IPA17-22-G

PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Forty-First Annual Convention & Exhibition, May 2017

THE PROOF OF DUAL SALINITY IN TUNU FIELD: A KEY INFORMATION FOR CLAY
DIAGENESIS AND REGIONAL OVERPRESSURE STUDY IN MAHAKAM AREA

Faisal Farizi*
Taufik Anwar*
Haris Kurniawan Hidayat*
Baginda Saragih*
Dodiono*
Firdaus Tampilang*

ABSTRACT illite by reducing mineral size which increases pore

pressure. The decreasing of water salinity over Tunu
Formation water salinity of Tunu giant gas field Main Zone is very important information for regional
located in Mahakam area has been proved to have overpressure study. The charging of expelled water
significantly different value between hydrocarbon from clay diagenesis to reservoir is suspected as one
zone and water zone. Water salinity value in water of the causes of overpressure in Mahakam area.
zone measured from water sample and computed
from openhole logs is significantly lower than water INTRODUCTION
salinity in hydrocarbon zone derived from log to core
calibration using capillary pressure data. The
Tunu is a giant gas and condensate field (70 x 20 km
difference of salinity value is increasing with depth
in size) located at the eastern limit of present
over Tunu Main Zone which most likely related to
Mahakam Delta (Figure 1). The production of the
burial compaction and clay diagenesis. Clay
field started in August 1990 and currently delivers
digenesis expels fresh water through ion filtration
600 mmscfd of gas per day. Tunu field is located
processes.
between NNE – SSW Median Axis anticlinorium,
mostly located along the eastern border of the field
The initial formation water salinity during deposition
and a parallel syncline axis 20 km to the west.
in delta is depending on depositional environment
and tidal effect. Delta plain with low tide will have
very low salinity; otherwise it will have very high Tunu Main Zone (TMZ) reservoirs are made up of a
salinity during high tide in prodelta. Lateral variation series of stacked fluvio-deltaic Miocene sand bodies
of formation water salinity is ranging from 1 to 33 lying between 2000 to 5000m Subsea. The TMZ has
kppm. an overall progradational trend, divided into six main
stratigraphic units (SU1 to SU6). 300-400m thick
The fresh water expelled from clay is then charging corresponding to 3rd order of sequence, based on
the reservoir replacing the movable water resulting maximum flooding surfaces interpretation. Each of
in the reduction of water salinity in water bearing main unit is divided into 15-40m thick sequences
reservoir. This is not the case in hydrocarbon bearing bounded by local flooding surfaces, which generally
reservoir due to moveable water already replaced by act as very effective seals. At basin scale (3rd order
hydrocarbon during migration process. The SU cycles) and smaller scale (4th order, i.e. 3-4
remaining water is only irreducible water held by deltaic cyles), the alternating prograding and
capillary force which has initial water salinity as retrograding cycles were deposited, in response to
deposited. This process makes water salinity in water the balance between eustatic variations, subsidence
zone different from water salinity in hydrocarbon ratios and sediment supply (Lafont, 2003). Laterally,
zone. The difference is increasing by depth since clay the western part of the field is mainly represented by
digenesis process increases by depth as temperature upper delta plain to proximal delta front reservoirs
increases. (channels and stacked mouthbars). On the eastern
side, the distal delta front deposits predominate, the
Besides expelling water, clay diagenesis also mouth bars are smaller and more isolated, especially
changes clay mineral type from montmorilonite to in the deeper SU (SU4 and SU6).
