ___ bird singing outside my house.

28. ____ chair that you are sitting in is broken.

29. ______ Civil War was fought in _______ United States between 1861 and 1865.

10
 30. ________ Florida State University is smaller than _____ University of Florida.

Prepositions
• A preposition is a word, which is used to indicate different relations, such as
place, time, method, manner, reason and purpose, possession, direction and
motion. It is placed before a noun or a pronoun.
Prepositions & Examples
• About - I will tell you a story about a lion.
• Above -The plane flies above the clouds.
• Across - They walked across the field.
• After - After lunch, I shall complete the remaining task.
• Against - I helped him going against their wishes.
• Along - All along the way, he did not speak a word.
• Among - The profit was shared among the shareholders.
• Around - Due to the snow, we turned around to return back home.
• At - The land is at war with its neighbour.
• Before - He had decided to quit before Christmas, but changed his plan.
• Behind –The office is located behind the supermarket.
• Below - The temperatures have dipped below freezing point.
• Beneath -The water level is beneath the average level.
• Beside - When we were in school, I used to sit beside him in class.
• Besides - Besides maths, I am very fond of history.
• Between - The profit was shared between the three of them.
• Beyond - The play was beyond my expectations.
• But - Everyone but him agreed with the arrangement.
• By - A house by the sea, to retire, is my dream.
• Concerning - He is always curious about anything concerning his brother.
• Despite - Despite the snowfall, he decided to carry on with his journey.
• Down - Jimmy lives down the street.
• During - He works during the day and studies at night.
• Except - Except him no one has any objections to the plan.
• For - I jog for 10 miles everyday.
• From – This man comes from Argentina.
• In - When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
• Inside - Inside the tough exterior, lies a gentle soul.
• Into - As soon as he stepped into the room, there was pin drop silence.
• Like - She looks like her father.
• Minus - Ten minus eight equals two.
• Near - They have bought a new home near the school.
• Of - A friend of mine recommended the Tennis-coach to me.
• Off - To regain his lost health, it is important, he stays off non-veg food.
• On - There is an apple on the table.
• Onto - He always climbs onto the table.
• Opposite - His desk is located diagonally opposite my desk.

11
 • Out of - Out of sheer curiosity, I asked him the question
• Outside - Outside the house lies a beautiful garden.
• Over - The journey cost me way over my budget.
• Past - He walked past me, but refused to acknowledge my presence.
• Per - What was the per person cost incurred?
• Plus - Eight plus six equals fourteen.
• Since - They were waiting for him since ten in the morning.
• Through - I slept all through the day.
• Throughout - Throughout winter, he has been sick.
• To - I am going to Atlanta, before I head back home.
• Toward (s) - It started raining towards the evening.
• Under - The road is under repair.
• Underneath - He found his ring underneath the carpet.
• Until - I did not get the documents until 5 pm.
• Upon - Once upon a time, there lived a king.
• Up - I walked up the stairs, to see the problem.
• Up to - The decision is up to the both of them.
• Versus - The last game was India versus England.
• Via - I will go via Sydney.
• With - He walked in with his new friend.
• Within - The caterer caters to customers within a radius of 5 miles.
• Without - I never leave my house without an umbrella, due to the uncertain
weather.

Interjections
• An interjection is a lexical category used to express an isolated emotion on the
part of the speaker. Filled pauses such as uh, er, um, are also considered
interjections.
• Interjections are used when the speaker encounters events that cause emotions.
The emotions are often strong (surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, enthusiasm, etc.)

Here are some sentences with Interjections.

1. Ouch! Stop pinching me.

2. Wow! That's a surprise.

3. Oh, you're going too?

4. Oh, what a wonderful movie!

5.Aha! I've found your secret!

6.Alas, the poet is no more.

12
 Lesson - 3
Structure of English Verb

Verb is the action word in a sentence. It is the pivot of English Grammar. There can be
sentences without a noun or adverb, but not without a verb. They tell us i) the action done
ii) what the Subject (a noun )is doing or what is being done to it, or iii) the state of being,
becoming, thinking or feeling.
When a verb denotes what a noun is doing, the noun is
said to be the Subject of the verb:
e.g Arun speaks.
When the verb denotes what is being done to a noun, the noun is the Object of the verb:
e.g.Arun is washing his clothes. (The noun 'clothes' is the direct object of the
verb).
Verbs can also take indirect objects:
Teachers give their students lessons
In this sentence, 'lessons' is the direct object, (what is given) and 'their students' is the
indirect object.
Verbs that take objects are called transitive verbs, and those that normally do not
take an object are intransitive verbs (but note that an intransitive verb may be used
transitively in non-standard speech or writing).
Some common transitive verbs are: tell, give, show, eat, buy, take, and see. Some
verbs can be both transitive and intransitive: Tell me a story (transitive), and Time will
tell (intransitive).
Verbs like sleep, walk, rest, come, and go are nearly always intransitive. The most
common verb of all, be, is intransitive in all of its forms: am, are, is, was, were, and been.
As the Verb inflects for twelve Tenses and two Voices, its structure is
complex, and it can be represented as follows.

1
 Verb - Structure

Verb

Main Verb Auxiliary Verb

Base form Primary Aux. Secondary Aux.

Infinitive Be – am , is, are, was, will would,

Progressive were shall, should
Participle Do - do , did , does
may, might
can , could
Participle ought to, must
dare, need
Perfect
Participle Have – have, has, had

Gerund

Tense &Voice

Base Form. It is the form of verb in which the verb appears in the dictionary i.e it is the
simplest form free from agreement, tense, or participle endings.
egs. come,study,learn, speak,write,argue

The base form of verb is used after:

1. The subjunctive mood

e.g: The deal requires that industrialists join the union

2
2. The modal auxiliary
e.g: I can speak Martin.

3. The infinitive marker to

e.g: It is time to go

4. After verbs of seeing or hearing

e.g: We watched them play Cricket

Infinitive. It begins with to followed by the base form of the verb, like this:

to work, to smile, to run, to shout, to jump, to dance, to read, to eat, to sleep.

So 'to + base form of verb = infinitive'

Note: Because an infinitive is not a verb,we cannot add s, es, ed, or ing to its end.

Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples:

To sleep is the only thing John wants after his double shift in the Steel mill.
Here 'To sleep' functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
No matter how fascinating the biology dissection is, Emanuel turns his head and refuses
to look.
'To look' functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb refuses.
Wherever Melissa goes, she always brings a book to read in case conversation lags or she
has a long wait.
'To read' functions as an adjective because it modifies book.
Richard braved the icy rain to throw the smelly squid eyeball stew into the apartment
dumpster.

3
'To throw' functions as an adverb because it explains why Richard braved the inclement
weather.
We should recognize an infinitive even when it is missing the 'to'.
An infinitive begins with to. Exceptions do occur, however. An infinitive will lose its
to when it follows certain verbs. These verbs are feel, hear, help, let, make, see, and
watch.
The pattern looks like this:
special verb + direct object + infinitive - to
Here are some examples:
As soon as Arun felt the rain splatter on his skin, he knew that he had a good excuse to
return the lawn mower to the shed.
Felt = special verb; rain = direct object; splatter = infinitive minus the to.
When Jose heard the alarm clock buzz, he jumped out of the cot.
Heard = special verb; alarm clock = direct object; buzz = infinitive minus the to.
Although our Maths teacher spent few extra classes helping us understand logarithms, we
still failed in the test.
Helping = special verb; us = direct object; understand = infinitive minus the to.
Since Jose returned home late, Anjana made him take her out for the dinner.
Made = special verb; him = direct object; take = infinitive minus the to.
I said a prayer when I saw my friends mount the Piju, the roller coaster that twists and
rolls like a giant sea serpent.
Saw = special verb; my friends = direct object; mount = infinitive minus the to.
Trying to shed her fear of flying, Michael took her to the airport to watch passenger
planes take off and land, but even this exercise did not convince her that jets were safe.
Watch = special verb; passenger planes = direct object; take, land = infinitives minus the
to.
Participle.
Participles come in two forms: Progressive Participle and Perfect Participle.
Structure: Progressive Participle - base form + 'ing'
egs. walking, jumping, smiling
Perfect Participle - base form + 'ed' or 'en'

4
 egs. walked, jumped, taken, eaten
Note. As far as Perfect participle is concerned, Irregular verbs do not follow the above
principle
egs. bring - brought
put - put
fling - flung
Usage.
Participles have three functions in sentences. They can be components of multipart
verbs, or they can function as adjectives or nouns.
Participles in Multipart Verbs
A verb can have as many as four parts. When you form multipart verbs, you use a
combination of auxiliary verbs and participles. Look at the examples below:
Our pet dog ate Mr. John's sandwich.
Ate = simple past tense [no participle].
John was writing an essay, when I met him last evening.
was = auxiliary verb; writing = progressive participle.
John has been writing essays for the last seven years.
has = auxiliary verb; been = perfect participle; writing = progressive participle.
Participles as Adjectives
Progressive and perfect participles often function as adjectives that describe nouns.
Here are some examples:
The crying baby drew a long breath and sucked in a spider crouching in the corner of the
crib.
Which baby? The crying baby. Which spider? The one that was crouching in the corner.
The mangled pair of sunglasses, bruised face, broken arm, and bleeding knees meant
Genette had taken another spill on her mountain bike.
Which pair of sunglasses? The mangled pair. Which face? The bruised one. Which arm?
The broken one. Which knees? The bleeding ones.
Participles as Nouns ,that is, as Gerunds
Progressive participles can function as nouns—the subjects, direct objects, indirect
objects, objects of prepositions, and subject complements in sentences.

5
Gerund
Whenever a progressive participle functions as a noun, we call it a gerund.
Take a look at these examples:
Swimming makes one fit and healthy.
'swimming' is the subject of the verb 'makes'
John loves cooking.
Cooking = the direct object of the verb 'loves'
We gave bungee jumping a chance.
Bungee jumping = indirect object of the verb gave.
John accepted Arun's poem instead of criticizing it.
Criticizing = object of the preposition instead of.
Arul's favorite sport is cycling
cycling = the subject complement of the verb is.
Auxiliariy verbs/ helping vderbs.

An auxiliary verb, also called helping verb, is one which helps the main verb
form tenses other than the simple present and simple past. As their name indicates, they are
helping verbs. There are two kinds of them - Primary Auxiliaries and Secondary( Modal) Auxiliaries. Primary
Auxiliaries can have independent existence too as verbs.

Primary Auxiliaries.
The following are the Primary Auxiliary verbs in English:
Be and its forms: is, am, are, was and were
Do and its forms: does, did
Have and its forms: has, had
Uses and Functions.
Auxiliary Verb ‘BE’: (IS, AM, ARE, WAS, WERE)
Functions of different forms of auxiliary verb ‘BE’:
1. Auxiliary Verb ‘BE’ is used to form past and present continuous tenses.
Examples:
a) They were playing football in the house. (Past Continuous Tense = were + playing)
2) I am doing my important work. (Present Continuous Tense = am + doing)

6
2. Auxiliary Verb ‘BE’ is also used to depict instructions, arrangement, plan,
decision, etc.
Examples:
a) I am to go to United States.
b) He is to be married in that city.
3. To denote a command.
Examples:
a) You are required to enter your details on the admission form.
b) You are to hit that ball.
The functions of auxiliary verb ‘DO’ are:
Auxiliary Verb ‘DO’ and it’s other forms are used to form Question Tags.
Examples:
a) She goes to school, doesn’t she?
b) I stood on the road, didn’t I?
c) I work daily in the office, don’t I?
2. To make negation (making negative by introducing ‘not’) of Simple Present and
Simple Past Tenses, help of auxiliary verb ‘DO’ is taken.
Examples:
a) I do not play often.
b) Earth does not revolve around the Moon.
c) They did not come today.
Auxiliary Verb ‘HAVE’ and it’s different forms are used to express order or
compulsion or duty.
Example:
a) You have to do your part of work.
b) She had to do the training period.
c) He has to come to school today.
2. To form Present Perfect and Past Perfect tenses, auxiliary verb ‘HAVE’ and it’s
other form are used.
Examples:
a) I have forgotten my wallet. (Present Perfect = have + forgotten)

7
b) He has hit the ball well. (Present Perfect = has + hit)
c) We had eaten all the tasty dishes. (Past Perfect = had + eaten)
In the following statements they exist independently, and they express the state
of the Subject.
I am a teacher.
John is a Foot-baller.
They are our students.
From1st to 15th of last month he was in Mumbai
Apples were cheaper last month.
He has enough money to live in Chennai.
Arul does his homework regularly.

Secondary Auxiliaries ( Modals)

The following verbs are called modal auxiliaries: shall, should, will, would,
can, could, may, might, must, ought, dare and need. Modal auxiliaries have the following
characteristics: They are never used alone. A principal verb is either present or implied.
They, in fact, express actions or events that exist as conceptions of the mind –
probabilities, possibilities, obligations, wishes, expectations etc They do not change form
for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can
with any of the subjects listed below.

I
you (singular)
he
can write well.
we
you (plural)
they

Uses of Can and Could

The modal auxiliary can is used

8
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do
something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than
may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
to express past or future permission:
Could I you pass the salt please??
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me
with my homework?
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the
context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is
considerably more tentative than may.
May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and
future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
She might be my advisor next semester.
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.

9
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a
hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a
helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a
newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the
pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been
injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a
body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without
this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in
fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would

In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are
differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
Uses of must
when you feel sure something is true (opposite of can’t)

10
e.g. The tennis match must be over by now. (I’m sure it is).
necessity, personal feelings
e.g. I haven’t spoken to Liz for ages. I must give her a call
order, strong suggestion
e.g. You must stop smoking or you’ll get lung cancer
Uses of need
as a normal verb
e.g. Do you need me to help you?
in questions (less usual)
e.g. Need you make so much mess?
Uses of ought to
expectation (can use should)
e.g. If you like Picasso, you ought to enjoy the exhibition.
recommendation (can use should)
e.g. You ought to have more driving lessons before you take the test.
criticism (can use should)
e.g. You ought not to shout at your mother like that.

11
 Lecture No. 4
Tenses
Introduction

Tense is the correct use of ‘time’ & ‘aspect’ in sentences.

