Laboratory values

TEST VALUE STUDIED

- Reference Ranges—Hematology
- Reference Ranges—Serum, Plasma, and Whole Blood Chemistries
- Reference Ranges—Immunodiagnostic Tests
- Reference Ranges—Urine Chemistry
- Reference Ranges—Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Miscellaneous Values

Acid-fast Bacillus Stain (AFB)

Negative for acid-fast organisms
 • Sputum stain for mycobacteria is a test to check for a type of bacteria that cause
tuberculosis and other kinds of infection. Sputum samples should be induced in
the early morning to obtain the best specimen.
• Sputum is best collected in the morning before the client eats or drinks. Sputum
should come from deep in the lungs and not be contaminated with excessive
amounts of saliva. Client should be instructed to rinse mouth out with water
before collection to decrease contamination.
• Results are normal when no mycobacterial organisms are found.
• Abnormal results show that the stain is positive for:
1. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2. Mycobacterium avium-intracellular
3. Other mycobacteria or acid-fast bacteria

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)

10–35 U/L; SI units: 0–0.58 mkat/L
• This test is used to determine if a patient has liver damage. ALT is an
enzyme involved in the metabolism of the amino acid alanine. ALT works
in a number of tissues, but their highest concentration is in the liver. Injury
to the liver results in release of the enzyme into the blood.
• Used in diagnosis of liver, biliary, and pancreatic disease.
• Slight to moderate elevations of ALT may appear in any condition that
produces acute hepatocellular injury, such as active cirrhosis and drug-
induced or alcoholic hepatitis. Marginal elevations occasionally occur in
acute myocardial infarction (MI), reflecting secondary hepatic congestion
or the release of small amounts of ALT from myocardial tissue.
• Very high ALT levels (up to 50 times normal) suggest viral or severe drug
induced hepatitis or other hepatic disease with extensive necrosis.
Moderate to high levels may indicate infectious mononucleosis, chronic
hepatitis, intrahepatic cholestasis or cholecystitis, early or improving acute
viral hepatitis, or severe hepatic congestion as a result of heart failure.

Albumin
Adult: 3.5–5 g/dL; SI units: 35–50 g/L
Child: 3.8–5.4 g/dL; SI units: 38–54 g/L
• The serum albumin test measures the amount of albumin in serum, the
clear liquid portion of blood.
• Main plasma protein; helps maintain osmotic pressure. Decreased albumin
causes fluid shifts and resultant edema.
 • Albumin is the protein of the highest concentration in plasma. Albumin
transports many small molecules in the blood (for example, bilirubin,
calcium, progesterone, and drugs). It is also of prime importance keeping
the fluid from the blood from leaking out into the tissues. This is because,
unlike small molecules such as sodium and chloride, the concentration of
albumin in the blood is much greater than it is in the fluid outside of it.
• Because albumin is made by the liver, decreased serum albumin may
result from liver disease. It can also result from kidney disease, which
allows albumin to escape into the urine. Decreased albumin may also be
explained by malnutrition or a low protein diet.
• Levels decrease in renal or hepatic disease, acute infection, malnutrition,
malignancy, diabetes, and many other chronic and acute conditions.

Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)

Adult: 42–136 U/L
Child: 50–230 U/L
• The alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test is used to measure serum levels of
ALP, an enzyme that affects bone calcification as well as lipid and
metabolite transport.
• It detects focal hepatic lesions that cause biliary obstruction, such as a
tumor or abscess.
• To assess the patient’s response to vitamin D in the treatment of rickets.
• To supplement information from other liver function studies and GI
enzyme tests.
• Enzyme found predominately in the liver, biliary tract, and bone.
• Useful in assessing liver and bone disease.
• ALP isoenzymes distinguish between liver and bone disease. ALP1 is
hepatic; ALP2 is from bone.
• Explain to the patient that this test is used to assess liver and bone
function.
• Instruct the patient to fast for at least 8 hours before the test because fat
intake stimulates intestinal secretion of ALP.
• Explain that this test requires a blood sample, and tell the patient when and
where it will be taken.
• Results
− High ALP usually means that the bone or liver has been damaged. If other liver tests such
as bilirubin, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) are
also high, usually the ALP is coming from the liver. If calcium and phosphate
measurements are abnormal, usually the ALP is coming from bone.
− In some forms of liver disease, such as hepatitis, ALP is usually much less elevated than
AST and ALT. When the bile ducts are blocked (usually by gallstones, scars from
 previous gallstones or surgery, or by cancers), ALP and bilirubin may be increased much
more than AST or ALT. In a few liver diseases, ALP may be the only test that is high.
− In some bone diseases, such as a disorder called Paget’s disease (where bones become
enlarged and deformed), or in certain cancers that spread to bone, ALP may be the only
test result that is high.