* TOTAL E&P INDONESIE
 
Two main reservoir types have been identified in Modern Mahakam Delta Salinity Study by Joffroy
TMZ: Mouth Bars and Sand Channel Fills. The (1999), Bachtiar et.al. (2010), Husein (2011), and
modern Mahakam Delta is a close analogue to what Salinity of Modern Sea Water by NASA in 2011 by
is observed in the Miocene deposit and its analysis is using Aquarius satellite.
used to define guidelines to model reservoir sand
body geometries for development proposals. The map of present-day variation of salinity in
Distributary channel sands normally overlie finer surface water of Mahakam delta from Joffroy (1999)
grained and bioturbated mouth bars, delta plain to showed increasing salinity in Mahakam delta from
delta front deposits (Allen & Chamber, 1998). Mouth upstream to downstream area, from terrestrial to the
Bars consist of very fine to fine sandstone, sub- sea environment. In the head pass of river, salinity
rounded, well sorted, and well consolidated, with fair value is fresh water in the range of 35 to 48 ppm. In
porosity. In distal position, to the east, the mouth bars the northern part of delta lobe salinity varies from
become silty and show poor porosity. A single mouth 17,000 to 27,000 ppm and in the southern part it is
bar thickness ranges from 1 to 5m (1.5m in average). slightly lower, varies from 5,600 to 22,100 ppm.
Stacked mouth bars can reach up to 15m. Average Bachtiar et.al., 2011, during 2005-2009 observations
porosity is 11.5% with a maximum of 27% and on modern sediment of Mahakam delta in the
average permeability is 10mD with a maximum of southern and the northern lobes collected grab
1D. samples on the river bed in conjunction with echo
sounding, shallow core sampling, and salinity
Channel Fill reservoirs consist of medium to fine measurements. The delta environments observed
sandstones, sub rounded, well sorted, well were head of passes, upper delta plain, lower delta
consolidated, with good visual porosity, occasional plain, and delta front. Salinity measurements in the
coal debris and slightly calcareous to the top. A water and sediments both showed an increasing trend
single distributary channel fill is between 5-20m from upstream to downstream, with the northern
thick according to the position of well penetration lobes being more intruded by the sea water profiles.
with regards to lateral accretion. Stacked channel Salinity variations with times were also observed to
section up to 30m thick has been drilled in Tunu be controlled by tidal-activity periods. A salinity
Field. Average porosity is 15% with a maximum of measurement campaign was conducted on 22 sites in
30% and average permeability is 100mD with a all the distributaries and major estuaries of modern
maximum of 1D. Channel reservoirs are attributed in Mahakam delta by Husain 2011. Interaction between
the present model to lateral (side) bars in which, in fluvial and tidally sea water formed distinct water
the modern delta, are 1-3 km long and 300 to 700m layers, which were recorded in vertical profile at
wide. Since 2006, a geological model has been built every 30 minutes for complete spring and neap tidal
in order to address the following objectives: cycles at each station. During spring tides, tidal
prognosis of geological and dynamic features that processes are important and saline water moves
impact on daily operations, a tool for reservoir dynamically in the distributaries and estuaries. Saline
management long term development planning. water extends farther inland in the northern area than
in the southern area. During high tides, brackish
The objectives of this study are to review the cause
water with 10 ‰ salinity intrudes up to 30 km
of water salinity discrepancy between salinity in
upstream from the coastline in the northern area and
water zone (aquifer) and hydrocarbon bearing zone.
only up to 10 km upstream in the southern area. At
The relationship with geology and regional
the same time, saline water with 30 ‰ salinity
overpressure, and also to evaluate a reliable water
intrudes up to 15 km upstream in the northern area
salinity value for Tunu Main Zone to be applied in
but only reaches the outlet mouths in the southern
water saturation computation. Scope of this study is
area. Referring to NASA 2011, The recent sea
water salinity in aquifer and hydrocarbon bearing
surface salinity in Makassar Strait area is around 33
zone in Tunu Main Zone interval, bounded by MF6
g/kg (g/kg is equal to kppm) which is indicated by
in upper part and MF 9.5 in bottom part (Figure 1).
dark blue color on the map, compared to sea surface
The data used within this study are respectively taken
water salinity around the world of 30 – 39 kppm. By
within this interval.
assuming sea water salinity of Makassar Strait
during TMZ reservoirs deposition is the same as
Previous Studies of Water Salinity in Modern modern sea water, the average water salinity of
Mahakam Delta Mahakam delta during TMZ reservoirs deposition
should be less than 33 kppm as water in deltaic
For references, there are 4 previous studies related to environment is the mixing of fluvial water and sea
water salinity evaluation in modern Mahakam delta: water.