Times are three – Past , Present , & Future.
Aspects are four – Simple , Continuous ,
Perfect , & Perfect Continuous
So Tenses are twelve in number.
The following table, shows examples of each of the English tenses for the verb to
calculate

Perfect
Time/Aspect Simple Continuous Perfect
Continuous

Present calculate/s am/is /are have/has have / has been

calculating calculated calculating
Past calculated was/were had calculated had been
calculating calculating
Future shall/will shall/ will be shall/will have shall/ will have
calculate calculating calculated been calculating

The following diagram throws light on how these twelve tenses are used to indicate Time
and Aspect of actions.

1
 Present

Past Future

Past perfect Present Future perfect

Past simple perfect Present simple Future simple

Past Present continuous Future continuous

continuous

Past perfect continuous Present perfect continuous Future perfect con

Past Tenses

Past Simple Tense

We use the Past Simple to talk about actions that happened at a specific time in the
past. The actions can be short or long. There can be a few actions happening one ofter
another.
Use
Events in the past that are now finished
Situation in the past
A series of actions in the past

USE 1: Past actions that are now finished

The first use of the Past Simple to express actions that happened at a specific time in the
past. The actions can be short or long
Examples:
John cut his finger last week.
I went to college 3 years ago.

2
He ate the dinner 1 hour ago.
I slept well last night.

USE 2: Situation in the past

Another use of this tense is talking about situations in the past.

Examples:
I lived in Mumbai for 10 years (I don't live there anymore).

USE 3: A series of actions in the past

The Past Simple can also be used with a few actions in the past happening one after
another.

Example:
He entered a room, lit a candle and smiled respectfully at a photograph.

Past Continuous Tense.

USE 1: Actions in progress

We use the Past Continuous Tense to express the idea that an action was in progress in
the past.

Examples:
I was watching Cricket yesterday in the evening.
She was playing Tennis yesterday in the evening.

USE 2: Interrupted actions in progress

Past Continuous Tense is often used when one action in progress is interrupted by
another action in the past. We usually use "when" to link these two actions. Sentences
usually have this form:

[ Sentence in Past Continuous ] + WHEN + [Sentence in Past Simple ]

WHEN + [ Sentence in Past Continuous ] + [Sentence in Past Simple ]

or:

[ Sentence in Past Simple ] + WHEN + [ Sentence in Past Continuous ]

Examples:

3
I was talking with James when the telephone rang.
The plane crashed when Angelica was reading a novel
.
USE 3: Two actions happening simultaneously

We use The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense to talk about actions happening at the
same time.
Examples:
She was learning Typewriting when he was watching Cricket
Arun was studying hard for the examination when was sleeping.

Past Perfect Tense

We use Past Perfect tense to emphasize that an action in the past finished before
another action in the past started, that is, we use this tense to emphasize that one action in
the past happened before another action in the past.

Examples:
I had finished my homework before I went playing football.
John had never been to London before we went there last year.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

The Past Perfect Continuous (Past Perfect Progressive) is used to talk about
actions that began in the past and lasted up until another action in the past.

Examples:
Everything had been going well in his life until his business collapsed last month.
We had been playing Cricket for six hours when it started raining.

4
 Lecture No.5
Use of Present and Future Tenses

Present Tenses

Simple Present Tense

The following are the uses of Simple Present Tense.

Facts and generalizations

Habits and routines
Permanent situations
State verbs (e.g. be, have, think, know)
Fixed / official arrangement that we can't change
Narrations (e.g. telling a story or a joke)

USE 1: Facts and Generalizations

The first and most important use of the Present Simple is to talk about things we believe
are (or are not) true. It's also used to generalize about somebody or something.
Examples:
The Sun rises in the east...
He talks a lot.
New Delhi is the capital city of India.
Chennai is a large city.
The bull doesn't fly.
Dogs don't smoke cigarettes.
A dog is not larger than a horse.
Bombay is the commercial capital of India.

USE 2: Habits and Routines

We also use this tense to indicate that an activity is a habit or a routine.

Examples:
We leave for work at 8.30 every morning.
Arun often meets with his friends after college.
1
 They usually play Hockey on Sunday.
Arul rarely goes to movies.
Simple Present Tense is often used with the frequency adverbs:
Adverbs of frequency say how often an activity happens. We can use one word or a
phrase.
Examples:
always
never
frequently/often
usually
seldom/rarely
nowadays
every week/year
sometimes/occasionally
from time to time
Here are a few examples of how to use them in sentences:
I always go to temple on Sundays.
I never talk to rumour mongers.
USE 3: Permanent Situations
We use the Present Simple to talk about situations in life that last a relatively long time.
Examples:
I live in Madurai
He works as a fisherman.
Mary drives an Ambassador.
Jose teaches English at highschool.
USE 4: State Verbs
We use the Simple Present with State verbs.
Examples:
I like swimming.
We know this man.
John drives an Ambassador .

2
 Jose teaches Maths in a University.
USE 5: Fixed / Official arrangements
We use the Simple Present to talk about events that we can't change (for example, an
official meeting or a train departure).
Examples:
The meeting starts at 5 pm.
The train leaves at 7 A.M.
When does the plane take off?
Jose teaches Maths in a University.
USE 6: Narrations
The Simple Present is also used in narrations (e.g. to tell a story or a joke).
Examples:
A man goes to visit his friend and is amazed to find him playing Football with his
dog. He admires the game.
Present Continuous Tense
The Present Continuous is mainly used to express the idea that something is
happening at the moment of speaking. Another use of the tense is to talk about what we
are planning to do. There are also other uses, listed below.
Present actions
Temporary actions
Longer actions in progress
Future (personal) arrangements and plans
Irritation over something or somebody in the present
USE 1: Present Actions
We use the Present Continuous Tense to talk about actions happening at the moment of
speaking.
Examples:
He is playing football.
Mary is delivering a lecture.
They are helping their students to learn swimming.

3
USE 2: Temporary Actions
This tense is also used for activities continuing for only a limited period of time.
Examples:
I'm riding a bicycle to get to work because my bike has a problem. (It will soon be
repaired)
They are not talking with each other after their business collapsed. (They will soon
make up)
USE 3: Longer Actions in Progress
We also use the Present Continuous when we are in a middle of doing something
time-consuming (i.e. something that takes time to complete). An example of such an
activity is writing a book, saving money to start a business or preparing for a competitive
exam.
Examples:
They are working hard to start a business.
I am training to become a professional counsellor.
Michael is studying hard to become an aeronautical engineer.
Jose is currently writing a book on child labour in India.
USE 4: Future (Personal) Arrangements and Plans
Sometimes we use the Present Continuous Tense to show that something will be done
in the near future.
Examples:
I'm meeting Moses tomorrow morning.
The M.D. visits the U.S. next month.
USE 5: Irritation or Anger
And the last use of this tense is to express irritation or anger over somebody or
something in the present.
Examples:
Mr Math is always complaining about everything!
This child is always asking me intelligent questions!
He is always coming late to meetings!

4
Contracted forms
I + am = I'm
is + not = isn't
are + not = aren't
he + is = he's
she + is = she's
it + is= it's

Present Perfect Tense.

The Present Perfect is used to express actions that happened at an indefinite time or
that began in the past and continue in the present. This tense is also used when an activity
has an effect on the present moment.
Use
Actions which happened at an indefinite (unknown) time before now
Actions in the past which have an effect on the present moment
Actions which began in the past and continue in the present

USE 1: Indefinite (unknown) time before now

We use the Present Perfect to talk about actions that happened at some point in the past.
It does not matter when exactly they happened.
Examples:
I have already had enough experience about this job.
He has been to Varanasi thrice.
We should not use this tense with time expressions like "yesterday", "a month
ago", "last year", etc.
In other words, when we use present perfect tense, we must not mention a specific
time.
USE 2: Effect on the present moment
We also use this tense when an activity has an effect on the present moment.
Examples:

5
 He has finished his home work. (so he can now relax.)
I have already filled the tank with ten litres of petrol. (so we don't need fuel now)
He has moved to his new house (he lives in it now.)
USE 3: Continuation in the present
We often use the Present Perfect when we want to emphasize that an event
continues in the present.
Examples:
John has worked as a builder for over 20 years.
Moses has achieved a lot in his career.
"For" and "Since"...
"Since" and "for" are very common time expressions used with the Present Perfect.
We use "for" with a period of time, for example:
I have lived in Chennai for 25 years.
When talking about a starting point, we use "since", for example:
I have lived in Chennai since 1980.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense is used in the following contexts.
Use
Actions that started in the past and continue in the present
Actions that have recently stopped
USE 1: Continuation in the Present
We use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense to show that something started in the past
and continues in the present.
Examples:
He has been painting this picture for the last three months. (He's still painting it)
I have been working as a teacher since 1981. (I still work as a teacher)
USE 2: Past actions recently stopped
This tense is also used to talk about actions that began in the past and have recently
stopped.
Examples:
6
 They have been waiting for you for one hour! (They are not waiting anymore because
you have come)
Look at him! How hard he has been working in his garden. (He stopped working
when we saw him.)
For and Since...
"Since" and "for" are common time expressions used with the Present Perfect
Continuous.
We use "for" with a period of time, for example:
He has been working in this office for 10 years.
When talking about a starting point, we use "since", for example:
He has been living here since 1980.
Future Tenses

Future Simple Tense

The Future Simple Tense is used in the following situations.
Promises
Unplanned actions (spontaneous decisions)
Predictions based on experience or intuition
Habits (obstinate insistence, usually habitual)
USE 1: Promises
The first use of the Future Simple is to make promises.
Examples:
I promise I will meet you this evening.
Promise you will complete this job.
USE 2: Unplanned actions (spontaneous decisions)
We use this tense to talk about unplanned actions (spontaneous) decisions.)
Examples:
Don't worry! I will help you to solve this problem.
I will close the window. The wind blows hard.
USE 3: Predictions based on experience or intuition

7
 We often use the Future Simple when we make a prediction based on experience or
intuition.

Examples:
It will rain at any moment.
The situation will get worse.
USE 4: Habits
Another use of this tense is that it expresses habits.
Examples:
He will bit his nails if he is thinking hard about something.
He will always create troubles when at home.
Contracted forms
WILL = 'LL
She'll sing = she will sing.
WILL + NOT = WON'T
She won't sing. = she will not sing.

Future Continuous Tense.

We use the Future Continuous Tense(also Future Progressive Tense) to indicate that
we will be in the middle of doing something in a specified time in the future. There are
also two other uses, listed below:
Future actions in progress.
Guesses about the present or the future.
Polite questions about somebody's intentions.
USE 1: Future actions in progress
The first use of the Future Continuous is to express future action in progress.
Examples:
In an hour, I will be presenting my paper in the seminar.
In the evening, I will be participating in a birthday party.
USE 2: Guesses

8
We use this tense also to make guesses about something in the present or future.
Examples:
He won't be coming for dinner. He is still busy with his files at the office.

USE 3: Questions
Another use of the tense is to make polite questions about something or somebody.
Examples:
Will you be attending the meeting this evening?
Will you be going to the Railway Stationt? I have to reserve a ticket.
Contracted forms
WILL = 'LL
Example: She'll have been = she will have been
WILL + NOT = WON'T
Example:
She won't have been = she will not have been
Important: The Future Continuous appears in two forms: "will" form and "going to" form
which can be used interchangably.
Example:
"She will be dancing" means "she is going to be dancing"
More to know...
If you want to learn about somebody's intentions, you should always use the
Future Continuous rather than the Future Simple. Using the Future Simple implies that
you want to influence somebody's decision. Questions become much more objective if
formed in the Future Continuous:
Will you attend the meeting? (= I want you to attend the meeting)
Will you be attending the meeting? (= I just want to know)

Future Perfect Tense

The only use of this tense is to talk about future actions that will be finished before
some specified point in the future.
Examples:

9
 Before the delegates come, we will have made the meeting hall ready.
John will have presented his paper, by the time we go to the seminar.
Common Time Expressions
Time expressions that are commonly used with the Future Perfect:
Before /by tomorrow/9 o'clock/next week /until/till
Contracted forms
WILL = 'LL
Example:
He'll have completed.= He will have completed
WILL + NOT = WON'T
Example:
He won't have completed = He will not have completed.
Important: The Future Perfect appears in two forms: "will" form and "going to" form
which can be used interchangeably.
Example:
"He will have completed" means "He is going to have completed"
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
The only use of this tense is to talk about future actions that will be in
progress at some specified point of time in the future.
Examples:
When our Professor returns from his holiday, we will have been working on this
project for three months.
By the next year, Ben and John will have been doing business jointly for 10
years.
By the next month, I will have been saving money for a new car for 3 years.
Common Time Expressions
Time expressions that are commonly used with the Future Perfect Tense
By tomorrow / 8 o'clock
This year / month / week
Next year / month / week
Contracted forms

10
WILL = 'LL
Example:
He'll have been = He will have been
WILL + NOT = WON'T
Example:
He won't have been = He will not have been
More to know...
Questions beginning with "how long" take this Tense.
Examples:
How long will you have been learning Sanskrit this year?
How long will you have been constructing your new house this tear end? I hope
you'll complete it soon!

11
 Lecture No. 6
Active & Passive Voice

Active voice
A verb is in the Active Voice when its form shows that the person or thing
denoted by the Subject does something; in other words, the Subject is the doer of the
action. The Active Voice is so called because the person denoted by the Subject acts and
he is important.
e.g. John hit the ball.
Passive voice
A verb is in the Passive Voice when its form shows that something is done to the
person or thing denoted by the Subject; in other words the focus is on the Object or the
Receiver of the action. The Passive Voice is so called because the person or thing
denoted by the Subject is not active but remains passive.
e.g. The ball, this time, was hit by Jose and it became a goal.
Most of the sentences we use in our day-to-day life for a casual talk or
conversation are in Active voice and they are shorter. .
Examples:
Arun has done his job in time.
Jose has read Macbeth five times.
In grammar, Voice means importance, that is, whether the Doer ( Subject ) or the
Receiver ( Object ) is important when related to the action done. The form of the verb too
changes accordingly. Let's study it in detail.
General Rules
1) Only those verbs which have an object can be passivised. Such verbs are called
Transitive verbs i.e. verbs with objects. So a sentence in active voice should have the
following parts if it is to be passivised.
Subject (Doer) + Verb + Object (Receiver) it is again stated that when the verb is
changed from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice, the Object of the Transitive verb
becomes prominent.
2) The Agentive preposition ‘by’ should be placed before the passive object whenever
it is mentioned.