Ammonia
Adult: 15–45 g/dL; SI units: 11–3-mol/L
Child: 29–70 g/dL; SI units: 29–70 mol/L
• Ammonia forms when protein is broken down by bacteria in the intestinal tract. It
is then converted to urea by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.
• The ammonia test is primarily used to help investigate the cause of changes in
behavior and consciousness. It may be ordered, along with other tests such as
glucose, electrolytes, and kidney and liver function tests, to help diagnose the
cause of a coma of unknown origin or to help support the diagnosis of Reye’s
syndrome or hepatic encephalopathy caused by various liver diseases. An
ammonia level may also be ordered to help detect and evaluate the severity of a
urea cycle defect.
• Significantly increased concentrations of ammonia in the blood indicate that the
body is not effectively metabolizing and eliminating ammonia but do not indicate
the cause.
• Increased ammonia levels and decreased glucose levels may indicate the presence
of Reye’s syndrome in symptomatic children and adolescents. Increased
concentrations may also indicate a previously undiagnosed enzymatic defect of
the urea cycle. In children and adults, elevated ammonia levels may also indicate
liver or kidney damage. Frequently, an acute or chronic illness will act as a
trigger, increasing ammonia levels to the point that an affected patient has
difficulty clearing them.
• Normal concentrations of ammonia do not rule out hepatic encephalopathy. Other
wastes can contribute to changes in mental function and consciousness, and brain
levels of ammonia may be much higher than blood levels. This can make
correlation of patient symptoms to ammonia blood levels difficult.

Arterial Blood Gases (ABGs)

• Collect in an air-free heparinized syringe. Send in ice slurry to lab immediately.
• ABGs provide information about acid-base balance and the levels of O2 and CO2
in the blood.
• ABG results may indicate decreased O2 levels (hypoxia), decreased or increased
CO2 levels (hypo- or hypercapnia), acidosis (decreased pH), alkalosis (increased
pH), and the degree of compensation.
• ABGs are drawn to establish the diagnosis and severity of respiratory failure and
manage patients with respiratory dysfunction, cardiac failure, renal or hepatic
failure, trauma, multisystem failure, diabetic ketoacidosis, sepsis, and other
serious conditions.

PH
• An indicator of hydrogen ion concentration. Controlled primarily by the ratio of
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) to carbonic acid (H2CO3). The body can tolerate only
small changes in blood pH. Levels outside this range lead to coma and death
because vital proteins lose structural integrity and function.
• Acidosis and alkalosis refer to processes that alter the pH of blood.
• Metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory
alkalosis are the four ways in which pH is altered. A patient often has two
occurring simultaneously; for example, a metabolic acidosis and a respiratory
alkalosis. One process dominates and the other compensates.
• In metabolic processes, the bicarbonate concentration in the blood changes.
Bicarbonate is a base controlled by the kidneys. Decreases in bicarbonate result in
metabolic acidosis and increases result in metabolic alkalosis.
• In respiratory processes, blood pH is affected by carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.
Though CO2 is technically a gas, it is regarded as a respiratory acid—the only
acid that can be exhaled. It is the waste product of cellular metabolism and is
carried by the blood to the lungs for excretion. If the lungs are unable to excrete it,
CO2 levels rise. Increased CO2 levels in the blood result in respiratory acidosis.
Decreased levels of carbon dioxide result in respiratory alkalosis.

PaO2
 • An indirect measure of oxygen content. Measures the tension (or partial pressure)
of oxygen in the blood. PaCO2
• Measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. CO2 content is
controlled by the lungs, and PCO2 is therefore a measure of how adequately the
lungs are ventilating. O2 Saturation
• Indicates the oxygen content of the blood expressed as a percentage. HCO3-
• Indicates the bicarbonate ion concentration in the blood, which is regulated by the
kidneys. It is directly related to blood pH.

Base Excess/Deficit
• A calculated result that indicates the number of buffering anions in the blood and
reflects the metabolic component of the patient’s acid-base balance.

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)

Adult, child: 0–35 U/L; SI units: 0–0.58 kat/L
Newborn: 15–60 U/L
• ST is found in high concentration in heart muscle, liver cells, and
skeletal muscle cells. It is also found, to a lesser degree, in other tissues.
Although elevated serum AST is not specific for liver disease, it is used
primarily to diagnose and monitor the course of liver disease (in
combination with other enzymes such as ALT, ALP, and bilirubin).
• Used primarily to evaluate patients with symptoms of liver disease
(jaundice, liver enlargement, fatigue, weight loss, ascites, etc.).

Bilirubin, Total, Direct, Indirect

• Bilirubin is a by-product of the breakdown of hemoglobin.

• Most bilirubin is chemically attached (conjugated) to another substance. This is
called direct bilirubin. Unconjugated builirubin is called indirect bilirubin.
Conjugated bilirubin is excreted in bile.
 • High bilirubin levels cause jaundice and are seen in liver disease and biliary
obstruction.
• In newborns, elevated bilirubin occurs with Rh or ABO incompatibility. Brain
jaundice (kernicterus) develops at higher levels and can result in mental
retardation, cerebal palsy, or blindness.