DATA AVAILABILITY Salmax: maximum salinity aquifer, and SalHC:
salinity of irreducible water in hydrocarbon bearing
There are several data and samples that are used in zone). Water saturation computed with SalHC which
this study. 52 water sample data: 49 RFT and 3 PT is 25,000 ppm matches with water saturation from
data were used as the field data in this study. 524 core capillary pressure data. While water saturation
apparent water salinity were computed and used as a computed using Salmin, Salwat, and Salmax are
main subject. Capillary pressure data from 11 cored significantly higher than water saturation from core
wells were used for calibrating the results. data. It shows that water salinity of 25,000 ppm that
is currently applied in Tunu Main Zone is a reliable
METHODOLOGY value for hydrocarbon bearing zone. Water
saturation calibration performed by comparing Swt
Water Sample Analyses and Phit computed from log in all wells were
compared with Swt and Phit measured from core.
Salinity is measured through several methods: The data exhibit that e-log derived Swt-Phit
computed with salinity of 25,000 ppm for each SU
a) Calculation from 10 ions composition. matches to the core capillary pressure derived Swt-
b) Dry residue at 105°C (evaporation). Phit. It means that the salinity of 25,000 ppm is valid
c) Resistivity (NaCI equivalent, then minimum as indicated by the core data.
salinity due to the low activity of HCO3, present
in relatively high quantities). RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Apparent Water Salinity Calculation from E- Reliable Water Salinity for Hydrocarbon Zone
logs
In theory, water salinity between hydrocarbon and
Rwa method, the methodology of the apparent water water bearing zone could be different because the
salinity (wsal app) computation used in this study, water in hydrocarbon zone above transition zone is
uses Archie equation by assuming the reservoirs are mostly irreducible or immobile water, while water
clean and fully saturated by water (Sw=1). Rwa is the bearing zone is dominated by mobile water. Meteoric
function of porosity, salinity and temperature. water charging from land or expelled water charging
Hence, the salinity can be computed from Rwa by from shale compaction and diagenesis could be the
taking into account porosity and temperature. The cause of this water salinity difference. Modern
detailed equation is in Figure 2. This method is valid Mahakam delta is known to be a good analogue for
for intervals which clean (very low clay content) and Tunu Main Zone (TMZ) as it they both have similar
fully saturated by water. geological condition and depositional environment.
Therefore, water salinity in hydrocarbon bearing
Apparent water salinity based on Rwa method from zone in Tunu Main Zone should have similar value
openhole logs was then calibrated with water sample with water salinity in modern Mahakam delta. Water
salinity data. The result shows that the apparent in hydrocarbon bearing zone above transition zone is
water salinity is a good match with the salinity dominated by irreducible water which has similar
measured from water sample data. From this salinity with initial water during depositional since it
apparent water salinity method, 3 salinity curves was not replaced during hydrocarbon migration
were generated: salinity minimum (Salmin) in green (drainage) period. Whereas, water bearing zone
color, salinity medium (Salwat) in orange color and (aquifer) is dominated by moveable water. Moveable
salinity maximum (Salmax) in red color (Figure 3). water can be replaced by expelled water from shale
compaction and clay diagenesis. The extrapolation to
Water Salinity from Log to Core Capillary surface of salinity from Rwa and water sample in
Pressure Calibration water zone of Tunu Main Zone by taking into
account the burial compaction trend is resulting in
Salinity sensitivity analysis was performed in order salinity of 15,000 to 35,000 ppm with midpoint of
to find the best fit between e-logs and capillary 25,000 ppm. This salinity range is in line with water
pressure data as a function of HAFWL to calibrate salinity range in modern Mahakam delta from
the water saturation (Figure 4). The salinity Joffroy (1999), Bachtiar et.al. (2010) and Husein
sensitivity used cross plot between Swt from (2011). The aim of extrapolation to surface by taking
capillary pressure data versus Swt from log into account compaction trend is to obtain estimated
computed with 4 salinity values (Salmin: minimum initial water salinity value of Tunu Main Zone prior
salinity in aquifer, Salwat: median salinity in aquifer, to shale compaction and clay diagenesis occurred.