1
 3) When we change a sentence from active voice to passive voice, the tense of the verb
remains the same. The verb has to agree with the subject of the sentence.

Change of Voice from Active to Passive in different Tenses

Tense Active Passive

Simple Present Once a week, Tim cleans the Once a week, the house is cleaned
house. by Tim.

Present Sally is writing a letter now. A letter is being written by Sally

Continuous now.

Simple Past Mike repaired the bike The bike was repaired by Mike
yesterday. yesterday.

Past Jose was solving an important An important mathematical

Continuous mathematical problem when problem was being solved by Jose
power failed. when power failed.

Present Perfect Many tourists have visited this This ancient temple has been
ancient temple. visited by many tourists.

Present Perfect John has been doing this work This work has been being done
Continuous for the last three months. by John for the last three months.

Past Perfect Willy had repaired many cars Many cars had been repaired by
before he received the best Willy before he received the best
mechanic's award. mechanic's award.

Past Perfect Jones had been teaching English had been being taught by
Continuous English here ten years before he Jones for ten years before he
moved to Chennai. moved to Chennai.

Simple Future Arul will finish the work by The work will be finished by Arul
will tomorrow evening. tomorrow evening.

Simple Future Sally is going to deliver a A wonderful speech is going to be

be going to wonderful speech this evening. delivered by Sally this evening.

Future At 4:00 PM today, John will be At 4:00 PM today, a special

Continuous delivering a special lecture in lecture will be being delivered by
will our Institute. John in our Institute.

2
Future At 4:00 PM today, John is going At 4:00 PM today, a special
Continuous to be delivering a special lecture lecture is going to be being
be going to in our Institute. delivered by John in our Institute.

Future Perfect They will have completed the The project will have been
will project before the end of this completed by them before the end
year. of this year.

Future Perfect They are going to have The project is going to have been
be going to completed the project before the completed by them before the end
end of this year. of this year.

Future Perfect The artist will have been The mural will have been being
Continuous painting the mural for over three painted by the artist for over three
will months by the time it is finished. months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect The artist is going to have been The mural is going to have been
Continuous painting the mural for over three being painted by the artist for
be going to months by the time it is finished. over three months by the time it is
finished.

Used to Jose used to pay our electricity Our electricity bills used to be
bills. paid by Jose.

Would Always My mother would always make The dinner would always be
the dinner. made by my mother.

Future in the I knew John would finish the I knew the work would be
Past work before the deadline. finished by John before the
Would deadline.

Future in the I thought Sally was going to I thought an impressive speech

Past deliver an impressive speech was going to be delivered by
Was Going to this evening. Sally this evening.

The process of change from active to passive voice. Let’s take the following active
sentence for the process.
Matin Lutherking’s ‘speeches’ inspire the young generation greatly.

1. We should move the active sentence’s direct object into the sentence’s position.
The subject goes to the place of the object.

3
 The young generation Martin Luther king’s
speeches
2. We should find a suitable primary Auxiliary according to the tense of the verb and
number of the object. Here, it is ‘is’ because the tense of the verb is present
simple and the number of the object is singular.

3. The main verb should be converted into its Perfect participle form

Inspire inspired
4. We should introduce the Agentive Preposition ‘by’. It connects the verb of the
passive sentence with the subject.

5. The adjuncts if any should be added at the end of they are. Here greatly is the
adjunct that is added at the end of the passive sentence.

Diagrammatically the process can be represented as follows.

1. The young generation Martin Luther King’s Speeches

2. is

3. Inspired

4. by

5. greatly

Exercises

1. Jose' uncle looks after him.

Jose is looked after by his uncle.

2. The boys are running a race.

A race is being run by the boys.
.

3. The pests have destroyed crops.

Crops have been destroyed by the pests

4. Do you like Jane Austen's novels?

4
 Are Jane Austen's novels liked by you?

5. Are they flying kites?

Are kites being flown by them?

6. He smiled at a bird.
A bird was smiled at by him

7. He was writing a poem.

A poem was being written by him.

8. They had scolded the clerk.

The clerk had been scolded by them.
.

9. Did you eat my bread?

Was my bread eaten by you?

10. You must speak the facts.

The facts must be spoken by you.

11. Someone must have stolen the book.

The book must have been stolen by someone.

12. Students ought to obey the teachers.

The teachers ought to be obeyed by students.

13. They may not have posted the letter.

The letter may not have been posted by them

14. Inform the Dean.

Let the Dean be informed.

15. Work hard to succeed.

You are advised to work hard to succeed.

16. Please wait for us.

You are requested to wait for us.

17. Please do me a favour.

You are requested to do me a favour.

5
 Lecture No.7
Letter-Writing
Introduction
Letter Writing is an admirable art. Of course manually written letters have
transformed into e-mails and SMSes, but the art remains almost the same. Only the
medium has changed. Letters are broadly classified into formal letters and informal
letters. As the name suggests, formal letters include business letters, official letters,
applications, complaints, letter to editors, or any letter that carries an official information.
On the other hand, informal letters are personal letters, that is, letters that are written to
our friends and family. Formal letters follow certain format. We can be flexible while
writing informal letters, but they should follow decorum. Letter writing is a skill that
needs to be cultivated over time with practice. First one should know the basic rules.

Ground rules of formal letters:

1) We need to write our full name, address and date before you begin the letter. It is
called Heading

2) We should write our address in capital letters, that is, from whom the letter goes.

3) We should write the address of the person (called addressee) we are writing the letter
to, correctly.

4) It is always right to start the letter with Salutation or Greeting.

a) Dear Sir or Madam,

If we do not know the name of the person we are writing to, we should use
any one of these expressions. Howeveer, it is always advisable to try to find
out the name.
b) Respected Sir or Madam.
When we write the letter to a person of high rank or profile, we should use this
greeting.
c) Dear Mr Jose,
If we know the name, we should use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.)
and the surname only. If we are writing to a woman and do not know if she
uses Mrs or Miss, we can use Ms, which is for married and single woman.

5) Before beginning to write the content we must state the purpose of the letter in one

1
 line. It is called Subject.

6) Content
The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to make an
enquiry, complaint, request, etc.

The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the
relevant information behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English
are not very long, so keep the information to the essentials and concentrate
on organising it in a clear and logical manner rather than expanding too much.

The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect the
recipient to take- to refund, send you information, etc.

7) While closing, we should end the letter politely by using phrases like ‘thanking you’. It
is called Complementary Close.

8) We should undersign the letter using ‘Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely’ .It should be
followed by our signature. It is called Subscription.
1) Yours faithfully. We should end the letter with it, if we do not know the name of the
person.

2) Yours sincerely. We should end the letter with it, if we know the name of the person

3) Our signature. We should sign our name, then print it underneath the signature in
capital letters.

This is the basic structure of an official letter. We may have to modify it

according to the purpose for which it is written and the person to whom it is addressed.
For example, if we are writing an application r for a job ,we may need to attach our
resume along with the letter and also mention the same in it.

Writing Tips (quoted)

• Keep paragraphs short, preferably fewer than five lines. Vary the length of your
sentences. And don't be afraid to begin sentences with conjunctions (and, but, or).
To emphasize a point, you can use a one-sentence paragraph.
• Think twice before using any adjectives or adverbs. Impress people with your
nouns and verbs, not with decorations.

2
 • Use a friendly, conversational tone. Also, keep it deferential.
• Show confidence but not arrogance.
• Avoid mind-numbing phrases like "enclosed please find my resume for your
perusal." Be more creative than that.
• Avoid vague statements. Give specifics: people will find it both refreshing and
easy to understand.

Informal Letters
Purpose
An informal letter (or personal letter) is a way of communicating between two
people (sometimes more) who are usually well acquainted. There are many uses and
reasons for writing an informal letter, but usually informal letters will consist of topics on
a personal level. They may either be printed or hand-written.
Also they do not have many rigid rules. As we are writing to our friends and
family, we are free to choose the content and the style of language.
. When we write informal letters, it is better we keep the following norms in mind
.1) We should write Heading.

2) The Salutation can be informal. e.g. Dear Ramesh

3) Message. If the message is lengthy, we should divide it into paragraphs.

Usually the first paragraph of the body will consist of an introduction which will
give the recipient an idea about what we are writing to him with a short summary of the
main topic of our letter..
The next few paragraphs will usually consist of the message we want to get across
along with any details we may want to convey.
The last paragraph will usually be the conclusion where we wrap everything up.We
can sum up our main idea in this paragraph, thank the recipient for his time, wish the
recipient well, and/or ask any questions

We should generally make a good choice of words, and particularly when we are
writing an apology letter or a letter to express our condolences in case of a death.

4) We close the message with 'with regards' or 'with warm regards' It is Complementary
Close

3
5) Then comes Subscription. We should close the letter with phrases like ‘Yours
affectionately / With love / All the best / Take care’ etc.

Format of a formal letter

Heading Date & Place

From Sender's address in Capital
letters
To Receiver's address in small
letters
Salutation Formal
(Dear Sir / Respected Sir)
Body Subject
Reference
Message
Complementary Close Thanking you
Subscription Yours faithfully / Yours
sincerely
Superscription Address on the envelope

Format of an informal letter

Heading Place & Date

Salutation Informal (Dear / Dear Mr. / Respected)
Body Message
Complementary With regards
Close
Subscription Cordially Yours / Truly Yours
Superscription Address on the envelope

4
 Lecture No.8
Report Writing

Introduction
Report writing is presenting facts and findings in a proper way to a select
audience. It is a vital part of many walks of profession including academics. Writing a
report includes gathering and analyzing information, and presenting it appropriately to
the target audience with recommendations. It is a well structured statement of the results
of an investigation, or of any other subject or problem on which definite information is
required. The investigation is made by an individual or an organisation. In a report
problems and situations are analysed, conclusions drawn, solutions and alternatives are
considered and recommendations are made.

Purpose of Reports
1 To gather information share it. Reports are the reliable source of information both for
large and small organizations and for individuals.
2 For decision making . Reports are the reliable basis of significant decision making in
industry, business and public administration and services.
3.For Solutions. To give solutions to individual and community problems.

Contents of a Report
The contents of a report conform to a standard pattern; the pattern should be
familiar to the users as they should consult it easily and frequently for specific
information.
1 Title page. It should be given on a separate sheet. The title should be unique and
original so that it helps people to identify and retrieve the report quickly., either for
reference or for filing. The name of the author and the date of completion should be
under the title. The appearance should be neat and simple with out any complex designs
and colours.
2 Summary/abstract. This should be written in a separate sheet of paper. It gives a
concise presentation of what is written in the report with the material summarised in the
same order. It should give readers enough information and scope to assess the importance
of the material and its relevance to them.

1
3 Table of contents. This should be given in a separate sheet of paper, and it should list
the contents chronologically by page number. The titles of each section should give as
much information as possible on the latter.
4 Introduction. Introductory section provides background, which allows the reader to
know where you are coming from and puts the report in its historical and cultural context.
It lets him know the line of argument .It should give the reason why the work was
undertaken and its scope limitations
5 Main text. All the information that was gathered should be analysed edited and be
given in separate sections. Each section should deal with only one topic. The sections
numbered should have appropriate and informative headings. The main text, that is, the
body of the report should have a clear description of all investigations carried out, the
statement of facts discovered, clear arguments and opinions arising from the
investigations and the facts uncovered by them. Illustrations and diagrams related to the
text should be placed then and there which will make the information easier to understand
and remember.
6 Conclusions. It is not only a summary of the sections of the report, but gives the
conclusions about what was investigated too. Of course no new ideas should be
introduced here.
7 Recommendations. These are important in the sense that they provide with the reader
the follow up of the issues and the author's future perspective of the issues too.
8 Acknowledgements. This section may come after the title page It should be included
as the author may feel indebted to the help and ideas of some people which have been
influential in the making of the report.
9 Bibliography. All the works ( published and unpublished ) consulted for the
development of the report should be listed in a references list.
10 Appendices. This lists any additional information or references missed in the
Bibliography by over sight . It can include names people who were interviewed too.

Format of a Report. (Quoted and Tailored)

Title Page

The Title; e.g. 'A Report on ....'

'An Investigation into...'

2
'An Analysis of ...'
'A Comparison of ... and ...'
Your Name
Submitted to or for ---------------------.

Acknowledgments

"I would like to thank sincerely Mr. _______, for the valuable advice and support he has
given me in the writing of this report. I would also like to thank Mrs. _______ and Mr.
_______ for their encouragement and guidance. Thanks also to my typist, Ms. _______,
for her immaculate job and her suggestions. My thanks go my friends _________

Summary / Abstract

This study was to ______________________________

It was requested by ____________________________
It was requested on (date).
The investigation was done by ____________________
The main findings were that ______________________
It was concluded that __________________________
The recommendations are that _______should be ______

Contents Page

Section......................................................Page Number
Introduction
Background
This report has been written because....
It was requested by...
It was requested on (date).
Objectives
The objectives of this report are to....
Scope
This report examines .... . It does not examine ..... because ...... .

Titles of sections of the main text

Conclusions
The main conclusion that can be drawn is therefore that...
...........................................................................
Recommendations.

In the light of these conclusions, I recommend that _____ should be ____

In addition, a _______ could ______
.................................................................
Bibliography
3
Appendices

Appendix 1: Sample Survey Form

Appendix 2: Results of Statistical Analysis by ______

4
 Lecture No. 10

Introduction to theory of English pronunciation

The very first form of human behavior ever since he evolved as a man is speaking.
The spoken word is as important as the word written; in fact spoken medium of English
precedes its written medium by many centuries. What we should know is, as there are correct
ways to write a word or sentence, there are correct ways to speak it. The most important part
of speaking is right pronunciation of words and utterance of sentences. To speak a second
language correctly ( here, it is English ) one should have good knowledge of its theory of
pronunciation.

The discipline that explains the theory pronunciation of a particular language is

Phonology. In other words the phonological system of a language includes

• A inventory of phonemes ( sounds ) and a description of their features.