Bleeding Time
1–9 min (Ivy)
• Bleeding time is a blood test that looks at how fast small blood vessels close to
stop you from bleeding.
• Assessed by making a 1mm deep incision and noting time it takes for bleeding to
stop.
• Longer-than-normal bleeding time may be due to:
1. Blood vessel defect
2. Platelet aggregation
3. Thrombocytopenia
• Before administering the test, patients should be questioned about what
medications they may be taking. Some medications will adversely affect
the results of the bleeding time test. These medications include
anticoagulants, diuretics, anticancer drugs, sulfonamides, thiazide, aspirin
and aspirin-containing preparations, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs. The test may also be affected by anemia (a deficiency in red blood
cells). Since the taking of aspirin or related drugs are the most common
cause of prolonged bleeding time, no aspirin should be taken two weeks
prior to the test.
• A bleeding time that is longer than normal is an abnormal result. The test
should be stopped if the patient hasn't stopped bleeding by 20-30 minutes.
Bleeding time is longer when the normal function of platelets is impaired,
or there are a lower-than-normal number of platelets in the blood.
• A longer-than-normal bleeding time can indicate that one of several
defects in hemostasis is present, including severe thrombocytopenia,
platelet dysfunction, vascular defects, Von Willebrand's disease, or other
abnormalities.

Blood Cultures
Negative
• A blood culture is a laboratory test to check for bacteria or other microorganisms
in a blood sample. Most cultures check for bacteria.
• A culture may be done using a sample of blood, tissue, stool, urine, or other fluid
from the body.
• Isolate and identify potentially pathogenic organisms causing bacteremia;
establish the diagnosis of endocarditis.
 • Obtained when sepsis, meningitis, osteomyelitis, arthritis, bacterial pneumonia,
fever of unknown origin, or occult abscess is suspected.
• Strict aseptic technique and skin preparation are essential to collection.
• A normal value means that no microorganisms grew in the laboratory dish.
• A positive result usually means that you have bacteria or other microorganisms in
your blood. However, contamination of the blood sample can lead to a false-
positive result, which means a true infection.

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

Adult: 10–20 mg/dL; SI units: 3.6–7.1 mmol/L
Child: 4–16 mg/dL; SI units: 1.4–5.7 mmol/L
• The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the level of urea nitrogen in a
sample of the patient's blood. Urea is a substance that is formed in the liver when
the body breaks down protein. Urea then circulates in the blood in the form of
urea nitrogen. In healthy people, most urea nitrogen is filtered out by the kidneys
and leaves the body in the urine. If the patient's kidneys are not functioning
properly or if the body is using large amounts of protein, the BUN level will rise.
If the patient has severe liver disease, the BUN will drop.
• The BUN level may be checked in order to assess or monitor:
° The presence or progression of kidney or liver disease.
° Blockage of urine flow.
° Mental confusion. Patients with kidney failure are sometimes disoriented
and confused.
° Abnormal loss of water from the body (dehydration).
° Recovery from severe burns. The body uses larger than normal amounts of
protein following serious burns.
• High levels of BUN may indicate kidney disease or failure; blockage of the
urinary tract by a kidney stone or tumor; a heart attack or congestive heart failure;
dehydration; fever; shock; or bleeding in the digestive tract. High BUN levels can
sometimes occur during late pregnancy or result from eating large amounts of
protein-rich foods. A BUN level higher than 100 mg/dL points to severe kidney
damage.
• Low levels of BUN may indicate overhydration, malnutrition, celiac disease [a
disease characterized by the inability to tolerate foods containing wheat protein
(gluten)], liver damage or disease, or use of corticosteroids. Low BUN may also
occur in early pregnancy.

Calcitonin
Adult: Males: 40 pg/mL; SI units: 40 ng/L. Females: 25 pg/mL; SI units: 25 ng/L
• Specimen must be fasting.
 • Calcitonin is a test that measures the amount of the hormone calcitonin in
the blood.
• Hormone produced by the thyroid gland.
• Calcitonin reduces circulating calcium levels by increasing calcium’s
deposition in bone.
• Used in the assessment of thyroid medullary cancer, lung cancer,
pernicious anemia.

Calcium,Total
Adult: 8.2 to 10.5 mg/dL; SI units: 2.05–2.54 mmol/L
Child: 8.6–11.2 mg/dL; SI units: 2.15–2.79 mmol/L
• A test for calcium in the blood checks the calcium level in the body that is not
stored in the bones. Calcium is the most common mineral in the body and one of
the most important. The body needs it to build and fix bones and teeth, help
nerves work, make muscles squeeze together, help blood clot, and help the heart
to work. Almost all of the calcium in the body is stored in bone. The rest is found
in the blood.
• Normally the level of calcium in the blood is carefully controlled. When blood
calcium levels get low (hypocalcemia), the bones release calcium to bring it back
to a good blood level. When blood calcium levels get high (hypercalcemia), the
extra calcium is stored in the bones or passed out of the body in urine and stool.
• A blood calcium test may be done:
− To check for problems with the parathyroid glands or kidneys, certain
types of cancers and bone problems, inflammation of the pancreas
(pancreatitis), and kidney stones. Abnormal results on an
electrocardiogram (EKG) test may be caused by high or low calcium
levels.
− High levels of calcium in the blood may be caused by being on bed rest
for a long time, hyperparathyroidism, kidney disease, tuberculosis, or
cancer that has spread to the bones. Certain cancers can make a substance
that causes high blood calcium levels.
− High levels of calcium in the blood can be caused by dehydration,
sarcoidosis, chronic liver or kidney problems, Paget's disease, and
Addison's disease.
− Low levels of calcium in the blood can be caused by parathyroid gland
(hypoparathyroidism) problems, problems with your intestines that stop
your body from absorbing calcium and other nutrients from food
(malabsorption syndrome), bone problems, kidney disease, acute
pancreatitis, or low amounts of the protein albumin in the blood
(hypoalbuminemia).
− Low ionized calcium levels may be caused by low magnesium levels.
− Pregnant women and older men may also have low calcium levels.
Chloride (Cl)
Adult: 96–106 mEq/L; SI units: 96–106 mmol/L
Child: 90–110 mEq/L; SI units: 90–110 mmol/L
• A chloride test measures the level of chloride in your blood or urine. Chloride
is one of the most important electrolytes in the blood. It helps keep the amount
of fluid inside and outside of your cells in balance. It also helps maintain
proper blood volume, blood pressure, and pH of your body fluids. Tests for
sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate are usually done at the same time as a
blood test for chloride.
• Aids in maintenance of electrical neutrality, fluid and acidbase balance, and
osmolality of body fluids (with sodium). Assessed with other electrolytes.
• Decreased in vomiting, gastric suctioning, ketoacidosis, renal disease with
loss of sodium.
• Increased with diarrhea, dehydration, complete renal shut down