 
Based on modern Mahakam delta salinity studies, direction for formation water in sands to evolve
saturation calibration with capillary pressure data, during burial is towards lower salinity. Connate
and extrapolation of salinity from Rwa and water water (deposition water) has salinity around 0 ppm
sample with depth by taking into account compaction in the fluvial channels to 30,000 ppm (mostly as
trend, it is concluded that water salinity of 25,000 NaCl) in bars. Compaction water expelled from the
ppm is considered as a reliable value to be applied prodelta shales is NaCl-dominated with low salinity
for water saturation computation over hydrocarbon less than 2,000 ppm (Walgenwitz, 2003).
bearing zones in Tunu Main Zone (Figure 5).
Over time, the sediment is buried with increasing
Water Salinity for Water Bearing Reservoir overburden which makes porosity reduction with
some movable water escaping from the reservoir.
In hydrocarbon bearing zone, water saturation (Sw) Clay compaction may expel fresh water which may
computation has been calibrated with core capillary then mix with the movable water in the reservoir. But
pressure data and resulting in a reliable water salinity the irreducible water is not mixed with fresh water
of 25,000 ppm for whole Tunu Main Zone interval. expelled from clay compaction as irreducible water
In water bearing zone, the water saturation should be is held in place by capillary force. During
100% or very close to it. The salinity of 25,000 ppm hydrocarbon migration (drainage) process,
will not yield 100% water saturation. To get 100% hydrocarbon cannot replace irreducible water in
water saturation in water bearing zone, one of the reservoir. Therefore, water salinity in hydrocarbon
Salmin, Salmax, or Salwat needs to be applied. In bearing zone above transition zone is the same as the
practical purpose, Salwat is suggested to be applied initial water salinity. Meanwhile, aquifers was
in all water bearing zone to get 100% water recharged by fresh water causing the salinity to
saturation or close to it. For example in well Tunu- become fresher and fresher over geologic time
FF (Figure 6), in gas bearing reservoir (B, C, and D) (Figure 7 c,d,e). Fresh water with low salinity
the best match Sw is computed using salinity of expelled from clay compaction and diagenesis were
25,000 ppm. Meanwhile, in clear water bearing suspected as the origins of decreasing water salinity
reservoir (A), salinity of 25,000 ppm yields Sw of in Tunu Main Zone. These characteristics may
around 63%, Salmax yields Sw of around 90%, correspond to compaction water expelled from the
Salwat yields Sw of around 99%, and Salmin yields marine prodelta shale (Walgenwitz, F., 2003).
Sw of around 100%. In this example the reliable
water salinity value for hydrocarbon zone is 25,000 Apparent Water Salinity based on Facies
ppm while for water bearing zone the reliable water
salinity is either Salwat (8,000 ppm) or Salmin The data were separated based on facies to see any
(4,000 ppm). particular water salinity trend for each facies.
Apparent water salinity in bar has slightly wider
Dual Salinity Concept in Mahakam range than that of channel facies with few samples
exhibit high salinity of more than 30 kppm (Figure
Hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs have water salinity 8). These These phenomena could be due to thin bed
significantly different from the aquifers (Lalanne, shoulder effect, possible bar isolation, and burial
2008). The dual salinity concept for mobile water in effect.
aquifer and irreducible water in hydrocarbon bearing
reservoirs is clearly observed from the apparent Apparent Water Salinity Lateral Distribution
water salinity. Apparent water salinity is decreasing based on Geological Area
with depth over Tunu Main Zone (Figure 7 a).