• Rules that explain how these phonemes interact with each other, that is, how they
form words and what happens when words are combined and spoken as sentences.
The reader here should also know that Phonetics is a general discipline that analyses
the production of all human speech sounds, regard less of language. It is the basis for the
phonological analysis of a language. Phonology on the other hand studies and analyses the
sounds and their patterns of a particular language. So English Phonology explains how the 44
phonemes (sounds) of English are produced or pronounced, how words which are made of
phonemes are pronounced, and how sentences are uttered.

Again Phonology is one of several aspects of language. It is related to other important

aspects such as Morphology, Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics. In English Phonology, there
are a few important aspects which one should understand: they, apart from Phonemes, are
Syllables, Stress and Intonation. Just as 26 letters, the rules that govern the spelling of words,
the rules that govern the formation of sentences are important for the written medium of
English, these Phonological aspects are very important for the spoken medium of English.
Before we go to study English Phonology in detail, we should know how the Speech Organs
work in English.

In English, as in any other language, we speak with the help of the air column from
the lungs. We draw air in to the lungs quickly, and while we release it slowly, we interfere
with its passage in various ways and at various places in out mouth. The following is the
diagram that shows a side view of the parts- the human throat, mouth and nose where we
have all the important speech organs.

The Speech Organs :

1. The Vocal Cords :

The air that is released by the lungs moves up through the wind pipe and reaches first
the Larynx. The Larynx contains two small bands of elastic tissue called vocal cords. These
cords can move towards each other or away from each other. When we speak, it is these
cords that make sound with the help of the air stream and this basic sound is articulated into
different phonemes (our choice from the list of 44 phonemes) by the different speech organs
in our mouth. Without vocal cords, speaking can never happen. Immediately above the
Larynx is a space behind the tongue which reaches up towards the nasal cavity. This space is
called the Pharynx.
The Palate:

The palate forms the roof of the mouth and separates the mouth cavity from the nasal
cavity. The front part of the palate is hard and back part is soft, and both the parts can be felt
by the tip of our tongue. The soft palate can be raised or lowered. The hard palate which is
fixed is divided again into two sections; the teeth (alveolar) ridge and the hard palate. The
alveolar ridge is the part of tooth gums immediately behind the upper front teeth and the hard
palate is between alveolar ridge and soft palate. All the three parts of the upper roof –
alveolar ridge, hard palate and soft palate are important for the production of vowels and
consonants, particularly consonants.

The palate not only starts at the back and ends above the upper teeth, but curves down
wards either side (left and right) towards the teeth.

The Teeth :

The upper front teeth have a role to play in the production of consonants represented
by ‘th’ in words like ‘this’ and ‘that’. The lower front teeth are not important in speaking but,
if they are absent consonants like / s / and / z / as in ‘sign’ and ‘zeal’ will be difficult to be
produced.

The Tongue :

The tongue is the most important speech organ because it plays a major role in speech
production. Its movements are many which are essential for the production of vowels,
consonants, words and sentences. To produce the consonants / t / and / d / as in ‘ten’ and
‘deal’ the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth ( alveolar ) ridge. To produce the sounds
/k / and / g / as in ‘kite’ and ‘game’, the back of the tongue presses against the soft palate. To
produce the sounds / s / and / z / as in ‘seat’ and ‘zeal’, the tip and blade of the tongue go
close to the alveolar ridge. Similarly the movements of the tongue are important in the
production of vowels and diphthongs.

The Lips :

The lips take up different positions to produce vowels and consonants. To produce the
consonants / p / and / b / as in ‘pen’ and ‘bell’ we bring the lips firmly together, block the air
column and then blow it by separating the lips. To produce / f / and / v / as in ‘fan’ and ‘vent’
the lower lip is drawn inward and then slightly upwards to touch the upper front teeth.
 All the speech organs are important for the right kind of speaking (correct production
of sounds, words and sentences) and one should be conscious about the movements of speech
organs till the right speaking skills are acquired.
 Lecture No.12
Study of twenty vowels in english

There are twenty vowels in English of which twelve are Pure vowels and eight are
Diphthongs. A pure vowel is a single vowel and it is also called Monophthong. A Diphthong
is a combination of two pure vowels.

Now what is the difference between the articulation of a consonant and a vowel?
When a consonant is produced, two speech organs come together at some point in the mouth
to block the air from the lungs either fully or partially, and then the air is released. But when
a vowel is produced, there is no such friction between speech organs; the air flows freely
through the passage in the mouth. In other words, the vocal tract is ‘unobstructed’ when a
vowel sound is produced. Vowels differ from each other by the different mouth shapes they
take.

The following is the list of twelve monophthongs

/i/ - sit,wit
/i:/ - seat, wheat
/e/ - pen, men
/æ/ - pat, man
/α: / - car, far
/o/ - pot, song
/‫כ‬: / - saw, taught
/Λ/ - come, must
/U/ - put, pull
/ U: / - rule, glue
/∂/ - about, again
/ 3: / - fur, cur

When a diphthong is produced, two pure vowels get combined, that is, a diphthong is
a sound that begins as one vowel and ends as another, while gliding between them. All the
twelve monophthongs and eight diphthongs are voiced, that is, they are produced by the
vibration of vocal cords. The following are the eight diphthongs.
 /ei/ - page, take
/αi/ - buy, fine
/‫כ‬i/ - boy, coin
/∂U/ - go, home
/αU/ - how, now
/I ∂/ - hear, near
/e ∂/ - there, hare
/U ∂/ - pour, tour

The following diagram shows the place of articulation of twelve pure vowels.

central

half-close

half-open
close

front mid back

open
 Lecture No. 13

Lack of One-to-One Correspondence between Spelling and

Pronunciation in English

Silent Letters: a Study

Introduction

In English writing system, a silent letter in a particular word is a letter (of the
alphabet) which does not correspond to any sound in the word’s pronunciation. In
other words, silent letters are those that we cannot hear when we say the word, but
they are there when we write the word. Foreign students of English should know that
silent letters are part of standardized English spelling though silent letters can make
English pronunciation difficult for them. They can also create the problem of
knowing the spelling of the words when they are spoken. At the same time spotting
the silent letters is not always difficult because some of the letters, if they are sounded
out (pronounced), can make pronunciation difficult.

For example: ‘gh’ in might, light, tight.

‘n’ in column, autumn, hymn

‘g’ in sign, reign, align

‘k’ in know, knight, knock

Some silent letters, on the other hand, are difficult to learn, that is, a foreign
learner finds it difficult to know whether they should be pronounced or omitted.

For example: ‘e’ in the middle of the words-evening, every, temperature

‘b’ in comb, climb, bomb.

‘h’ in honest, hour, honour

Now, what to do, if the students do not know whether a particular letter should
be omitted or pronounced. The best way is to build right pronunciation through
repeated exposure to ,that is, listening to right pronunciation (egs. Programmes of
British Broadcasting Corporation, audio lessons of IELTS and BEC published by
Cambridge University) and reading and speaking.

1
 Listening to the words with silent letters repeatedly and practicing can help the
students improve their pronunciation skills and reading helps them spot the silent
letters. A lesson the students learn is reading and writing should not be neglected
even when the focus is on listening and speaking.

The other way to identify silent letters is to know the phonetic transcription of
the words. Any good dictionary gives the transcription within slanted strokes
immediately after the written form (the first entry). When the students can make out
pronunciation from transcription, the silent letters can not create problems. As
English spelling has a high number of silent letters and the written form of the word
has no indication about them, learning transcription can very much help the students
to identify them. The origins of silent letters are difficult to pin down, and such an
exercise is not going to help our students too in any big way. Let us accept the
present standardised English spelling system and learn to omit them when the words
are pronounced. The presence of silent letters is a language aspect, the students have
to reckon with, because English spelling has a high number of silent letters.
According to Kent Jones, Education Committee, Esperanto Society of Chicago, more
than 60% of English words have silent letters. There are no rigid rules for the
presence of silent letters. One has to just learn them.

Here is a list of silent letters. Of course most of them give difficulties to

students who learn English as a second language.

Silent A – musically, logically, stoically

B – climb, comb, lamb, doubt, thumb

C – muscle, acquit, acquire, indict, victual

D – sandwich, Wednesday, badge, hedge, landscape.

E – ‘e’ when occurs at the end of the word is not pronounced.

e.gs. drive, give, take, lake.

F – halfpenny,

G – light, reign, gnarl, gnaw, design

H – exhibition, hour, honour, whether, white.

I – business.

2
 J – no words with silent ‘j’

K – know, knock, knack, knee, knit,

L – calf, palm, calm, talk, half.

M – mnemonic,

N – hymn, solemn, autumn, column,

O – no words with silent ‘o’

P – psychology, psychiatrist, coup, receipt, pseudo.

Q – no words with silent ‘q’

R – ‘r’ when occurs at the end of the word is usually silent

- e.g.s letter, better, mother,

Other instances.

lord, bird, mirth, birth, curb.

S – island, isle, debris, viscount,

T – fasten, listen, often, soften, castle ,gourmet, rapport

U – guess, guard, tongue, building, vogue, biscuit, dialogue

V – no words with silent ‘v’

W- write, sword, wrap, answer, whole,

X – faux pas.

Y – no words with silent ‘y’

Z – rendezvous, laissez – faire.

As there is no clear way to know about all the silent letters in English, frequent
listening and reading followed by speaking and writing are the only sure ways to
overcome this difficulty.

3
 Lecture No. 14

The Principle and Importance of Stress in English

What is a Syllable?

By now we know that each English word spoken will have sounds –
consonants and vowels. Any word in English will have minimum one consonant and
one vowel. There is no word which will have only consonants or only vowels. Let’s
take the word ‘it’. It has the vowel | i | and consonant |t|. Now, when we pronounce a
word, sounds (phonemes) are not pronounced in isolation. Sounds of a word group
together which can be uttered in one breath force. In other words, a group of sounds in
a word that can be uttered in a single breath force is called a syllable. The above word
‘it’, which is made of only two sounds can be pronounced in one breath force. So it
has got only one syllable. There are words with two, three, four or five and more
syllables.

For example ‘enter’ cannot be pronounced in one breath force. There is a

break after ‘en’ and then ‘ter’ is pronounced, that is, it has two syllables ‘en’ and ‘ter’.
‘Entertain’ is pronounced in three breath forces, so it has three syllables. So a syllable
is the minimal pronouncing unit in a word.

Many words in English have got only one syllable; they are ‘monosyllabic’
words.

For example,

at, on, far, cash, deed, full, give, hat, jet, kite, luck, man, net, opt, pull, read
etc..

If the word has got more than one syllable, it is ‘poly syllabic word’. Poly
syllabic words in English have two syllables minimum.

Words with two syllables

Eng/lish, as/pect, co/mmand, in/crease, na/ture, nur/ture.

The word ‘enrichment’ has three syllables, ‘phonotactics’ four syllables and
‘international’ five syllables.

While a word will have minimum one consonant and one vowel, a syllable
may have one sound only; it will be usually a vowel. For example ‘order’ has two

1
syllables and the first syllable has only one sound ( the vowel/‫כ‬:/) pronounced, and the
sound |r| goes silent. Otherwise a syllable with more than one sound ( a group ) will
have one consonant one vowel minimum. To realize Stress and Tone ( Intonation ) a
knowledge of what is syllable is important. It is on a syllable, stress is applied and
pitch movement begins. These concepts will be discussed in detail in the chapters to
come.

Any good dictionary like Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current

English shows the syllabic division by a hyphen.

Words of two syllables

ad-judge, al-pine, am-bient, an-chor, an-tique, be-hold, be-have, bud-get,

chap-ter, char-ter

Words of three syllables

Ap-pren-tice, ar-range-ment, ar-ticu-late, ar-ti-ficial, as-ser-tion, at-ten-tion,

coun-sel-lor, coun-ter-part, im-par-tial, nu-tri-tious.

Words of four syllables

As-so-ci-ation, des-ti-na-tion, in-de-fati-gable, in-ter-pel-late, in-ter-po-late,

per-pen-dicu-lar

Words of five syllables

Dif-fer-en-ti-ate, in-ter-com-mu-nal, in-ter-com-mu-nion, mul-ti-pli-ca-tion,

tele-com-muni-ca-tions.

Stress in English

If we want to emphasise anything strongly when we speak, we utter the words

with greater energy and the velocity of the air stream from the lungs and the
vibrations of vocal cords are mote than what they normally should be. Now when we
stress the syllable of a word too we release the puff of air with more effort and energy.
In other words, ‘the reinforced puff’ (puff of greater energy) which is produced with
greater muscular effort can produce a stressed syllable. To be brief, ‘stress’ is the
emphasis laid on a particular syllable of a word with the help of ‘the reinforced puff’.
In any English word which has more than one syllable, one syllable is always said
with greater force i.e., with a reinforced puff and the remaining syllables receive the

2
normal puff. In the word ‘trainer’ for example, the syllable ‘-trai’ receives ‘the
reinforced puff’ (the air is ejected from the lungs with more effort) and ‘-ner’ receives
the normal puff: ‘trai-‘is the strongly stressed syllable and ‘-ner’ is the weakly
stressed syllable. If there is only one syllable in a word, that syllable is strongly
stressed.

e.g. tin, pin, kit, mat

Words made up of only one syllable are called ‘monosyllabic words’ and
those with more than one syllable are called ‘polysyllabic words’.

Further examples

Monosyllabic Words

kid, put, cup, map, run

Polysyllabic Words

en-rich, con-firm, al-rea-dy

en-rich-ment, en-ter-tain-ment

A syllable may have just one sound in which case it will be a vowel.

e.g. o-rder

e-mit

a-bout

In English, the stress may fall on any syllable if it is a polysyllabic word.

There are words with stress on second, third and fourth syllables but comparatively
the number of words with stress on the first syllable is quite larger than those words.
Though there are exceptions, laying stress on the first syllable in the words of two or
three syllables is the most reliable working rule. To have a fair knowledge of the
‘stress’ in English, one needs a constant practice. The practice of stress in
polysyllabic words can be brought under certain patterns. The following extract is
from Brita Hay Craft’s work who has been successful in bringing out the stress
patterns.

Pattern A

CONfirm, THOUsand, Import, LISten

3
 BROken, GOLden, Devil,

Pattern B

SYMphony, BArricade, Artisan, OPtimist,

QUAlity, SYMpathy, Cashier

Pattern C

Word ending with the suffixes –ic, -ive, -cial, -cious, -tions receive the stress
on the second syllable from the end.

symBOlic, deTECctive, comMERcial, senSAtion,

autoMAtic, inforMAtion, contiNENtal, photoGRAphic

enthuSIAStic, adminisTRAtion

materiaLIStic, nationaLIzation

Pattern D

Words with endings –acy, -ary, -ator, -mony, -ory receive their stress on the
fourth syllable from the end.

