Courtyard as Tropical Hot Humid Passive Design Strategy: Case

Study of Indonesian Contemporary Boarding Houses in

Surabaya Indonesia
Agung Murti Nugroho1, Andika Citraningrum2, Wasiska Iyati3, Mohd Hamdan
Ahmad4
1,2,3
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Brawijaya Malang,
Indonesia
4
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
1
[email protected], [email protected]

Published: 31st August 2020

Courtyard in building contributes to the indoor thermal environment. Courtyard has a potential
aspect of being a micro climate-modifier to reduce indoor air temperature during the day. This
paper examines the courtyard’s effect on indoor thermal environment in Indonesian
contemporary boarding houses using field measurement. This paper focuses on the indoor air
temperature reduction of 5 courtyard houses design of the contemporary boarding house in
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. The field experiment method was used for two physical
environmental variables: air temperature and relative humidity. Each sensor was covered with a
paper cup wrapped with aluminum foil to protect from direct thermal radiation. Measurement
was carried out for 23 days consecutively in each building. The results of the measurement
exposed that the form and enclosure element is pivotal in its thermal environment design
consideration for tropical climate. Meanwhile, utilizing ventilation blocks as the primary
enclosure also helps reduce the air temperature in hot-humid climates. The results indicated that
during the daytime, the indoor air temperatures in the courtyard and surrounding room were 0.3-
1.7°C below the outdoor air temperature. At nighttime, indoor air temperatures swing to 0.8-
1.9°C above the outdoors. The thermal environment evaluation revealed that indoor air
temperatures can be categorized as a neutral temperature of the measurement period. Therefore,
the use of courtyards in contemporary boarding houses has proven as a feasible means to achieve
sufficient cooling effects through a full-day ventilation strategy and showed improved
performance when combined with ventilated blocks.

Keywords: Inner Courtyard, Temperature Reduction, Contemporary Boarding House

1. INTRODUCTION technique worldwide generally depends on the

climate condition and its local architectural
The energy crisis has become a serious problem development. The strategy to lower air
in the present and the future so that energy temperature levels in the hot-humid climate could
efficiency in all fields, especially buildings are be taken through building element utilization,
the main concern of research in the field of such as the use of the courtyard.
architecture [1] . The use of new renewable
energy in the urban environment continues to be Studies of courtyard over the past five years have
increased along with the escalating of population been dominated by research in hot-dry climates
growth and living standards. One of the most [4]–[16], followed by hot-humid climates [17]–
significant contributors to energy consumption [21], and in temperate climates [22]–[25].
per year is the housing sector, and it increases
sharply every year, so there is a growing The most discussed design elements of courtyard
awareness among architects to develop low studies in hot-dry regions in sequence are width,
energy design strategies [2]. This low-energy orientation, length, height, openings, shade, and
movement is focused on finding effective passive water element. Whereas in hot-humid climates,
strategies to reduce building energy discussion of courtyard elements tends to be
consumption, increase energy awareness for evenly distributed, including height, width,
users, and provide a comfortable environment. length, orientation, sky view factor, and roof
Noble [3] argued that the natural cooling shape. In temperate climates, the studies cover