Cholesterol,Total; High-density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL, HDL-

C); Low-density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL, LDL-C);Very
Low-density Lipoprotein (VLDL)
Total Cholesterol

Adult: 200 mg/dL; SI units: 5.2 mmol/L

Child: 125–200 mg/dL; SI units: 3.27–5.2 mmol/L
HDL Cholesterol
Adult: 50 mg/dL; SI units: 1.40 mmol/L
LDL Cholesterol
Adult: 100 mg/dL; SI units: 2.56 mmol/L

Fasting sample; no alcohol for 24 hr prior to test.

• Blood lipids synthesized in the liver and integral to the formation of cell
membranes, bile salts, and hormones.
• Implicated in atherosclerosis and MI.
• HDL levels 60 mg/dL are protective against heart disease.

Complete Blood Count with Differential (CBC with diff)

• A CBC reveals
− Information about general health.
− Number of red blood cells (RBC).
− Number of white blood cells (WBC) and differential (see White Blood Cells
for more information).
− Total amount of hemoglobin in the blood (Hgb).
− Fraction of blood composed of red blood cells (Hct).
− Volume of Hgb in each RBC (MCV [mean corpuscular volume]).
− Weight of the Hgb in each RBC (MCH [mean corpuscular hemoglobin]).
− Proportion of Hgb contained in each RBC (MCHC [mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration]).
− Number of platelets, which are critical to clot formation (see Platelets for
more information).
• MCV, MCH, and MCHC values are useful in the diagnosis of various types of
anemia. See below for description of anemias.

Coombs’ Test, Direct (Direct Antiglobulin)

Negative; no agglutination
■ Assess for immunoglobulins (antibodies) on surface of red blood cells
■ Positive results occur in hemolytic transfusion reactions, hemolytic anemias,
erythroblastosis fetalis

Coombs’Test, Indirect (Indirect Antiglobulin, Autoantibody Test)

Negative
• Part of a cross-match for blood transfusion.
• Positive result indicates incompatibility.

Creatinine Phosphokinase, (CPK, Creatine Kinase, CK); CPK

Isoenzymes
CPK
Adult: Male: 55–170 U/L; SI units: 55–170 U/L. Female: 30–135 U/L;
SI units: 30–135 U/L
Newborn: 68–580 U/L
Isoenzymes
CPK-MM: 100%; CPK-MB: 0%; CPK-BB: 0%
• CPK is an enzyme critical to intracellular energy.
• The MB isoenzyme is a cardiac marker (but is not as specific as troponin).
Elevations occur in acute MI and are used in the diagnosis of MI.
• CPK-MB ratio to total CPK is calculated to increase diagnostic accuracy. A ratio
of 2.5 correlates with cardiac damage.
• MM elevations occur in crush injuries, seizures, malignant hypothermia.

Creatinine, Serum
Adult: Male: 0.6–1.2 mg/dL; SI units: 53–106 mol/L. Female: 0.5–1.1mg/dL; SI units:
44–97 mol/L
Child: 0.3–0.7 mg/dL
 • Breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle.
• Produced at a constant rate by the body and excreted by the kidney. Blood level
rises in renal impairment.
• Creatinine level is a sensitive indicator of renal function but is dependent on
kidney function and muscle mass. Patients with decreased muscle mass do not
exhibit a rise in creatinine levels as readily as those with more muscle mass and
should have an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) reported as well.

Creatinine, Urine
1–2 g/24 hr; SI units: 8.8–17.7 mmol/day
• 24-hr urine collection. Refrigerate.
• Creatinine is a by-product of muscle breakdown. It is filtered (removed
from plasma) by the kidneys and excreted in the urine.
• Elevated levels of creatinine indicate impaired renal function.

Creatinine Clearance
Male: 107–139 mL/min; SI units: 1.78–2.32 mL/s. Female: 85–105
mL/min; SI units: 1.45–1.78 mL/s.
• Timed urine sample (12 or 24 hr) with a blood sample taken the morning of or
sometime during the test.
• Creatinine clearance refers to the amount of blood that can be cleared of
creatinine in 1 min.
• It is calculated using the volume of urine, the amount of creatinine
excreted, and the amount of creatinine in the blood.
• It is used to determine safe dosing of nephrotoxic drugs. Creatinine
clearance of 10–20 mL/min is indicative of renal failure and the need for
dialysis.