GLAdiator, DElicacy, JAnuary, CAtegory, CEremony

Pattern E

The words with the foreign sound endings

-esque, -ee, -eer, -ette, -ique, -oo, -ooth, receive their stress on the last
syllable.

trusTEE caREER baLLOON

guaranTEE, engiNEER caraVELLE

cigaRETTE, kangaROO.

Further Examples

Words Stressed on the First Syllable.

Apple, needle, settle, little, heaven, happen, listen, often, taken, token, father,
sister, finger, water, gather, body, freedom, gifted, English, Tamil, Hindi, German,

4
Latin, shipment, friendship, island, nothing, always, journal, ocean, balance, collar,
coward, sudden, cargo, nature, figure, minute, method, custom.

Words Stressed on the Second Syllable

cui’sine, cu’rriculum, to’bacco

de’fault, de’feat, em’broil,

fac’simile, ges’tation har’monic

Words Stressed on the Third syllable

Docu’mentary embro’cation fede’ration

Homo’geneous intro’duce intro’spect

Lexi’cography miscon’ceive monu’ments

Words Stressed on the Last syllable

grenade lemonade campaign

humane finance romance

chimpanzee repartee referee

5
 Lecture No. 15

Study of Stress Shift and Primary and Secondary Stress in a

Sentence

Stress Shift

Stress Shift means the change of the position of the stress within a word when
its class differs. A word may have many forms with different functions, viz., noun,
verb, adverb, adjective, etc. For the same word the stress also may fall on different
syllables when it changes its form for different functions. For example the noun,
‘photograph’ receives the stress on the first syllable (‘photograph) but the adjective
form of that noun ‘photographic’ receives the stress on the third syllable
(photo’graphic). The stress falls on the second syllable of the noun academy,
(a’cademy) but the adjective ‘academic’ receives its stress on the third syllable
(aca’demic)

In the same manner, the noun ‘present’ receives its stress on the first syllable
but when used as a verb, it is stressed on the second syllable (pre’sent)

While the stress shifts, the pronunciation too charges. Any change in stress
will result in the change of pronunciation even when the spelling remains the same.

Further Examples to show the change in Pronunciation

Noun Adjective Verb Adverb

elec’tricity e’lectric e’lectrify Electri’cally

inferio’rity in’ferior

‘contrast con’trast

obser’vation ob’servant obser’vantly

‘project pro’ject

pene’tration ‘penetrate

‘record re’cord

‘grammer gra’mmatical

gra’mmatically

1
 ‘substitute substi’tute

‘digest di’gest

Stress – A note of caution. A learner of Spoken English or one who speaks English
without any knowledge of the basic rules of English stress, may make two types of
errors. They are,

1. Misplaced Stress and

2. Overstress

Misplaced Stress means stressing a syllable in a word which normally does not
receive any stress. The syllable that should be stressed goes unstressed.

For example, saying

COnnect instead of coNNECT

DICtator instead of dicTAtor

DISguise instead of disGUISE

This misplaced stress may be due to the speaker’s own whims and fancies or due to
the influence of the mother tongue.

Overstress is due to at least three important reasons. They are

a) Lack of clear knowledge of which syllable in a word is to be stressed.

b) A tendency to give equal stress to all the syllables.

c) A fear whether we should be misunderstood as being careless.

For example, one may say

COM-MUNE instead of commUNE

CUL-ti-VATE instead of CULtivate

RE-CYCLE instead of reCYCLE

Primary and Secondary Stress in a Sentence

In a word, there may only one syllable that receives stress, but in a sentence
many words may have their own stressed syllables but all those syllables are not given

2
equal weight or emphasis, i.e., the ‘reinforced puff’ is not uniformly (can’t be) given
to all the words in a sentence. There may be one word which is more important for
meaning than all remaining words.

In the question for example, ‘How can I even forget it?, the words ‘How’,
‘ever’ and ‘forget’ are stressed. But of the three, ‘forget’, is the most important word
for meaning and ‘-get’ is the syllable that is stressed in that word. The syllables
‘How’, ‘ever’ and ‘-get’ are stressed but ‘-get’ stands more prominently that the other
two. We utter the word ‘forget’ louder than the other two and so it is said to receive
‘Primary Stress’ (also called Primary Accent”, and the remaining stressed words (or
syllables) are said to receive ‘Secondary Stress’ (also said Secondary Accent).

To be brief, in a sentence, the word that is the most important for meaning
receives ‘Primary Stress’ and the remaining words receive ‘Secondary Stress’.

In the examples that follow, the words to be stressed are underlined. Among
them the syllable of the word that has the syllable in capital letters is most important
for meaning and so it receives ‘Primary Stress’. The rest of the underlined words that
appear in small letters receive ‘Secondary Stress’.

1. He works inspite of the Injury.

2. I am submitting it toMORROW.

3. The exam was very EAsy.

4. This is not what I Expected from him.

5. I bought a new BIKE.

6. Why has he left you ALONE?

7. Where have you left my BALL?

8. What happened to my BOOKS?

9. They asked him to STAY there.

10. Tell him I’ll talk to him SOON.

11. I got this book as a PRIZE.

12. I requested him to speak for HIM.

13. I think he wants us to LISten to them.

3
14. They are all to speak for US.

15. He should KNOW it.

16. Why did you lock the ROOM?

17. I think he is RIGHT.

18. The teacher will tell us what to DO.

19. He wants us to LEARN it.

20. The vase on the table is BEAUtiful.

4
 Lecture No. 16

The Concept of Intonation and Study of Falling Tone

English, as any other language, causes ups and downs in one’s voice i.e. there
are constant variations of pitch. If one utters a sentence without these ups and downs
he cannot convey the intended meaning to the listener and such English will be highly
unnatural.

It can be explained a little more elaborately. When we utter a sentence we

differentiate a word that is most important for meaning from the others i.e. we
differentiate a word with ‘Primary Stress’ that receives that stress. We cannot hear a
sentence in English without this ‘Primary Stress’ because the words in an English
sentence are seldom of equal importance. Due to this ‘Primary Stress’ there are two
tones, Kinetic and Static.

Because of these facts there are constant variations in the levels of pitch. The
pitch is sometimes high, sometimes low and sometimes it remains level.

The variations in pitch fall are called Intonation and fall into certain patterns.
In spoken English only this intonation can tell us what kind of sentence the speaker
utters i.e. whether he utters a statement, or gives a command, or makes a request or
puts a question. It also tells us about the speaker’s attitude towards the meaning of
the sentence he utters .A change in intonation can bring about a change in meaning
though the words remain the same.

There are three basic principles we should be familiar with, to speak English
with correct intonation. Spoken English with correct intonation makes the speech
more effective. They are

1. The spoken sentences fail broadly into certain groups called ‘Tone
Groups’.

2. The correct location of the syllable that receives the ‘Primary Stress’.

3. The choice of Tone and this choice is very important because the meaning
of the sentence depends upon the tone we choose.

4. Lets discuss these three principles in detail.

1
1. Tone Groups

When we speak we make pauses. These pauses in the course of the sentences,
give rise to ‘Tone groups’. Though we may not be consciously aware, we are making
the pauses in our speech. It is an exercise that happens quite unconsciously. A study
of some examples can make us realize what these tone groups are. Say the sentence

• I have done it.

You may realize now that there is no break in your breath when you utter this
sentence i.e., the sentence can be uttered in a single breath and so the sentence is said
to have single tone group.

Further examples

• Do the work.
• Do it quickly.
• Have you done it?
• Shall I do it?
• Time is fleeing.
• Stop the work.
• I can do it.
• You may go.

But the sentence

‘When I do the work, I understand its difficulties.’ falls into two groups ‘when
I do the work/I understand its difficulties’. When we utter this sentence there is a
break in our breath. In other words the sentence is uttered in two breaths and so there
are two tone groups.

(The sentence is marked with an oblique bar to show the place of division and the
following sentences too will be marked so).

• If winter comes/can spring be far behind?

• You are very happy/when you meet a true friend.
• Fools are wise/when they are silent.

Now there is no definite principle about dividing the utterance into groups because it
is done quite unconsciously and with ease. If one is very particular to seek a theory

2
we can say that the punctuation helps sometimes to know the groups in an utterance.
A full stop usually indicates the end of a tone group and sometimes a comma too.

2. Locating the syllable that receives ‘Primary Stress’

When the speaker’s attitude is quite straight-forward towards the meaning of

the sentence he utters (without any implications), the Primary Stress falls on a syllable
in the last significant word of that sentence. i.e. the pitch movement begins (a change
in the pitch occurs) on the last word of the sentence or tone groups. A pictorial
representation of some examples will help us to understand the concept better.

• He is a doctor.↓
• Where are you going? ↑
• I have bought a car. ↓
• It’s time to close the shop. ↓
• The king gave him a prize. ↓
• This palace was built by Asoka. ↓
• There’s nothing nobler than love. ↓

That word which the speaker wants to make the most prominent receives the
Primary Stress and on that word the pitch movement begins as the above examples
show. Locating the word that receives ‘Primary Stress’ in a sentence is very important
because even in the same sentence different words may receive ‘Primary Stress’ on
different occasions depending upon the significance given by the speaker to them.
According to that ‘prominence’ the meaning too varies to a great extent.

Examples

• I love reading FICTION

(I don’t love reading prose or poetry)
• I love READING fiction
(I want to just read it only, not to study it deeply as I do my text)
• I LOVE reading fiction.
(My love for reading fiction is quiet certain. There is no second thought about
that)
• I love reading fiction.
(I love it. Don’t ask about others)

3
 Here the sentence is same. But on different occasions different words receive
the ‘Primary Stress’ and choice of the word for ‘Primary Stress’ depends upon the
meaning the speaker wants to convey. Here the meaning of one sentence is entirely
different from that of the other and the sentences show that the Pitch Movement
begins on that word which the speaker wants to make the most prominent. That is
why it is said that Intonation can change the meaning though the words remain the
same.

Choosing the Tone

There are actually a number of tones in Spoken English, but for a simple and
intelligible communication the use of the following three tones are enough. They are

a) Falling Tone.

b) Rising Tone.

c) Falling-Rising Tone.

Let’s study them in detail.

a) Falling Tone

Falling Tone is the innocent gentleman’s tone. It is meant for statements

without any indirect meaning or implications i.e. all the statements which are
quite straight forward in meaning have the ‘falling tone’. In a sentence that
receives this tone the stressed words form a descending scale and such a
descent is gradual. Each word takes a position which is little lower than its
preceding word’s and the last word has a fall in the pitch. All the unstressed
words are said in the same pitch its predecessors are said. A pictorial
representation of some examples may help one to understand better the falling
tone.

• I am HAPPY to MEET you. ↓

• The BOOK is on the TAble. ↓
• They are LEAving for DELhi.↓
• The Milk tastes SOUR.↓
• He BROUGHT the book BACK.↓
• I am SOrry you are WRONG. ↓
• We must DECIDE on a plan of ACtion. ↓

4
 • I was in ENGland for ONE year. ↓
• He TEAches my children SCIEnce. ↓
• I don’t underSTAND what you SAY. ↓

Falling tone is used in the questions that are put very casually with the
question words- when, where, why, what, whom, how. etc.

Examples

• HOW is your Father? ↓

• What are you DOing there?
• Where are they GOing?

It is used in Commands and Instructions:

Examples

• GO and DO the work. ↓

• Don’t GO, I say.
• You just do, WHAT I said.
• It is used in Exclamations and Sure replies:

Examples

• What a BEAUtiful picture! ↓

• How MArvellous it is!
• I’ll be Surely there.

5
 Lecture No. 17

Study of Rising Tone and Falling-Rising Tone

Rising Tone

This tone is usually used in the clauses that make the first part of the sentences
and it is marked by (/).

Examples

• If I GO↑ to school, / I will meet the Headmaster.

• When I WENT↑ to the school, / the Headmaster was in the class.
• When the TEACHER↑ speaks, / the students should be silent.
• If you SPEAK↑ in the meeting, / you’ll be appreciated.

It is used in the Yes-No questions (that don’t have a question word) put in a warm,
friendly manner.

• Did you ENJOY↑ it?

• Can you GO now?
• Are you THERE? ↑

It is used in the questions with a question word but they will be gentle and more
personally involving.

Examples

• (Father to his son)

Where did you LOSE↑ it?
• (A friend inquires)
What Happened↑ to him?
• (A mother to the weeping little daughter)
What is the MATter? ↑

It is used in the tentative statements with question tags.

This tone is heard in Requests and Instructions which are gentle.

• Would you pass the suGAr? ↑

• Come here PLEASE. ↑
• Would you mind attending the MEEting? ↑

1
Falling-Rising Tone

This Tone is used when the speaker implies a meaning which he does not want
to express openly. It is left to be understood by the listener.

Examples

1. The essay is MEANINGFUL……↓↑

(but not relevant etc.)

2. The speech was CHARMING…….↓↑

(but not meaningful)

3. He is a HARD WORKER…………..↓↑

(but not intelligent)

4. Of course the man is VERY ACTIVE…..↓↑

(but not dependable)

5. I saw you at the THEATRE………↓↑

(but I didn’t want to meet you)

6. The school has extensive GROUNDS…….↓↑

(but there are no good athletes)

7. I don’t have HUNDRED RUPEES…….↓↑

(I can give you a little amount but)

8. It doesn’t MATTER……↓↑

(but it is not so unimportant)

9. He doesn’t have MONEY………..↓↑

(but he is sound in character)

2
 Lecture No.1

Introduction to the Structure of English Language and to some

Word classes

A.1.For the words in bold, choose the correct part of speech from the choices
listed in a and b.

Example: 1. white = b. adjective

a. noun
1. Today, I will wear my white shirt.
b. adjective

a. noun
2. You ought to complete the work in time
b. pronoun

a. verb
3. Spring will follow winter definitely
b. adverb

a. adverb
4. This is an interesting movie.
b. adjective

a. verb
5. Hit the ball as hard as you can.
b. noun

a. adjective
6. I am extremely happy about your scorecard.
b. adverb

a. adverb
7. Will you work here or in the library now?
b. conjunction

a. noun
8. What happened to John?
b. verb

a. preposition
9. Your yellow suitcase is in the cloak room.
b. adjective

10. Let's make it a memorable game! a. noun

 b. preposition

2.Click the correct answer.