1 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
fewer courtyard elements, including height, building. The square courtyard layout studied by
width, length, and greenery elements. In general, Tablada et al. [28] recommends the importance
the courtyard elements studied in each climate are of cross ventilation and solar radiation protection.
width, length, and height. However, the aspect Courtyard’s geometry is an essential aspect of
ratio of the three has not been much discussed. achieving a good natural ventilation and indoor
thermal comfort in a dense urban environment. It
Courtyard study in hot-dry regions generally use is ensured that cross-ventilated rooms have
visual methods [6]–[8], [13]–[16], followed the higher indoor air velocity values and hence better
simulation method [4], [5], [9], [11], and thermal comfort than one-sided ventilation. In a
measurements [10]. Studies in a hot-humid one-sided ventilated room, the sun protection
climate generally use measurement methods [18], factor plays a vital role in maintaining a stable
[21], and simulations [17], [19], [20]. In a indoor thermal condition even if it is higher than
temperate climate, most studies use the the air temperature at the outside. Muhaisen [29]
simulation method [22], [25], chart [4], and studied the effect of rectangular courtyard
visual method [4]. In general, the widely used proportions on shade conditions and the resulting
methods for courtyard research in all climates are exposure on an inner envelope of forms in Kuala
simulation, visuals, measurements, and charts. Lumpur. Courtyard with small and depth shapes
The combination of various methods has not been are better than large and wide shapes [29]. The
done much. optimal height of the courtyard is found on the
third floor in a hot humid climate.
The studies of courtyard performance in hot-dry
climate primarily concern about air temperature Meanwhile, Dili et al. [30] revealed the results of
[9], [12], [14], comfort index [4], [11], [14], air courtyard measurements in vernacular houses of
humidity [12], [14], wind speed [12], and energy Kerala, India. Low pressure at the bottom of the
[13]. In hot-humid climate, most performance courtyard causes the effect of floating ventilation
studies are concerning the air temperature [17], generated by air movement from the outer
[18], [20], [21], air humidity [18], [21], wind courtyard through space around the courtyard.
speed [20], [21], and comfort index [19]. Courtyard elements have a unique advantage in
Meanwhile, a study in the temperate climate is hot and humid climates as a passive natural
focused on air temperature, humidity, wind cooling system and provide thermal comfort for
speed, energy, and comfort index [4]. The widely users [31]. The result of adding a courtyard roof
discussed aspects of courtyard performance are was able to reduce received solar radiation and
air temperature, air humidity, comfort index, improve thermal environmental conditions in
wind speed, and energy. adjacent spaces.

Sharples and Bensalem [26] conducted a study The courtyard enclosure wall is an essential
with wind tunnels and proposed that a courtyard element in a microclimate condition, and it could
with a porous roof gave a stronger difference in be adjusted to get a positive impact [32]. The
ventilation pressure. Studies show that open research finds a different function of the
courtyard with many openings that operate under enclosure wall and its orientation to the thermal
negative pressure is the most effective in the performance. Vegetation impact to the courtyard
urban context. Rajapaksha et al. [27] examined performance carried out by Jamaludin et al. [33].
the courtyard’s potentials for a natural cooling The average of lower temperature with a relative
system in a one-story building located in higher humidity percentage was recorded in a
Colombo, Sri Lanka through field measurement room shaded with a big canopy of trees compared
studies and computer simulations. The results to a room that is exposed to open spaces. A
show that indoor thermal conditions can be significant correlation is evident between
increased through a courtyard which functions as courtyard’s sky view factors and air temperature,
an air chimney that emits hot air indoors through especially in the daily maximum air temperature
the air stream. This is different courtyard’s and its average value. Reducing the courtyard’s
principle as a wind catcher or suction zone, which sky view factor reduces its air temperature [34].
is receiving air from outside. Based on the results Kubota [34] shows that cool outdoor air
of field measurements, a strong relationship temperatures (about 27-29°C) most likely pass
between the indoor wall’s temperature and the through the building from opening ventilations
temperature inside the room is evident. including exterior walls and upper openings of
the courtyards. Meanwhile, a slightly better
Several studies show that the geometry of cooling effect at night achieved by the use of dull
courtyards affects the received amount of solar day ventilation of courtyard houses even though
radiation and the air temperature inside the the exterior windows were closed.