Drug Levels, Therapeutic and Toxic

• Drug levels are obtained both to enhance therapeutic efficacy and to assess for
toxicity/overdose/poisoning.
 • Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is the measurement of serum drug levels so
that dosages may be adjusted to achieve optimum clinical benefit.
• Therapeutic drug monitoring is used with
o cardiac glycosides (e.g., digoxin)
o antiarrhythmics (e.g., lidocaine, procainamide)
o anticonvulsants (e.g., phenytoin, carbamazepine)
o lithium
o theophylline
o aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin, tobramycin)
o salicylates
• For TDM, blood samples must be obtained at the appropriate time and after
sufficient number of doses have been administered for valid interpretation of
results.
• Peak and trough levels are drawn with some drugs, especially antibiotics. Peak
levels are drawn at the point of maximum drug absorption; trough levels are
drawn just before the next dose.

Electrolytes, Serum
See individual tests for normal values.
• Electrolytes are minerals present in body tissues and blood as dissolved
salts.
• They are electrically charged particles that help maintain fluid and acid-
base balance. They help move nutrients into cells and waste products out.
• An electrolyte panel measures sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl-),
and bicarbonate (HCO3- ), which is measured indirectly as CO2.
• 24-hour urine collection
• Provides information about hydration status, the kidneys’ ability to
conserve or excrete sodium.
• Calcium levels are increased in hyperthyroidism, immobilization, multiple
myeloma, Paget’s disease, and bone metastases.

Fecal Occult Blood (FOB, Stool for Occult Blood)

Negative
• Stool sample
• Used to detect microscopic bleeding into the GI tract.
• ■ Routine screening test for patients over 50 years old.
• ■ Positive in ulcers, polyps, hemorrhoids, tumors, inflammatory bowel
disease, diverticulosis, and other disorders of the GI tract.
Fibrinogen
150–400 mg/dL; SI units: 1.5–4 g/L
• Fibrinogen is essential to clot formation. Decreased fibrinogen levels result in
prolonged PT and PTT.
• Usedful in diagnosis of DIC.

Glucose, Fasting
Adult: 70–105 mg/dL; SI units: 3.9–5.8 mmol/L
Child 2 years old: 60–100 mg/dL
Fasting sample.
• Assessed to diagnose or monitor Type 1 and 2 diabetes.
• An elevated fasting blood glucose level above 126 mg/dL on at least two
occasions typically indicates diabetes.

Glucose Tolerance Test, Standard Oral

Fasting: 126 mg/dL; SI units: 7 mmol/L
2-hr: 200 mg/dL; SI units 1.1 mmol/L

Fasting sample.
• Blood glucose levels are assessed twice. The first is a fasting sample, the second
sample is taken 2 hr after ingestion of 75 g of glucose. Samples may be assessed
at other times as well.
• Useful for screening for gestational diabetes but usually unnecessary for
diagnosing diabetes as fasting blood glucose 126 mg/dL or a random blood
glucose level 200 mg/dL is ususally considered diagnostic.

Glycosylated Hemoglobin (A1C, GHb, Glycohemoglobin, HBA1)

Nondiabetic: 5%
Diabetes well controlled: 2.5–6%
Diabetes not well controlled: 8%
• Prolonged blood glucose elevation causes a greater percentage of RBCs to
become saturated with glucose (glycohemoglobin).
 • Used for monitoring average diabetic control for preceding 3 months as blood
cells typically live for 2–3 months.
• Asessed two times per year for patients with type 2 diabetes not on insulin and
four times per year for patients with type 1 or 2 diabetes on insulin.

Hematocrit (Hct)
Adult: Male: 45–52%; SI units: 0.45–0.52. Female: 37–48%;
SI units: 0.37–0.48.
Child: 1–6 yr: 30–40%; SI units: 0.30–0.40; 6–18 yrs: 32–44%;
SI units: 0.32–0.44

• Hematocrit is the percentage of whole blood that is made up of red blood cells. It
is expressed as a percentage or a decimal fraction. (A hematocrit value of 35%
means that there is 35 mL of red blood cells in 100 mL of blood.)
• Increased in dehydration and increased production of RBCs.
• Decreased in anemia, when RBC production is impaired or there is increased
destruction of RBCs, in chronic disease, blood loss, and fluid volume excess.
• See Complete Blood Count.

Hemoglobin (Hgb)
Adult: Male: 14–18 g/dL; SI units: 8.7–11.2 mmol/L. Female: 12–16
g/dL; SI units: 7.4–9.9 mmol/L.
Child: 1–14 ys: 11.3–14.4 g/dL; SI units: 113–144 mmol/L.

• Hemoglobin is the main protein in erythrocytes. It carries oxygen to and removes

carbon dioxide from red blood cells.
• Increased in dehydration, COPD, high altitudes, polycythemia vera.
• Decreased in fluid volume excess, hematologic cancers, hemolytic disorders,
blood loss, anemia.
• See Complete Blood Count.