.
1) Which is not a noun?

green lion notebook river tree

2) Which is not a noun?

community day tremour tried airbase

3) Which is not a noun?

desk above pencil dream theatre

4) Which is not a noun?

have mother sensibility appendix idea

5) Which is not a plural noun?

countries clothes gas people oceans

6) Which is a noun?

write send blue wonderful dance

7) Which is a plural noun?

fur furniture presidents internet USA

8) Which is not a plural noun?

beans plays grass flowers friends

9) Which is a noun?
 speak sing and the tune

10) How many nouns are in the sentence- V.O.Chidhambaram is one of the greatest
patriots the country ever had.

1 2 3 4 5

3. Write down the correct form of the word in brackets (adjective or adverb).

1) John is (smart) smart. He works smartly.

2) Susan is an (intelligent)_______________girl. She spoke on some social
issues __________________.
3) The boss is (angry)______________. He spoke to the clerk
___________________.
4) Arun spoke (excellent)______________. He's an_______________ orator.
5) They learn Chess (easy)______________. They think Chess is
an__________________game.
6) Mary is a (good)________________singer. She sings_________________.
7) It's (awful)________________ hot today. The hot waves are
__________________.
8) The tiger is a (ferocious)_____________ animal. It attacks the enemy
________________.
9) The little boy looked (enthusiastic)________________. He answered all my
questions _________________.
10) Joe is a (great)______________ Foot baller. He played yesterday’s game
________________.
4.Identify the Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the following sentences .

1) John sold many watches last week.

2) The kites fly gracefully
3) I have taken a house for rent.
4) Jose has bought a new radio
5) The glass fell, but did not break.
6) The discussion is moving in the right direction.
7) I did not understand his question.
8) He has written some excellent poetry.
9 )He ran excellently in the race.
10 )The sun rose majestically in the east.
5.Answer the following questions briefly.

a)What are Morphemes?

b)What is Lexis?

c)What is Syntax?

d)What are the four types of sentences in English?

e)Give a sentence each for the seven basic sentence patterns quoted in the text?

f)What are the kinds of sentences based on the Clause structure?

B. Write in 250 words about the Structure of English Language

Answers
A.1.
1) b. adjective
2) a. noun
3) a. verb
4) b. adjective
5) b. noun
6) b. adverb
7) a. adverb
8) b. verb
9) b. adjective
10) a. noun
2.
1) green
2) tried
3) above
4) have
5) gas
6) dance

7) presidents

8) grass
9) tune

10) four

3.
1) smart, smartly.

2) intelligent, intelligently

3) angry, angrily
4) excellent, excellently
5) easily, easy
6) good, well
7) awfully, awful
8) ferocious, ferociously
9) enthusiastic, enthusiastically
10) great, excellently
4,
1)Transitive verb
2)Intransitive verb
3) Transitive verb
4) Transitive verb
5) Intransitive verb
6) Intransitive verb
7) Transitive verb
8) Transitive verb
9) Intransitive verb
10) Intransitive verb
MURUGAN, THE SINGER GRAMMAR CONTEXT

Fill in the blank with an appropriate word.

Each blank carries only one word

1. Murugan loved to sing. Unfortunately whenever he opened his mouth to sing,

people immediately clapped their hands to their ears and rushed away.

2. One day Murugan came upon a statue of ____1. “Ah,” thought Murugan “here is a
man ____ 2 cannot run away.” And he began to ____ 3. He sang and sang till his
mouth ____ 4. dry. He could sing no more. Then ____ 5. went home, well satisfied
with his performance.

3. ____ 6. next day the people were horrified to ____ 7 that the statue had put its
hands ____ 8 its ears. No one except Murugan knew ____ 9 or how it had happened.
And the____ 10 wisely kept silent.

4. The king came with ____ 11 courtiers and ministers and all of them ____ 12 at the
statue with fear and bewilderment.

5.” ____ 13 foreshadows some great disaster,” said the king. ____ 14 offered a large
reward to anyone who ____ bring Narada’s hands down again.

6. Murugan stepped ____ 16 and said he could do it. A ladder ____ 17 brought and
Murugan climbed up. When he ____ 18 the top he was seen whispering something
____ 19 the statue’s ear and then to the ____ 20 of all those present the statue slowly
____ 21 to lower its arms.

7. Murugan became a ____ 22. The king rewarded him richly and made ____ 23 a
minister in the court. Murugan never ____ 24 what he had whispered into the statue’s
____ 25 but even years afterwards people sometimes heard him mutter, “My singing
has made me what I am”!!

Answers

1. Narada
2. who
3. sing
4. became
5. he
6. The
7. see
8. over / on
9. when
10. singer
11. his
12. looked
13. This
14. He
15. could
16. forward
17. was
18. reached
19. into
20. surprise
21. began
22. hero
23. him
24. revealed
25. ears
 Lesson No.3

Structure of English Verb – Practical Schedule

Part- A

Main Verb

1) Fill in the correct infinitive forms to the given verb forms.

verb form infinitive

painting
chanting
appeared
argued
patting
combined
running
catching
playing
wrote

2) Fill in the blanks with the Gerund or the Infinitive form of the verb given in
brackets.

Example: They go on _______ (read) the book.

Answer: They go on reading the book.

1) I can't imagine Jose________(write) this assignment.

2) They agreed __________(organise) the conferance.
3) Your question is difficult _______(answer).
4) The boy asked him how _________(get) the problem solved.
5)They look forward to __________(meet) the Labour leader again.
6) Are you thinking of __________(visit) the doctor again?
 7) They have decided _________ (start) a new business.
8) The manager expects us _________ (work) hard this month.
9) We don't mind__________(work) extra hours.
10) He started _________(learn) English at the age of 3.
Answers

1)Writing , 2)to organise , 3)to answer , 4)to get , 5)meeting ,

6)visiting , 7)to start , 8)to work , 9)working , 10)learning

3) Write whether the sentences contain a Gerund or a Progressive Participle.

1) John likes reading only novels. ( Gerund)

2) At present he is reading”‘The Power and the Glory”. ( Progressive
Participle)
3) Cycling in the evening can be great fun. ( Gerund)
4) They are interested in helping the poor. (Gerund)
5) He was reading Charles Dickens yesterday. (Progressive
Participle)
6) He has been reading novels for the past ten years. (Progressive
Participle)
7) Instead of reading novels, John went to see a Foot ball match. (Gerund)
8) Do you like reading Charles Dickens ? (Gerund)
9) He hates reading essays. (Gerund)
10) Her hobby is reading Poetry. (Gerund )

4) Choose the correct form (infinitive with or without to or gerund) from the
choices given.

1. Recently, a charge for in the Moon City was introduced.

2. The objective was the number of vehicles in the Tourist City.

3. Tourists and the residents now have the choice between the charge and

not in the City.

4. The charge has proved to be useful in away traffic from the crowded
city.
5. As the traffic has been reduced by about 40 percent, travelling time in the City tends

6. Surprisingly many residents say that it is okay them for

in the City.

7. They are happy the traffic more easily.

8. Before the charge, there was always a dense smoke in the streets.

9. Now, people who decide the charge can with more ease.

10. Also the Public Transport has seen passenger numbers by 30 percent.
Answers
1. Recently, a charge for driving in the Moon City was introduced.
2. The objective was to reduce the number of vehicles in the Tourist City.
3. Tourists and the residents now have the choice between paying the charge and not
driving in the City.
4. The charge has proved to be useful in turning away traffic from the crowded city.
5. As the traffic has been reduced by about 40 percent, travelling time in the City tends
to decrease.
6. Surprisingly many residents say that it is okay to charge them for driving in the City.
7. They are happy to find the traffic flow more easily.
8 Before introducing the charge, there was always a dense smoke in the roads.
9 Now, people who decide to pay the charge can travel with more ease.
10. Also the Public Transport has seen passenger numbers rise by 30 percent.

Auxiliary Verbs

5) Write whether the Auxiliary verb in bold letters is functioning as main or

auxiliary verb?
1. I am hungry and so angry. --
M.V.
2. He will help you to write the assignment. __
A.V.
3. We do not know he will address the meeting. __
A.V.
4. My friend Arun does a lot of social work. __
M.V.
5. How much is this pen? --
M.V.
6. I am reading an interesting novel at the moment. __
A.V.
7. Will you find a job for him? --
A.V.
8. He has never been to Delhi. __
A.V.
9. Does he speak Sanskrit? --
A.V.
10. They have two dogs to guard their house. __
M.V.

6) Complete the following sentences with the correct auxiliary verb.

1. What _______ you done so far in your new project?
(have)
2. I _____ not like this movie.
(do)
3. _______he know that you can help him?
(does)
4. The match______already started.
(has)
5. _____you know Tamil is a classical language?
(do)
6. I think John _______ eaten all the fruits.
(has)
7. It _______ not matter who committed the mistake
(does).
8. They________ not want to play Cricket.
(do)
9. We_______ not seen him for a long time.
(have)
10. My uncle ______ sent me some rare coins.
(has)

7) Fill in the blanks with appropriate forms of be, have and do.

1. I will go on a tour after I ——————– finished my new assignment.

a) has
b) have

c) had

2.Jose ——————– reading a novel when I entered his room.

a) was
b) is
c) has

3. The ailing old man ——————- died before his son came.

a) has
b) did
c) had

4. —————— you ever been to Kanyakumari?

a) were
b) have
c) had

5. He ——————— not understand the speech delivered in Sanskrit.

a) did
b) does
c) has

6. They ——————— say that they will stick to their decision.

a) does
b) do
c) did

7. I will inform you when we ——————– ready for the meeting.

a) are
b) were
c) has

8. Tamilan asked me whether I ——————- done the job.

a) am
b) was
c) have

9. —————— you know why we are not doing well in Sports?

a) have
b) do
c) does

10. I ——————– admit that I should have helped him.

a) do
b) have
c) was

11. I always pray God before I ——————- breakfast.

a) have
b) has
c) had

12. Anjel —————- a social worker before the present assignment of a University
teacher.

a) did
b)was
c) has

13. After he ——————- finished school, he joined his father’s business.

a) had
b) has
c) did

14. We —————- to attend an important meeting this evening.

a) was
b) are
c) have

15. We want you to ——————– an intelligent batsman.

a) be
b) is
c) was

Answers

1. b) have
2. a) was
3. c) had
4. b) have
5.a) did
6. b) do
7. a)are
8.c) have
9. b) do
10. a) do
11. a) have
12. b) was
13. a) had
14. b) are
15. a) be

8) Fill in the blanks with the right Modal verbs

1) If you return from office early, we _____ go to the exhibition. can

2 ) _____ there be life on other planets? can
3) It_____ rain sufficiently this season. may
4) You _______ be a politician, but that doesn't make you an exception. may
5) If you play well in this match, you ______ be retained in the team. will
6) _______ we ever meet a man like him? shall
7) You ______be paid well for this risky job. will
8) The educated _______ help the poor. should
9) He hasn't telephoned - he _______ be busy. might
10) They ________ still come, though it is very late. might
11) It's so hot - it ______ be the middle of our summer. could
12) I _______ call on you tomorrow if you like. could
13) I _______ think the jerkin is costly. should
14) I'm sorry you ______ think bad of him.. should
15) Jose ________ have finished the job by now. Ought to

Fill in the blanks with suitable words. Grammar in context.

Each blank carries only one word.

Trichy: Most people would shudder at the thought of giving up a job in a five-star hotel in
a metro and heading off to the remote interiors to make a living out of agriculture. But
that’s exactly what Karthikumar from Namakkal did.

The 26-year-old, who ____ 1 a course in hotel management and went on to become a
_____ 2 at one of Chennai’s best known _____ 3, turned his back on a promising career
in hospitality on the suggestion of a family elder. Karthikumar _____ 4 advised to drop
his plans to go abroad and look at farming instead.

Soon, the former chef _____ 5 to his ancestral land at Mohanur and took to banana
cultivation. All he _____ 6 was a four-acre farm and a maternal uncle’s words of
encouragement. Now, Karthikumar runs a Rs 25-lakh-per-annum business _____ 7
banana based products.

Karthikumar told our reporter that the credit for the growth of his enterprise _____8
have to go to Trichy-based National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) that has
popularised a number of technologies to improve banana productivity.

The positive change from being a farmer to a food processing entrepreneur came about
when Karthikumar _____ 9 that bananas from every state, including Tamil Nadu, were
being packed off to Kerala to be _____ 10 as chips.

The Result: He _____ 11 focusing on manufacturing banana based products, rather than
merely cultivating the fruit. Armed with a Food Products order, a mandatory license for
manufacture of fruit and vegetable products, Karthi began _____ 12 what he calls
“Banana flower pickle” and “Banana stem pickle” out of his own produce.

“Good quality _____ 13 with good blend of sugar acid ratio are suitable for preparation of
many value added products,” he says.
Karthikumar now _____ 14 to expand his Rs 25-lakh per annum business by
manufacturing banana wine, chips, powder, juice, jam, sauce, flower, thokku, candy and
health drink, all _____ 15 his farm grown banana as raw material.

For many banana farmers like him, what works in their favour is the research under-taken
by NRCB to develop hardy and succulent varieties of bananas. One of NRCB’s
successes, Udhayam, for instance, is a high yielder with 40-50% more yield than the
locally known Karpuravalli, and has more tolerance to nematodes and leaf spot diseases.

Karthikumar was one of seven _____ 16 who were awarded the Best Banana-based
Entrepreneur awards on Sunday by the NRCB, an autonomous body _____ 17 under the
Indian Council for Agricultural Research in the ministry of agriculture.

R. Balachandran Nair from Pallichall in Kerala was another _____ 18 who was given the
award. Nair deals in most value-added banana products, including dehydrated banana
chips and banana wine.

Answers for the blanks

1. did
2. chef
3. hotels
4. was
5. returned
6. had
7. manufacturing
8. would
9. realized
10. processed
11. began
12. making
13. fruits
14. plans
15. using
16. people
17. working
18. entrepreneur
 Lecture No.4
Tenses. Practical Schedule
Part - A

Exercise on Simple Past Tense

Form Sentences in Simple Past Tense from the words and phrases given below.