2 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
Zakaria et al. [35] stated that in the hot-humid Elements Criterions Performance
climates, the form and courtyard orientation were under the ambient level
less significant in its environmental design. Thus, [27].
the exposure rate of the sky or direct shading The presence of open
should be more or at least equally important windows in a narrow
determinant of the courtyard’s shading effects. courtyard produces more
than one vortex to
coincide with the
Ghaffarianhoseini [19] evaluated the ability of number of the floors.
the courtyard without shading to create a
comfortable outdoor space with various designs Larger Conversely, in more
courtyard extensive courtyard, the
and scenarios, such as orientation, height, albedo ratio (width to impact of an open
from wall coverings, and the application of Courtyard height) window to the air flow in
vegetation. Increasing the height of courtyard’s ratio generated the cavity is less
wall enclosure increases outdoor thermal comfort better flow noticeable. As a result,
for indoor. the primary vortex inside
by reducing intense solar radiation and creating a the courtyard is not
broader shaded area. Therefore, it could be affected [28]. The form
concluded that design element that affects of a building with
building courtyard as it is shown to the table medium depth at almost
any elongation value,
below: preferably for acceptable
performance [29]
Table 1: The Effect of Tropical Courtyard
Element to the Natural Building Cooling. The one-facing rooms
In providing a and single natural
ventilation have very
higher level
Elements Criterions Performance low indoor airspeeds.
of building
Enabling large pressure ventilation,
Courtyard In a one-sided ventilated
field on the roof by cross
mono-pitch room, the sun protection
shading the courtyard ventilation
roof, large Ventilation factor is an important
with a porous roof to has better
open space on Mechanism role in maintaining
create stronger
the roof’s performance
indoor conditions even at
ventilation pressure compared to
leeward, higher temperatures [28].
differentials. Roofs that the one-sided
equal to Continuous ventilation
are placed near ventilation
30,4% of helps to control the level
atmospheric pressure mechanism.
Courtyard façade area. of humidity in the
(positive experience)
roof poorly performed building [30].
Using
opening compared to roofs
negative Hot-humid: Optimal
suction exposed to negative
pressure when the wind shade happens when the
pressure on yard is posited at
the is perpendicular to the The axial of
building. Most of the northeast-southwest
courtyard’s the courtyard
courtyard roofs are spans to (estimated 65% shade
roof opening area) [29].
as a carried out with the same Orientation northeast-
ventilation standard at oblique wind southwest Lower air temperature
strategy. direction (45 °) [26] side.
than the outdoor in the
The direction of the north and south (2%
external wind flow of 45 lower) [32].
Better airflow ° through the building
coefficient is The optimal courtyard is
opening gives the air
found when found on the third floor
flow in the room higher
the courtyard in a hot humid climate
than the normal direction
has a negative [29].
(0 °) [26]
suction effect.
Highest Significant height effect
Reducing temperatures
Courtyard courtyard of the courtyard wall at
to 2° C under the
Daytime lowers the air air temperature [32].
maximum outdoors Height
ventilation Better indoor temperature.
compared to the Decreasing the height of
thermal
adjustment courtyard without courage increase the
when ventilation (0.7 ° C) average temperature of
during daytime radiation during the day
courtyard
functions as ventilation. [19]
an opened air The optimal ACH is
funnel. The shade is Air temperature is 1.5oC
between 1.5-2 ACH
adjacent to
when the thermal Shading lower compared to
Device the opening in maximum outdoor
modification is 1° C
the room (Synchronization with