Hepatitis Testing
Negative
• Screening for hepatitis A, B, C, D, or E.
• May test for antigens, antibodies, IgG, or IgM (immunoglobins).
 • Viral hepatitis serologic testing patterns need to be interpreted to determine if
disease is active, acute, chronic, or historical (carrier state).

Liver Function Tests (LFTs)

See individual tests for reference ranges.
• A panel of tests used to evaluate liver function. Includes:
° Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
° Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
° Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
° Bilirubin
° Albumin
° Total protein
• Used in the evaluation of symptoms associated with liver disease (jaundice, nausea,
vomiting and/or diarrhea; loss of appetite; ascites, hematemesis, melena; fatigue or loss
of stamina; history of alcohol or drug abuse).

Magnesium, Serum
1.6–2.2 mg/dL; SI units: 0.66–0.91 mmol/L
• Electrolyte critical to many metabolic processes including nerve impulse
transmission, muscle relaxation, carbohydrate metabolism, and electrolyte
balance.
• Low levels may cause cardiac irritability, weakness, arrhythmias, seizures,
and delirium.
• Renal patients cannot excrete magnesium efficiently and thus are at risk for
hypermagnesemia.

Microalbumin (MA, Urine Albumin, Albumin to Creatinine Ratio)

Microalbumin: 0–30 mg/day
Albumin to creatinine ratio: 0–-30 g albumin/mg creatinine; SI units: 2.5 mg
albumin/mmol creatinine
• 24-hr or timed urine specimen.
• This test measures minute amounts of albumin in the urine and is an early
indicator of kidney damage, detecting kidney damage up to 5 years earlier
than routine urine protein tests.
 • Is used to identify diabetics at risk for nephropathy so that appropriate
intervention (ACE inhibitors to control hypertension and tight glycemic
control).
• Levels 300 mg/day (SI units: 300 mg/L) indicate irreversible nephropathy.
• The timed test (4-hr or overnight urine sample) is less accurate than the
24-hr urine study. It uses a microalbumin to creatinine ratio to correct for
variations in urine dilution.

Mantoux skin test

• Does not determine if a client has active TB: a positive reaction indicates that the
client has been infected with the TB bacillus and has developed antibodies
(sensitized). Purified protein derivative (PPD) is injected intradermally in the
forearm. Results are read in 48 to 72 hours.
• Intradermal injection: a small (25-gauge) needle is used to inject 0.1 ml of PPD
under the skin. The needle is inserted bevel up; a raised area or “wheal” (6-
10mm) will form under the skin.
• The most common area for injection is the inside surface of the forearm.
• Do not aspirate; do not massage area.
• The client should be given specific directions to return or plans should be made
to read the test in 48 to 72 hours.
• Interpretation: the area of induration (only the part of the reaction that can be felt:
induration may not be visible) is measured. Note the area of erythema or
inflammation.
o An induration of 5mm or more is a positive reaction in immunosuppressed
clients, IV drug user, and persons who have been recently exposed to
active TB.
o An induration of 10mm is a positive reaction for person who is at
increased risk of infection. This includes IV drug users, clients with
chronic medical conditions, children under 4 years of age,
institutionalized clients, clients in long-term care facilities, and health
care workers.
o An induration of 15mm is positive reaction for members of the general
population who do not meet any of the other criteria.
Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT)
20–35 sec
• Used to monitor therapeutic heparin, hirudin, or argatroban anticoagulation.
• Therapeutic levels of anticoagulant are indicated by PTT of 1.5– 2.5 times the
control.

Phosphorus, Serum (Phosphate, PO4)

Adult: 2.5–4.5 mEq/dL; SI units: 0.78–1.52 mmol/L
Child: 4.5–6.5 mg/dL; SI units: 1.45–2.1 mmol/L
• Phophorus is critical to cellular metabolism, cell membrane integrity, and
bone and teeth formation.
• Increased in renal failure, hyperparathyroidism, diuretic abuse.
• Decreased in hypoparathyroidism.
Platelets
150,000–450,000/mm3
• Platelets are critical to hemostasis and blood clot formation.
• The number of platelets may be normal but their function impaired. Impaired
platelet function is assessed by obtaining bleeding times.
• Increased platelets occur in many inflammatory disorders and
myeloproliferative states as well as in acute or chronic blood loss, hemolytic
anemias, after splenectomy, sudden exercise, cirrhosis, and iron deficiency.
• Thrombocytopenia (decreased platelets) occurs in aplastic anemia,
megaloblastic and severe iron deficiency anemias, uremia, autoimmune
thrombocytopenias, DIC, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, following
massive hemorrhage, in severe infection, and as a side effect of many different
drugs including: abciximab, alcohol, allopurinol, carbamazepine, cimetidine,
heparin, histamine blockers, most chemotherapeutic agents, nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatories, procainamide, quinidine, quinine, ranitidine, rifampin.

Potassium, Serum (K)

Adult: 3.5–5.0 mEq/L: SI units: 3.5–5.0 mmol/L
Child: 3.4–4.7 mEq/L; SI units: 3.4–4.7 mmol/L
• Very narrow normal range; small changes in potassium level can have profound
effects on body functions.
• Effects of potassium include transmission of nerve impulses; contraction of
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle; and maintenance of acid-base balance and
osmolarity.
• Potassium levels may be decreased secondary to vomiting, diarrhea, diuretic use,
insulin administration, burns, ascites, and other clinical conditions.
• Increased levels occur with excessive IV administration, acute or chronic renal
failure, potassium-sparing diuretics, infection, dehydration, transfusion of
hemolyzed blood.