1. he / a bicycle / want
2. she / a poem / recite
3. she / to the office / rush
4. they / a good race / run
5. he / all his clothes / wash / this morning
6. John / a lot of money / spend / on his car
7. Anand / a new over / bowl
8. the secretary / the bills / prepare
9. the man / his position / explain / convincingly.
10. the farmer / the harvest / reap
Answers
1. He wanted a bicycle.
2. She recited a poem.
3. She rushed to the office.
4. They ran a good race.
5. He washed all his clothes this morning.
6. John spent a lot of money on his car.
7. Anand bowled a new over.
8. The secretary prepared the bills.
9. The man explained his position convincingly.
10. The farmer reaped the harvest
 Past Continuous Tense
Fill in the blanks with Past Continuous form of the verb

1. I ____________ a cricket match when he called. (watch)

2. When the phone rang, he ___________ a letter.(read)
3. While we _________ to a movie, it started to rain.(go)
4. What ______ you _______ when others were working on the assignment?(do)
5. I ___________ to music, when the door bell rang. (listen)
6. You ___________Chess When I asked you to rush to the office.(play)
7. While he ____________ news paper in the railway station last night, someone stole
his bag.(read)
8. Jose_________ for us when we got off the train.(wait)
9. While I ____________ an email, he was proof reading an essay.(write)
10. The members of the Club____________ the problem seriously, When I went
there.(discuss)
Answers
1. was watching 2. was reading 3. were going 4. were doing 5. was listening 6. were
playing 7.was reading 8.was waiting 9. was writing10.were discussing
Past Perfect Tense.

Fill in the blanks with Past Perfect form of the verb

1. They worked the whole day, because they ____________ a lot of corrections in
their project.(receive)

2. Velan _________ hope, and at last he got a job. ( not lose)

3. We__________ him even before he became a politician.(know)

4. They were in shock because they ____________that it would happen.(not think)

5.He___________ at all but he delivered the lecture well. (not prepare)

6. She__________ Greek before she moved to Greece. (study)

7. He did not have any money because he _______ his Cash card at home. (leave)

8. He _________ his business even before he completed his Post

Graduation.(establish)

9. Asha _________an iron box, but she received a rice cooker as a gift.(want)
10. She __________ in Coimbatore for twenty years before she moved to
Bangalore.(live)

Answers

1. had received 2.had not lost 3.had known 4.had not thought 5 had not prepared
6. had studied 7.had left 8. had established 9. had wanted 10. had lived

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Fill in the blanks with Past Perfect Continuous Tense form of the verb.
1. They _________educational reformation for three years, when the government
asked them to submit the report.(discuss)
2. She ___________ at that company for five years, when she got a job in Public
Sector.
(work)
3. Jose _______________ at the university for three years, when he decided to go to
the
U.S. for his Post Doctoral. (teach)
4. They___________ here for over three hours, when their leader took some other
route. (wait)
5. They ____________ the key issues to the people for five years before they floated
their political party.(address)
6. They______________ at this industry for three years when it was closed. (work)
7.How long ______ you ________ for this train? (wait)
8. John wanted to sit down because he ______________ all day in the ground.(stand).
9. James ___________ for our team for five years before he left for the U.S.(play)
10. Edward ______________ this book for two years when he decided to make it
more elaborate.(write)
Answers
1.had been discussing 2. had been working 3. had been teaching 4. had been
waiting 5.had been addressing 6. had been working 7. had been waiting 8.had been
standing 9.had been playing 10. had been writing

Part - B
1. Write the forms of ‘to write’ in its twelve Tenses, and present it in a Table.
2. Explain briefly the use of twelve Tenses as you have understood from the diagram.

3. Explain in detail with examples the use of four Tenses of the Past.

Lecture No.5

Present and Future Tenses

Part - A

Exercise on Simple Present Tense.

Form sentences in Simple Present, from the words and phrases given below.

1. Mary / her grandma / visit / every weekend.

2. they / in the jungle / walk

3. he / an Indian / be

4. he / races / run / frequently

5. they / their leader / follow

6. he / the proposal / accepts / hands down .

7. it / much / matter / to us.

8. Geetha / the lamp / light

9. he /on the assignment / work / hard /

10. she / the river / cross

Answers

1. Mary visits her grandma every weekend.

2. They walk in the jungle..

3.He is an Indian..

4.He runs races frequently.

5.They follow their leader.

6. He accepts the proposal hands down..

7.It matters much to us.

8.Geetha lights the lamp.

9. He works hard on the assignment

10.She crosses the river ..

Exercise on Present Continuous Tense

Form sentences in Present Continuous Tense with words and phrases given
below.

1. he / the questions / answer / excellently

2.they / a question / ask

3.my brother / in Madurai / live / now

4.we / her / evaluate / termpaper

5.the maths teacher / the students homework / check /

6.they / the curtains / change

7.Moses / his room / white wash

8.Arun / the art of writing an essay / explain.

9. she / Modern Grammar / teach / now

10.we / Carnatic music / listen / now

Answers

1 He is answering the questions excellently.

 2 They are asking a question.

3 My brother is living in Madurai now.

4 We are evaluating her termpaper.

5 The maths teacher is checking the students homework.

6 They are changing the curtains.

7 Moses is whitewashing his room.

8 Arun is explaining the art of writing an essay .

9 She is teaching Modern Grammar now .

10 We are listening to Carnatic music now .

Present Perfect Tense

Fill in the blanks with Present Perfect Tense form of the verb

1.I ________’Ben Her’ ten times.(see)

2.I think I ________this gentleman once before.(meet)

3.There ________many cyclones in Bay of Bengal.(be)

4.People _________to Antarctica many times.(travel)

5.Nobody ____________to Venus.(travel)

6. _____you _____’My Experiments with Truth’ yet?(read)

7.Nobody ____ever ______ that peak.(climb)

8.He __________ since the last time I met him. (grow)

9.The government ___________ more interested in Value education.(become)

10.My Sanskrit_____ really _________ since I moved to Delhi.(improve)

11.The enemy _________ that border city five times.(attack)

12.They_______ three tests in English so far this semester.(have)

13.They _________ a good experience while working in that country.(have)

14.He _______ to several specialists about his research area, and some have given
good suggestions. (talk)

15.Many tourists ________ this historical city.(visit)

Answers

1.have seen 2. have met 3. have been 4. have traveled 5. have not traveled

6. Have read 7. has climbed 8. have grown 9.has become 10. has improved

11. has attacked 12. have had 13. have had 14. has talked 15. have visited

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Fill in the blanks with the right form of the verb

1. She _________ for two years.(write)

2. She___________ in Chennai since 2005 (live)

3. They ____________ about water pollution all day.(talk)

4. They ______________ Sanskrit since their childhood.(study)

5. I______________ ‘War and Peace ‘ for the last three months.(read)

6. He _______on this is problem for some weeks now.(work)

7. The children __________ for several hours now and need to be called to do
homework.(play)

8. They ______ books on Astrology for years, and so are very knowledgeable about it
now. (read)

9. This old lady _________this canteen for some years now. (run)

10. He _________ a change of job since 2005. (request)

Answers
1. has been writing 2. has been living 3. have been talking 4. have been studying
5. have been reading 6. has been working 7. have been playing 8. have been reading
9. has been running 10. has been requesting

Exercises on Simple Future Tense

Fill in the blanks with Simple Future Tense form

1_______you _______in time for the meeting?

2. The enquiry committee ________the same question again.
3. Michael ________a bike when he is twenty.
4. I am sure it_________ today.
5. Karthik _________any more sweets.
6. We __________our car. We like it very much.
7. We_________ Taj Mahal, when we go to Delhi.
8. I_________ some more sugar for coffee.
9. We_________ the car in the parking area.
10. I hope James________ him to do the job.

( ask, be, rain, get, guide, not sell, not eat, buy, visit, park)

Answers

1. will be 2.will ask 3.will buy 4.will rain 5. will not eat 6. will not sell

7.will visit 8.will get 9.will park 10.will guide

Future Continuous Tense

Fill the gaps with the Future Continuous Tense form of the verb given in
brackets

1. Hopefully tomorrow, we __________________ the labour problem all day. (to

discuss)

2. If I have understood my friend, he __________________ hard about how to make

more profit from our business. (to think)

3. This time tomorrow, I __________________ ‘Macbeth’ to students from Sri

Lanka. (to teach)
4. What _____ he _____________ in a year from now for his survival? (to do)

5. Moses’ idea on my project proved to be useful. I __________________ his advice

again. (to take)

6. At this rate Mohan __________________ German fluently in one year. (to speak)

7. Before long, he __________________ you for a change of job.(to ask)

8. If I know him, he __________________ to you every day about the job you got for

him .(to complain)

9. If we know our boss, he __________________ us to work longer hours even on

Saturdays. (to expect)

10. Tomorrow Anand __________________ to hear all the news about the labour
strike. (to want)

Answers

1.will be discussing 2. will be thinking 3. will be teaching 4. will be doing 5. will be

taking 6. will be speaking 7. will be asking 8. will be complaining 9. will be expecting
10. will be wanting

Future Perfect Tense

Fill in each blank with the Future Perfect Tense form of the verb given in
Present Continuous Tense.
e.g. I am reading a novel. --> By this time next week, I will have read the novel.
1. I am writing an essay on Oil Crisis.
By this time next week, I ______________ . an essay on Oil Crisis.
2. Montek is preparing a report on Tsunami attack.
By this time next month , Montek ______________a report on Tsunami attack.
3. Mohan is learning Greek.
By this time next year, Mohan ______________ Greek.
4. We are inviting all our friends to the party.
By this time tomorrow, we ________________ all our friends to the party.
5. We are shifting our office to the new building.
By this time tomorrow, we _________________ our office to the new building .
6. I am learning some new applications in computer.
By this time next month, I ______________ some new applications in computer.

7. My mother is making lunch .

By the time her relations arrive, my mother ______________ lunch.
8. Sam is editing the current issue of the magazine.
By the time the chief editor arrives , Sam ______________ the current issue of the
magazine.
9. My brother and I are white washing our house.
By this time tomorrow, my brother and I ______________ our house.
10. Joy is checking the new equipment.
By the time the Professor arrives, Joy _______________the new equipment.

Anawers

1.will have written 2.will have prepared 3.will have learned 4. will have invited 5
will have shifted 6. will have learned. 7will have made 8.will have edited 9. will
have whitewashed 10.will have checked

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Fill in the blanks with Future Perfect Continuous Tense form of the verb

1. How long ____ you_______________ (live) in Madurai when you join the Post
Graduate Institute there?
2. I ____________________( teach) at this university for five years by the time I
publish my new book.
3. By this time next year, Akash ____________________(work) in that company for
five years.
4. When you take up the new job , ______ you ________________ in Bangalore for
fifteen years?
5. Joe __________________ to find a job for two years by April.
6. By the end of this year, I ____________________ (study) Sanskrit for 2 years.
7. He _________________( play) Tennis for fifteen years when he registers him as a
coach.
8. By his fortieth birthday, Suresh _________________ (teach) for 15 years.
9. Anand_______________(stydy) here for two years by the end of April.
10. This time next year, I _______________(work) on T.S.Eliot for three years.
Answers

1. will have been living 2. will have been teaching 3. will have been working 4.
will have been living 5. will have been trying 6. will have been studying 7.
will have been playing 8. will have been teaching 9. will have been studying
10. will have been working
Part – B

1. Explain with examples the use of Present Tense

2. Explain with examples the use of Future Tense

Lecture No. 6

Active and Passive Voice.

Part – A

1. Identify the verbs in the following sentences and state whether they are in
the

Active Voice or the Passive Voice.

1. The lion chased the deer.

2. The student is learning Grammar.

3. This palace was built by a Pandia king.

4. Aloke has been waiting for three hours.

5. My friend will make more buiscuits tomorrow.

6. The madman was bitten by the mad dog.

7. The house breaker will be caught soon

8. The thieves have been punished severely.

9. Firing of crackers frightened the dogs.

10. The dog is frightening the visitor.

11. More policemen will be posted in sensitive points.

12. The boys will have completed their work next week this time.

13. Arun will be presenting his paper tomorrow this time.

14. The boys playing Cricket have broken the window again.

15. They have been constructing this stadium for three years.

Answers

1. verb – chased (simple past); voice – active

2. verb – is learning (present continuous); voice – active

3. verb – was built (simple past); voice – passive

4. verb – has been waiting (present perfect continuous); voice – active

5. verb – will make (simple future); voice – active

6. verb – was bitten (simple past); voice – passive

7. verb – will be caught (simple future); voice – passive

8. verb – have been punished (present perfect); voice – passive

9. verb – frightened (simple past); voice – active

10. verb –is frightening (present continuous); voice – active

11. verb – will be posted (simple future); voice – passive

12. verb – will have completed ( future perfect ); voice – active

13. verb – will be presenting (future continuous); voice – active

14. verb – have broken (present perfect); voice – active

15. verb – have been constructing ( present perfect continuous); voice – active

2. Rewrite the Sentences in Passive Voice.

1. They print the documents

2. They sing devotional songs.

3. My father is washing his clothes.

4. Are the professors talking about the conference?

5. They have read ‘the Geetha.’

6. He built this house in 1980.

7 The children played the game excellently.

8. The mechanic was repairing our bike.

9. They had recognized his presence.

10. I had been reading a novel.

11. We will organise a meeting on Irrigation methods.

12. We will record these songs of Bharathiar.

13. We will be singing Choir songs this evening.

14. We will have solved the crisis this evening.

15. We have been reading the epic for three months.

Answers
1. The documents are printed.

2. Devotional songs are sung.

3. My father’s clothes are being washed by him.

4. Is the conference being talked about by the professors?

5. ‘The Geetha’ has been read by them.

6. This house was built by him in1980.

7.The game was played by the children excellently.

8. Our bike was being repaired by the mechanic.

9. His presence had been recognized by them.

10. A novel had been being read by me.

11. A meeting on Irrigation methods will be organized by us.

12. These songs of Bharathiar will be recorded.

13.Choir songs will be being sung by us this evening.

14. The crisis will have been solved by us this evening.

15.The epic has been being read by us for three months.