3 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
 Elements Criterions Performance 2. METHOD
upper courtyard
temperature) [30]. Objects of the study are six boarding houses by
Reducing courtyard heat Andy Rahman Architect, which conducted using
The elevated gain during peak hours field measurement. Andy Rahman, the founder
courtyard (1:00 p.m.) around 85% and principal architect of Andy Rahman
Roof height with a height and increasing thermal
Architect, is an influential architect in the
of 500 mm conditions in adjacent
zones [31] architecture industry of Indonesia. His works
were published in both national and international
Lower indoor means media. In 2012, he was granted a world-level
adjacent room
temperature with
architecture award as a nominee in Architizer A
relatively higher + Awards. Furthermore, his Biophilic Boarding
humidity [33]. house was also nominated as a finalist in the
Tree canopy World Architecture Festival 2016 in Berlin and
Canopy of adjacent to Cover with the highest
trees the window. temperature levels and Archdaily’s Building of the Year 2017. The six
an average increase rate boarding houses are Andy Rahman’s works since
for relative humidity 2014 which are located in one nearly residential
compared to the area. One of its unique features is the use of
courtyard with the
vacant lot [19] ventilated block and courtyard as passive cooling
strategies.
Night
ventilation is The field measurement was taken place in
superior to The average temperature Keputih boarding houses that consist of two and
Night others, e.g., is always below 30 ° C
ventilation
three-storey boarding houses, located in
Full day, comparable to the others.
noon, and no Surabaya (7.17°S and 112.48°E) at the position
ventilation. of approximately 1.5 m above sea level. As
shown in Fig. 1, Keputih boarding houses consist
Proper design
consideration
of six boarding houses (Keputih boarding houses
s from sky 1,2,3,4,5, and 6) which located in the middle of
exposure can Increasing the the row with a narrow frontage (6m-12m) and a
offer the courtyard’s sky view long depth (15m-25m). The measurement was
The Sky
desired factor increase the air
exposure
shadow effect temperature [34].
conducted throughout 22nd March to 12th April
and allow 2019 for Keputih boarding house 1 and 28th May
ventilation to 20th June 2019 for Keputih boarding house
circulation 2,3,4,6. The monthly temperatures extend from
The 27.2°C (November) to 30.3°C (April), and
application of relative humidity ranges between 70–80%.
night
ventilation Night time ventilation
Night and sloping can ensure cold air is
roofs on the provided to indoor
ventilation
and courtyard can spaces, while a sloping
courtyard’s be the right roof can increase the
method to flow of cold air due to
sloped
roofs maintain the effect of cooling
lower indoor radiation at night [34].
conditions
compared to
outdoors.

Consideration
of the effect In hot humid climates, Figure 1: Location of case study boarding house
of shade by diffuse sun radiation
(source: Google Earth, retrieved on 26 June
controlling exposure affected heat
exposure to gain for courtyard space. 2019)
the sky or Therefore, building
Shading
roof of the orientation can be less The main features of Keputih boarding houses
courtyard is significant than direct are the use of ventilated blocks on its façade and
expected to exposure or direct
be more shading devices [35]
the availability of courtyard in Keputih boarding
appropriate. house 2, 3, and 6, as shown in figure 2. The use
of ventilated blocks shows that all the objects are
using full day ventilation. Fig. 3 shows the case
study’s floor plans. Floor-to-floor height in all
buildings is 3.7 m, with wall and floor materials

4 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
 are made of brick and concrete respectively. RC-
4HC Elitech data loggers are used to measure the
Keputih Boarding
air temperature and relative humidity. The House 1

measurement accuracy is ±0.5°C from -30–60°C

for air temperature and ±3% over 0–99% relative
humidity. Moreover, the sensors were shaded
with aluminum foil cups to protect from solar
radiation. The measurements were recorded
every hour over the 23 days. The position of
measurement was at 1.5 m above the floor level
and in the center on the courtyard (refer Fig. 3). Keputih Boarding
House 2
The boarding house that has three courtyards is
Keputih boarding house 2, 3, and 6. Hence, in
this case, more measurement devices were put in
the courtyard to know the vertical air
temperature. Fig. 3 and 4 show the position of
the devices.
Keputih Boarding
The comfort temperature or neutral temperature House 3
is estimated from the linear equation for
naturally ventilated building as mentioned in
Nugroho [36]: Tn = 17.8 + 0.31 x Tamt, where,
Tn = neutral temperature with +/- 2°K range and
Tamt = annual mean temperature of the month.
The overview of Indonesia’s comfort zone range
is obtained through comparative comfort zone
Keputih Boarding
using the above equation and the annual average House 4
temperature using the Indonesia’s climate data.
Conforming to Auliciems and Szokolay [37], the
range of the comfort zone is 5°C, which extends
+/- 2.5°C of the neutral temperature.