Protein, Urine
30–140 mg/24 hr; SI units: 0.01–0.14 g/24 hr
• Random or 24-hr urine collection. Refrigerate during collection.
• Urine normally contains only scant quantities of urine.
• Used to assess renal function, preeclampsia, multiple myeloma.
 • See Bence Jones Protein.

Prothrombin Time (PT); International Normalized Ratio (INR)

Prothrombin time
10–14 sec
INR
2–3 for patients with PE, DVT, valvular heart disease; 2.5–3.5 for patients with prosthetic
heart valve or recurrent systemic embolism.
• The PT is the amount of time it takes blood to clot when mixed with a
thromboplastin reagent. Normal values vary widely with different
thromboplastin reagents. The INR uses a conversion factor that accounts for
the differences in reagents. This allows the health care provider to evaluate
and compare test results regardless of the reagents used by different
laboratories.
• Used primarily to evaluate warfarin therapy.
• Therapeutic levels of warfarin are indicated by a PT one and a half to two
times times the control.

Pulmonary function tests

• Pulmonary function tests are a group of procedures that measure the function of
the lungs, the test measure how well the lungs take in and release air and how
well they move oxygen into the blood. It also revealing problems in the way a
patient breathes. These tests can determine the cause of shortness of breath and
may help confirm the diagnosis of such lung diseases as asthma, chronic
bronchitis, or emphysema. The tests may also be performed before any major lung
surgery to make sure the person will not be at risk of complications because of
reduced lung capacity.
• Teach patient that he/she should not smoke or use bronchodilating medications 6
hours before the test.
• One of the most common of the pulmonary function tests is spirometry. This test,
measures how much and how fast the air is moving in and out of the lungs. This
test is covered in greater detail in the separate spirometry tests entry.
• A peak flow meter can determine how much a patient's airways have narrowed. A
test of blood gases is a measurement of the concentration of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood, which shows how efficient the gas exchange is in the lungs.
• Another lung function test reveals the efficiency of the lungs in absorbing gas
from the blood. This efficiency is measured by testing the volume of carbon
 monoxide a person breathes out after a known volume of the gas has been
inhaled.
• Normal results
o Normal test results are based on a person's age, height, weight, race, and
gender. Normal results are
o Expressed as a percentage of the predicted lung capacity for a person of
the same age, height, weight, race, and sex. Any measurement within 20%
of the predicted value is considered a normal result.
• Abnormal results
o Abnormal results mean that the person's lung capacity is less than 80% of
the predicted value. Such findings usually mean that there is some degree
of chest or lung disease.

Sodium, Serum
136–145 mEq/L; SI units: 136–145 mmol/L
• Sodium is critical to body water distribution, maintenance of osmotic
pressure, neuromuscular function, acid-base balance, and electrolyte balance.
• Decreased in many clinical conditions including diarrhea, vomiting,
nasogastric suction, SIADH, diuretics, and congestive heart failure.
• Increased in excessive dietary or IV intake, Cushing’s syndrome, diabetes
insipidus, and excessive sweating.

Sputum Culture and Sensitivity (Sputum C&S and Gram stain)

Normal flora
• Sputum specimen in sterile container.
• To identify pathogenic organisms in the respiratory tract.
• Discard specimens that are mostly saliva; obtain specimen from the
bronchi after instructing the patient to cough effectively.
• Some patients may require suctioning to obtain an appropriate sputum
sample.
Stool Culture (Stool for C&S, Stool for Ova and Parasites [O&P])
Normal intestinal flora
• Small amount of stool specimen in a sterile container
o Evaluate cause of diarrhea.

Triglycerides
Adult: 150 mg/dL; SI units: 1.7 mmol/L
Child (over 10 yr): Male: 32–148 mg/dL: SI units: 0.36–1.67 mmol/L. Female: 37–124
mg/dL: SI units: 0.42–1.4 mmol/L
Fasting sample.
• Triglycerides are fats and are assessed as part of a lipid profile.
• Levels 1000 mg/dL are associated with pancreatitis.

Troponins (TnI,TnT)
Cardiac troponin T: 0.2 ng/mL
Cardiac troponin I: 0.03 ng/mL
• Proteins that help regulate cardiac contractility.
• Sensitive biomarker of cardiac muscle injury.
• Toponins become elevated earlier and remain elevated longer than CPK-
MB, which allows for earlier diagnosis and initiation of thrombolytic therapy.

Tuberculosis Culture (TB Culture, AFB Smear)

No acid-fast bacilli observed on smear or isolated in culture.
• Tuberculosis is diagnosed by culturing Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a
specimen.
• AFB smear (smear for acid-fast bacilli) is performed in addition to the culture.
A second specimen may be required for the AFB smear if the volume of
specimen is in adequate. AFB is used to monitor therapy effectiveness.
• Antibiotic sensitivity may be performed as well
Uric Acid, Serum
Adult: Male: 4.0–8.5 mg/dL; SI units: 0.24–0.51 mmol/L. Female:
2.8–7.3 mg/dL; SI units: 0.16–0.43 mmol/L
Child: 2.5–5.5 mg/dL; SI units: 0.12–0.32 mmol/L
• Uric acid is the end product of purine metabolism.
• Useful to assess for gout and to monitor patients with renal failure or to
monitor if uric acid levels are too high after chemotherapy or radiation.