PART-B

Grammar in context.

Do’s and Don’ts of applying pesticides (Capital letter)

1. Fill in the blank with a suitable word from the list of words given below.

2. Convert the sentences in to a passive voice.

1. When you buy a bottle of pesticide check up for the correctness of the chemical
supplied from the label on the bottle of the pesticide. The label may indicate the
information on the composition of the ________ 1 and the correct method of
application for effective ______ 2.

2. On returning home, keep the bottle in a ______3 place. As the pesticides are
harmful, you should not leave them within the easy reach of the ________ 4. It is
necessary you keep the chemical in an almirah under lock and key.

3. For preparing the ______ 5 for application study carefully the label on the bottle or
the departmental recommendation, and note down how much of the chemical should
be mixed with how much of water, in what order and under what ________ 6.

4. While handling the pesticides put on the gloves; _____7 out the exact quantity of
the chemical from the bottle without spilling. Prepare the mixture very carefully
_according to the procedure. Keep the mixture in a _______ 8 place.

5. Before starting the spraying, put on your _______ 9 so that the spray does not stain
your clothes. Have fine_______________10 rolled around your nose and mouth in
order to prevent any spray particles from getting into your lungs.
6. While spraying, don’t stand _____ 11 the direction of the wind. If it is ______ 12
keep the nozzle low or, direct the nozzle ______ 13 that the wind does not carry the
spray to your face or elsewhere from the plants.

7. You _______ 14 use any kind of sprayer. But you should rememeber______15
while spraying; the chemicals spread __________16 on the plants, and do not reach
your face. If it is windy, or threatening to rain do not ______ 17 spraying operation at
all.

8. When the spraying is _______18, wash all the vessels thoroughly and make sure
that the mixture is not left behind in the _____19 or the vessel. Keep the leftover, if
any, ______20 lock and key.

9. Wash the apron and other materials and leave them to dry. It is necessary that in
your own interest, you take utmost care in handling pesticides.

Answers to the blanks.

1. chemicals 2.remedy 3. safe 4.children 5. mixture 6.conditions 7.Measure 8.safe 9.

gloves 10 muslin 11. against 12.windy 13.so 14.may/can 15.that 16.evenly
17.undertake18.oveer /completed 19.sprayer 20.under
 Lecture No. 7
Exercises in formal and informal Letter – Writing.

I. Exercises in formal and informal Letter – Writing.

1. Write a letter to the railways, inquiring about a parcel lost in transit?
2. Write a letter to a distinguished author, asking him to give a talk to the literary
association of which you are secretary.
3. Write a letter to the editor of a local newspaper complaining about
insufficiency of some public services like transport, milk supply, etc.
4. Write a note of regret in answer to an invitation
5. Write a letter to a friend in another country, inviting him or her to visit you,
and giving guidelines for the journey.
 Lecture No. 8
Report Writing – Principles and Exercises

I. Report Writing – Principles and Exercises.

1. Write a report to the newspaper of a social injustice that happened in your
area.
2. Write a report to the commissioner of negative activity of students in your
college
3. Write a scientific report of a product that is prevailing in the market which
causes harm to the society.
4. Write a report to The Mayor about the holes and pitfalls in the roads of your
locality after heavy downpour on laying drainage pipes.
 Lecture No. 9
Introduction to Theory of English Pronunciation

I. Fill in the following blanks with appropriate words

1. Phonetics is a discipline that analyses the production of all human ___________
regardless of language.
2. Phonology studies the sounds and their patterns of a ___________
3. Phonological aspects are important to study the _________medium of English.
4. The other name for teeth ridge is __________ridge.
5. The upper front teeth are important to produce consonants represented by
_______in
words like ‘this’ &’that’.
6. The _______is the most important speech organ when we consider the role it plays
in
speech production.
7. The lips take up _______________to produce vowels and consonants.
8. Without the lower front teeth, consonants like ____________cannot be rightly
produced.
9. The _______palate can be raised or lowered.
10. The __________palate is divided again into two sections.
Answers
1. speech sounds,
2. particular language
3. spoken
4 alveolar
5. th
6. tongue
7. different positions
8. /s / and / z /
9 .soft
10. hard
II. Attempt the following in 250 words
1. Explain with a diagram Speech Organs in English.
Lecture No. 10
Study of Consonants in English

I Fill in the blanks of the following.

1. The 24 consonants are classified according to _______________of articulation
in the system of Speech Organs.
2. When a voiced consonant is articulated, the vocal cards ____________
3. When a voiceless consonant is articulated, the vocal cards do not ________
4. As /p/ and /b/ are produced using both lips, they are called __________consonants.
5. In the production of / f / and / v / the bottom lip and top teeth are involved. So they
are
_________________consonants.
6. As the tongue touches the upper teeth ridge to produce /t/ and /n/, they
are__________
consonants.
7. To produce consonants /θ / and / ð / the tip of the tongue passes through upper and
lower front teeth. So they are called _________consonants.
8. To produce /p/ and /t/, the air from the lungs is completely blocked and suddenly
 released. So they are called __________
9. When / f / and /s/ are produced, the air passes through a thin passage causing an
audible friction. So they are ______________
10. When /w/ and /r/ are produced, there is a quick smooth and non friction glide. So
they are called __________consonants.
Answers
1. the manner and the point
2. vibrate.
3 vibrate
4 Bilabial
5 Labiodental
6 Alveolar
7 Interdental
8 Plosives.
9 Fricatives.
10 Gliding
ii. Answer the following questions in detail.

1. Explain 24 English consonants according to the manner of their

articulation. By the tabular diagram.
2. Explain the consonants according to the place of their articulation. By
a tabular
diagram.

The following words are in phonetic transcription. Identify the word and write
the answers in alphabetical form.

1. ðæt 2. ˈdɪfɪkəlt 3. ju: 4. wɪtʃ 5. ðeəʳ 6. əˈbaʊt 7. ˈfoʊtoʊ 8. ʃʊd 9. ˈpi:pəl 10.
ˈɔ:lsoʊ 11. bɪˈtwi:n 12. ˈmeni 13. ˈθɪkəʳ 14. tʃaɪld 15. hɪəʳ 16. ˈsɪstəm 17. 18. gru:p
19. ˈnʌmbəʳ
20. ˈɔ:lweɪz 21. nekst 22. kwɪk 23. ˈnɜ:ʳvəs 24. ˈloʊkəl 25. ˈdjʊərɪŋ 26. ɔ:lˈðoʊ 27.
hu: 28. ɪgˈzæmpəl 29. ˈræðəʳ 30. ˈsoʊʃəl 31. raɪt 32. pəʳ ˈsent 33. gest 34. boʊθ 35.
ˈevri
36. mʌnθ 37. ɪmˈpɔ:ʳtənt 38. hed 39. ɪnfəʳ ˈmeɪʃən 40. ˈkwestʃən 41. ˈbɪznɪs 42.
ˈpaʊəʳ 43. tʃeɪndʒ 44. mu:v 45. bʊk 46. dɪˈveləpmənt 47. jʌŋ 48. ˈnæʃənəl 49.
ˈwɔ:təʳ 50. Jet 51. pəʳ ˈhæps 52. ʌnˈtɪl 53. kənˈtroʊl 54. ɪnˈklu:d 55. bɪˈli:v 56. əˈlaʊ
57. ˈpɜ:ʳsən 58. stænd 59. wʌns 60. aɪˈdi:ə

1. That 2. Difficult 3. you 4. which 5. their 6. about 7. photo 8. should 9. people

10. also 11. between 12. many 13. thicker 14. child 15. hear 16. system 17. group 18.
19. number 20. always 21. next 22. quick 23. nervous 24. local 25. during
26. Although 27. who 28. example 29. rather 30. social 31. Write 32. percent
33. guest 34. both 35. every 36. month 37. important 38. head 39. information
40. question 41. business 42. power 43. change 44. move 45. book
46. development 47. young 48. national 49. water 50. Yet 51. perhaps 52. until
53. control 54. Include 55. believe 56. allow 57. Person 58. stand 59. Once 60. idea

Lecture No. 11
Study of Twenty Vowels in English

I. Match the following

1. Pure vowels Combination of two pure vowels
2. Production of a vowel creates Friction between speech organs
3. /i/is found in Balance, patch
4. / æ / is found in Nifty, mirth
5. Diphthong Point, soil
6. Production of a consonant creates Home, post
7. ∂ / is found in
/∂ Cot, pot
8 /‫ כ‬i / is found in Different mouth shapes they take
9 /∂U / is found in Army, alter
10 Vowels differ by Alert ,another
Clean, sweep
Twelve in number
No friction between speech organs
Different descriptions
 Laughter,sow

Answers
1 Twelve in number
2 No friction between speech organs
3 Clean, sweep
4 Balance, patch
5 Combination of two pure vowels
6 Friction between speech organs
7 Alert ,another
8 Point, soil
9 Home, post
10 Different mouth shapes they take

II. Explain in detail the articulation of twenty vowels in English

Lecture No. 12
What is a Syllable?
I. Choose appropriate answer from the choices given.

1. Any word in English will have minimum -----------------

a. Two consonants one vowel b. One consonant and two vowels

c. One consonant and one vowel d. Two consonants and two vowels

Ans: c. one consonant and one vowel

2. When we pronounce a word, sounds group together that can be uttered in ----------
breath force.

a. Two b. one c. three d. one and half

Ans: b. one

3.A group of sounds that can be uttered in a -------------- breath force is called a
syllable.

a. double b. triple c. quadruple d. single

Ans: d. single
4.’Polysyllabic word’ will have --------------------------

a.four syllables b. seven syllables c. three syllables d. morethan one

syllable.

Ans: d. more than one syllable.

5.In ‘order’ the first syllable has got -------------------

a. one sound b. two sounds c. three sounds d. four sounds

Ans: a. one sound

6.It is on a syllable --------------- is applied and pitch movement begins.

a. tone b. stress c. intonation d. modulation

Ans: b. stress

7. In a dictionary the syllabic division is shown by a

a. curve b. bracket c. hyphen d. colon

Ans: c. hyphen
8.’artificial’ has ------------- syllables

a. two b. three c. four d. five

Ans: b. three

9.’interpolate’ has ------------ syllables

a. two b. three c. four d. five

Ans: c. four

10. ‘Intercommunion’ has ------------- syllables

a. three b. four c. five d. six

Ans: c. five

II. Explain with examples the Concept of Syllable in English

 Lecture No. 13
The Principle and Importance of Stress in English
I. Choose appropriate answer from the choices given

1. ‘The reinforced puff’ can produce a ----------------- syllable.

a. strong b. stressed c. high d. different

Ans: b. stressed

2. Stress is the emphasis laid on a particular --------------- of a word

a. unit b. segment c. syllable d. part

Ans: c. syllable

3. Words made up of more than one syllable are called ------------ words

a. multi syllabic b. many syllabic c. camo syllabic d. poly syllabic

Ans: d. poly syllabic

4.In English the number of words with stress on ----------- syllable is comparatively
bigger.
a. first b. second c. third d. fourth

Ans: a. first

5. -------------------------- means change of position of stress with in a word when its

class differs

a. stress realignment b. stress change c. stress alteration d. stress

shift

Ans: d. stress shift

6.While the stress shifts, the -------------- too changes.

a. spelling b. introduction c. pronunciation d. modulation

Ans: c. pronunciation

7. Any change in stress will result in the change of --------------- even when the
spelling remains
the same.
a. pronunciation b. lexis c. syntax d.pitch

Ans : a. pronunciation
8. -------------- means stressing a syllable in a word which normally does not receive
any stress

a. Overstress b. Hyperstress c. Misplaced stress d. Parastress

Ans: c. Misplaced stress

9. In a sentence, the word that is most important for meaning receives ----------- stress.

a. primary b. tertiary c. exemplary d. summary

Ans: a. primary

10. -------------- is not uniformly given to all the words in a sentence

a. Normal puff b. Additional puff c. Reinforced puff d. Casual puff

Ans: c. Reinforced puff

11. Primary stress is also called primary ------------

a. pitch b. application c. node d. accent

Ans: d. accent
12. Applying primary stress on more than one syllable is called -------------

a. overstress b. double stress c. extra stress d. undue stress

Ans: a. overstress

II. Explain the following in 200 words each.

1. The Concept of Stress in English

2. Stress Shift and Primary & Secondary Stress.

Lecture No. 14
Silent Letters in English: a Study

I. Say whether the following are True of False

1. Silent letters are absent even in the words written.

Ans: False

2. Silent letters do not correspond to any sound in the word spoken.

Ans: True

3.’K’ is silent in ‘Knit’ and ‘Knight’

Ans: True

4.’gh’ is silent in ‘although’ and ‘right’.

Ans: True

5.’h’ is silent in ‘hallow’ and ‘humble’.

Ans: False

6. Phonetic transcription can help us to identify the silent letters.

Ans: True

7. Spelling also can help us to identify the silent letters.

Ans: False
8. English spelling has a high number of silent letters.
Ans: True

9. Silet letters appear in English words as per certain rigid rules.

Ans: False

10. ‘T’ is silent in ‘gourmet’ and ‘rapport’.

Ans: True

II. Write an essay in 200 words on ‘Silent Letters in English’

Lecture No. 15
Intonation

I. Match the following

1. Variation in pitch fall The end of a tone group

2. Change in intonations Falling tone
3. Number of breaths Rising tone
4. A full stop or comma indicates Sentences with implied meaning
5. Falling tone Question Tags
6. Casual interrogative questions Change in meaning
7. Yes – No questions Statements without implications
8. Rising tone Serious interrogative questions
9. Falling Rising tone Number of tone groups
10. Choice of tone Extended sentences
Emotional outbursts
For the meaning of the sentence
Changes the meaning

Answers
1 intonation
2 Change in meaning
3 Number of tone groups
4 The end of a tone group
5 Statements without
 implications
6 Falling tone
7 Rising tone
8 Serious interrogative questions
9 Sentences with implied
meaning
10 For the meaning of the
sentence

II. Attempt the following in 200 words each

1. The Concept and Importance of Intonation.

2. Uses of Falling Tone, Rising Tone and Falling – Rising Tone.

Lecture No. 16

Practice in short conversation and dialogue

 Lecture No. 17

Final Practical Examination

www.anilrana13014.webbly.com