Table 2: The Parameters of Case Studies

Boarding House
Keputih Boarding
No Name of Orientation Size Number Built House 6

Building of floors
12x15 2 2014
Keputih
1 North-south
Boarding
House 1
8x15 2 2015 Exterior Interior
Keputih
2 North-south
Boarding
House 2 Figure 2: Front exterior and interior view of
12x20 2 2016 Keputih boarding house
Keputih
3 North-south
Boarding
House 3
6x25 3 2017
Keputih
4 West-east
Boarding
House 4
8x15 3 2018
Keputih
5 North-south
Boarding
House 6

5 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
 3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Evaluation of Surabaya Neutral

Temperature
Responsive building design strategies are
required in a tropical climate to achieve thermal
comfort by considering its daily conditions. The
monthly data of outdoor temperature is presented
in Figure 5. The highest outdoor temperature is
30°C in November, while the lowest is 26.5°C in
August, with the average temperature is around
28.2°C. According to Szokolay’s comfort
formula [37], the required neutral temperature to
be maintained is at 26.3ºC. Based on the range of
comfort zone, which is +/- 2.5º C of the neutral
temperature, the neutral temperature of 26.3ºC
has a comfort zone with 23.8ºC as the lower limit
and 28.8ºC as the upper limit. This neutral
temperature is applied under the condition of no
air movement. The high mean air velocity in
Surabaya (<1 m/s) can be used to expand the
Figure 3:Floor plan of case study Keputih comfort zone to 32.0°C.
boarding house

Figure 5: The Neutral temperature on the

Surabaya monthly data.

3.2 Indoor Air Temperature in Case Keputih

Boarding House 1, 3, 4 and 6
The temperature and humidity in the corridor
over the entire measurement period with the
corresponding outdoor air temperature conditions
are shown in figure 6. It shows that the outdoor
air temperature varies from 25.4-35.9ºC with an
average of 30.3ºC, while the relative humidity
extends between 50.3-82.4%. The indoor air
temperature in four boarding houses varies nearly
Figure 4: Section plan of Keputih in parallel. At daytime, the indoor air
boarding house temperatures are approximately 2.7-4.6ºC lower
than the corresponding outdoor air temperature,
while the temperatures at nighttime are slightly
higher than the outdoors by 0.2-1.1ºC.

Fig.6a shows there is no time lag in Keputih

boarding house 1 due to the existence of a roof as
a heat barrier, as usually seen in a traditional
building. On the other hand, the time lag is shown
in Keputih boarding house 3, 4, and 6, which use

6 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
the concrete roof. The highest time lag is 3 hours house, a slightly warmer air temperature of
in Keputih boarding house 6, with both Keputih 26.6°C-28.1°C was discovered.
boarding houses 3 and 4 have 2 hours lags. This
On the contrary, Fig.7.b shows that the outdoor
corresponds with research by Dili [30] and Sadafi
air temperatures were higher than the indoors at
et al. [31], which stated that the delay in
09:00, 12:00, 15:00, and 18:00. In contrast with
transmitting heat to the interiors through the roof
Keputih boarding house 3, in Keputih boarding
could result in a time lag.
house 6, the indoor and outdoor air temperature
was relatively the same at 21:00. This similarity
indicates that the time lag case in Keputih
boarding house 6 is longer than in Keputih
boarding house 3. The indoor air temperatures are
warmer at 00:00, 03:00, and 06:00. Fig.7 shows
that the air temperature in the courtyard followed
the same pattern with the outdoor temperature.
The reduction of air temperature in the courtyard
below the outdoor temperature level was
discovered in both cases, Keputih boarding
houses 3 and 6, due to their high-mass and full-
day ventilated buildings.