Uric Acid, Urine

Low purine diet: 250–500 mg/day; Unrestricted diet: 250–750mg/day
• 24-hr urine. Refrigerate during collection.
• Assess for elevated levels of urine uric acid in patients with renal calculus
formation or identify patients at risk for stone formation.
• Uric acid kidney stones occur in gout or secondary to malignant diseases,
ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, and surgical jejunoileal bypass..

Urinalysis (UA)
 • Urinalysis provides information about the renal/urinary system.
• Protein content in urine is indicative of decreased renal function.
• Specific gravity measures the concentration of particles in the urine and is an
indicator of the kidney’s ability to concentrate urine. It also reflects overall
hydration status. Low specific gravity indicates that the urine is dilute; high
specific gravity means that the urine is concentrated (volume depletion).
• Leukocyte esterase, nitrite, and white blood cells in the urine are an indication of
urinary tract infection.
• Red blood cells indicate of damage to the renal tubules.
• Crystals indicate the presence of renal stones.
• Casts are clumps of cells formed in the tubules. Hyaline casts indicate protein in
the urine. WBC and RBC casts are generally indicative of upper urinary tract
infection. RBC casts are also present in other serious kidney disorders. Renal
tubular epithelial cell casts reflect damage to the tubules and are found in renal
tubular necrosis, viral disease, and transplant rejection.

Urine Culture and Sensitivity (Urine C&S)

Negative or No Growth
• Clean catch mid-stream urine sample, or aseptic aspiration of urine from a closed
urinary drainage system, in a sterile container.
 • Test for pathogenic bacteria in patients with suspected UTI or abnormal
urinalysis results (positive leukocyte esterase, increased number of WBC
in urine, bacteria in urine).
• Test includes determining to which antibiotics the bacteria are sensitive.
• Bacterial counts 100,000/mL of a single organism indicate a UTI.

White Blood Cell Count and Differential

• White blood cells are crucial to defending the body from foreign organisms,
tissues, and other substances.
• An elevated white blood cell count (leukocytosis) usually represents an increase
in one of the types of WBCs rather than an increase in all the types of cells.
• An increased lymphocyte count is seen in infectious mononucleosis, viral
hepatitis, cytomegalovirus infection, other viral infections, pertussis,
toxoplasmosis, brucellosis, TB, syphilis, lymphocytic leukemias, chronic bacterial
infection, and multiple myeloma.
− An increased neutrophil count may indicate acute infection, eclampsia,
gout, myelocytic leukemia, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, acute
stress, thyroiditis, and trauma.
 “Left shift” occurs when there is more than 10–12% bands or
when the sum of bands plus segmented neutrophils is 80%.
  The left shift represents an increase in the percentage of
immature band neutrophils to mature segmented neutrophils
and occurs in bacterial infection and toxemia but can also occur
in acute stress situations.
 T cells, specifically CD-4 T cells are monitored in patients who
are HIV positive.
− An increased eosinophil count occurs in allergic disorders, parasitic
infection, and Hodgkin’s disease.
− An increased monocyte count may indicate chronic inflammatory
disease, parasitic infection, tuberculosis, and viral infection.
• Decreased white blood cell count is called leukopenia.
° Decreased lymphocytes is the hallmark of AIDS. It also occurs in acute
infections, Hodgkin’s disease, leukemia, sepsis, systemic lupus, renal
failure, and radiation sickness.
 Decreased neutrophils may occur in aplastic anemia, influenza,
chemotherapy and overwhelming bacterial infection.

Wound Culture
No growth, routine or normal skin flora, routine or normal flora for body area cultured.
• To identify pathogenic organisms in wounds.
• The purpose of a wound culture is to isolate and identify microorganisms
causing an infection of the wound, and to identify antibiotics that will be
effective in destroying the organism.
• Common organisms cultured from wounds include Escherichia coli, Proteus,
Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, enterococci, other streptococci,
Bacteroides, Prevotella, Clostridium, Staphylococcus aureus, and coagulase-
negative Staphylococcus.
• When obtaining a wound culture, follow standard precautions and maintain
sterile technique throughout each of these steps.
− Use sterile technique.
− Inspect and irrigate. After inspecting the wound, thoroughly irrigate it
with sterile saline solution.
− Rotate a sterile swab along all areas of the wound. Gently twist the
calcium alginate or rayon swab (not cotton tipped) on the sides and
base of the wound, crossing the entire surface of the wound. To ensure
all possible areas of infection have been swabbed, use the 10-point
coverage system.
− Place the swab in the appropriate culture medium. If the wound is
open and has viable tissue, immediately place the swab in an aerobic
culture tube. If the wound has necrotic tissue or sinus tracts, obtain
both an aerobic and an anaerobic culture.
− Label the culture tube. Immediately send it to the laboratory.