Figure 6: Temporal variations of indoor air

temperature (top) and relative humidity
(bottom) in the communal space (2nd floor)
at 1.5m above the floor

The results indicated that the air temperature in

the four boarding houses largely exceeds the
upper limits more than 50% of the measurement
period, especially during the daytime. It suggests
that the indoor neutral temperature cannot be
achieved in most of the daytime hours by solely
relying on thermal adaptation in a hot-humid
climate. Further consideration of wind velocity
effects is required. Of all four boarding houses,
only two boarding houses performed a better Figure 7: Average air temperatures in different space at 1.5
temperature reduction, Keputih boarding house 3 m above floor) over the period (00.00 h; 03.00 h; 09.00 h;
and house 6, which owned courtyards. 12.00 h; 15.00 h; 18.00 h, 21.00 h) in case Keputih Boarding
House 3 (top) and Keputih Boarding House 6 (bottom).
3.3 Courtyard Air Temperature in Case
Keputih Boarding House 3 and 6 3.4 Vertical Air Temperature in the Courtyards
for the Case Keputih Boarding House 3 & 6
Fig.7.a shows that the outdoor and indoor air
temperatures were nearly the same, around 28°C The vertical air temperature profile in the
at 18:00. During daytime (09.00 h; 12.00 h; 15.00 courtyard of Keputih boarding house 3 and 6 can
h), the air temperatures in the communal space be seen in fig. 8. The results show a different
and outdoor are higher than the courtyard. pattern of stratification during daytime and
Meanwhile, during nighttime (00.00 h; 03.00 h, nighttime in both cases. However, the highest
21.00 h), the air temperatures in the courtyard and daytime temperature of 31.5°C at the top level in
outdoors were lower than the communal space. In the courtyard increased along with the
the communal space of the Keputih boarding temperature of 28.9°C and 30.4°C in the first and

7 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
second courtyard, respectively, in case Keputih 3.5 Thermal Environments in the Courtyard,
Boarding House 6. Meanwhile, the highest Corridor and the Bedroom in Case Keputih
temperature at the top-level was lower than the Boarding House 2 and 6
highest outdoor air temperature of 35.5 °C. The
vertical temperature profile shows a heat gain The following discussion is the results of thermal
from the first courtyard is rising or retreating to environment field measurement on two different
the top. Furthermore, the air temperature study cases with different measured times,
reduction at the bottom and middle levels in the Keputih boarding house 2 from 21 March-21
courtyard are more significant in Keputih April 2019 and Keputih boarding house 6 from
boarding house 6 case, from 3°C to 4°C, than in 28 May-20 June 2019. The bedroom adjacent to
Keputih boarding house 3 case, from 5°C to 6°C. the courtyard is directly affecting the courtyard's
thermal environment. Therefore, this zone's
Thermal stratification is shown in both Keputih indoor air temperature is observed and compared
boarding house 3 and house 6 cases. The highest with the courtyard and outdoor air temperatures
temperature at the top level is higher compared to to understand the courtyard's effect on the indoor
the upper floor. In the Keputih boarding house 6 environment. As presented in Fig. 9, the indoor
case, the relatively lower air temperature levels air temperatures were lower than the courtyard
were recorded in the first-floor courtyard. The levels during the daytime in both Keputih
gradient of the air temperature above was also boarding house 2 and 6 cases. However, while the
observed during nighttime, except in the indoor air temperatures parallel with the
courtyard of Keputih boarding house 3 (Fig. 8). courtyard temperature, during the Keputih
The courtyard in Keputih boarding house 6 gives boarding house 2 case (except in the early
the effect of vertical air exchange, which results morning), the indoor air temperatures were
in air temperature being reduced adequately to relatively lower than the indicated levels in
the outdoor levels. These results indicate that the Keputih boarding house 6. It correlates with the
outdoor air that is relatively cool at night is most pattern of courtyard temperature compared to the
likely to enter the buildings from the upper outdoor temperature. The highest indoor air
openings of the courtyard, consisting of temperature in Keputih boarding house case 2
ventilated blocks and effectively cool the and 6 are 28.6°C at 19:00 and 28.8°C during
structure of the building at night. 14:00-16:00 h respectively.
The maximum air temperature of the courtyard
and the outdoor were recorded at the same time
by 12:00 h in Keputih boarding house 2 case with
a temperature of 31.6°C and 33.5°C respectively.
These temperatures show a slight temperature
reduction of 1.9°C. Meanwhile, for the Keputih
boarding house 6 case, the maximum air
temperature of the courtyard is decreased by
5.7°C below the maximum air temperature of
outdoor by 14:00h, 2 hours after the maximum air
temperature of outdoor was recorded.
Furthermore, this indicates a relatively more
significant reduction of air temperatures in the
Keputih boarding house 6 case corresponds with
the daytime indoor temperature induction.

Figure 8: Average vertical air temperature

in the courtyard over the period (00.00 h;
03.00 h; 09.00 h; 12.00 h; 15.00 h; 18.00 h,
21.00 h) ) in case Keputih Boarding House
3 (top) and Keputih Boarding House 6
(bottom).

8 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
 The air temperature of the courtyard with the
influence of openings on the roof shows a
difference in vertical air temperature
performance. The courtyard with a large
ventilated roof gives stack effect ventilation,
indicated by the temperature difference between
the lower and upper floors in Keputih boarding
house 2. Meanwhile, in Keputih boarding house
3, the temperature between the lower and upper
levels are relatively the same.

Figure 9: Temporal variations of indoor air

temperature in the bedroom and communal space
with the corresponding neutral temperature (at
1.5m above the floor) in case Keputih Boarding
House 2 (top) and Keputih Boarding House 6
(bottom).

3.6 The Impact of Roof Opening, Ventilation

Mode and Number of Floor for Air
Temperature Reduction
The influence of the floors' level on temperature
reduction is shown in fig. 10. Keputih boarding
house 6 with 3-storey height shows a higher
performance of temperature reduction on the
ground floor compared to the Keputih boarding
house 3 with 2-storey height. The maximum
temperature reduction of the first-floor courtyard
in Keputih boarding houses 6 and 3 is 7.3°C and
6°C, respectively.

The influence of the floors number and the

courtyard heights reinforces the results of
Muhaisen [29] study, which stated a courtyard
would perform efficiently with three-storey
height. This statement is also following the
research of Sadafi [31] and Almhafdy et al. [32],
which stated the addition of shaded roof for the
courtyard would reduce the solar heat gains.
Figure 11: Courdyard air temperature profile in
case Keputih boarding house 2 (top) and
Keputih boarding house 3 (bottom).

The influence of the roof openings in this study

follows the results study of Sharples and
Bensalem [26], which stated the courtyard roof
model with a porosity of 11,4% conflicted with
the generated negative pressure forces on the
leeward wall of the model. This phenomenon
occurred in the Keputih boarding house case 3,
which has a higher roof wall and a larger opening
ratio than the Keputih boarding house 2.
Figure 10: Air Temperature Reduction between
Outdoor Air Temperature with the center of
courtyard air temperatures in case Keputih
Boarding House 3 and 6.

9 Journal of Design and Built Environment, Vol 20(2): 1-12: August 2020 A. M. Nugroho et. al.
4. CONCLUSION parameters on its shading level An
experimental study in Baghdad, Iraq,” in
The results indicated that with the application of Energy Procedia, 2017, vol. 134, pp. 99–
courtyard, the indoor air temperatures were 109.
approximately lower than the outdoor air 6. F. Soflaei, M. Shokouhian, and S. M.
temperature by 4.9-7.3 °C during 12.00 h. The Mofidi Shemirani, “Investigation of
passive cooling effect in the courtyard was also Iranian traditional courtyard as passive
increased due to the ventilated block as full-day cooling strategy (a field study on BS
ventilation. During nighttime, indoor air climate),” Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ.,
temperatures were slightly higher than the vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 99–113, 2016.
outdoors by 0.8-1.3°C during 05:00 h. The
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