Meanwhile, depositional environment of Tunu Main To see the lateral distribution of apparent water
Zone is relatively similar from top to bottom as salinity along Tunu field, the wsal_app data were
mixing of fluvial, delta plain, and delta front divided into 4 main areas based on Geological Area
environments which theoretically has similar (GA): West area is GA6, Central area is GA5, East
average salinity value from top to bottom. The initial Area is GA1, GA2, GA3, Far North and South area
water salinity during deposition is depending on is GA4. In Tunu Main Zone (below 2.500 m TVDSS)
depositional environment and tidal effect (Figure 7 seen that the salinity increase from west to the east,
b). Most of the initial water during deposition is from terrestrial area into the sea environment
movable water, and some of the initial water (Figure-9). It is in line with regional deposition
becomes immobile or irreducible water. The direction which from west to east, the salinity is
irreducible water is held in place by capillary forces increasing to the sea ward. It is appropriate with the
and will not flow or be replaced. The only possible salinity value in modern Mahakam delta where the
salinity around 10 kppm in delta plain and around 30 transformation phase). Within 2000-3000 meter
kppm in pro-delta. In the Far North and Far South subsea, the clay reaches the telodiagenesis phase
area (GA4), the water salinity is relatively similar when illite is formed. Below 3000 meter subsea, the
with East area. For water salinity lateral distribution clay shifts under telodiagenesis line. In this depth,
evaluation, salinity data were plotted on the map. smectite to illite transformation starts to transfer load
Apparent water salinity maps have been made using from load bearing smectite to pore water. Based on
P50 of apparent water salinity data of each well in this Dutta cross plot, the smectite to illite
each stratigraphic unit (Figure 10). This salinity map transformation in Tunu field is interpreted to be
is the first study at field scale of Tunu at SU level. started within the interval of 1,000 to 2,000 meter
From SU1-SU4, the high salinity area located in the subsea.
eastern part of Tunu Field. For SU-5, the apparent
water salinity map reveals minor lateral variation of Water Salinity and Overpressure
data. Average apparent water salinity is 12 kppm
along SU5 with variation data in several places. Overpressure is condition when the formation
pressure is higher than normal hydrostatic pressure.
Water Salinity and Clay Diagenesis Clay diagenesis of smectite to illite transformation is
not only affecting water salinity reduction in aquifers
The origin of the decreasing salinity from Rwa and but also is suspected as one of the additional causes
water sample with depth in Tunu Main Zone is most of overpressure in Mahakam area. The clay volume
likely due to the increasing of compaction water decreased due to water expelled from the smectite
proportion in the reservoir. Compaction waters are transformation. The grain to grain contact will also
expelled from shale through ion filtration processes. be decreased which then reduces effective stress
Smectite to Illite ion filtration process releases fresh followed by increasing of pore pressure, contributing
water with salinity of 2,000 to 5,000 ppm. to unloading mechanism.
Meanwhile, connate water (syn-depositional) varies
from 0 to 30,000 ppm depending on the depositional Resistivity evolution by depth in pure shale
environment and tidal period. The size of clay is compared with that of aquifers also exhibits the
decreasing because smectite releases the water presence of over pressure in Tunu Main Zone. Pure
bounded in it during smectite to illite transformation shale Resistivity along TMZ represents in-situ water
process. Present day formation water salinity is a and aquifer resistivity along TMZ. Normal
combination of compaction water and connate water. Compaction Trend (NCT) from resistivity and
Clay diagenetic process is strongly dependent on aquifer resistivity line were plotted in the same cross
temperature. For smectite to illite transformation, the plot. Resistivity of pure shale deflects to left of NCT
temperature is around 900 C (Hower et. al., 1976). resistivity, indicating the presence of over pressure in
Lateral and vertical expulsion of compaction waters Tunu Main Zone (Figure 12). Resistivity comparison
is dependent on the sand shale ratio and reservoir in pure shale and aquifer also demonstrates that the
connectivity in Tunu field. The evidence of smectite value is not the same both in normal pressure and
to illite transformation is clearly seen from Dutta’s overpressure zone. The presence of overpressure
cross plot in Tunu field (Figure 11). By using density indicated from the change in resistivity trend can be
and sonic from open hole data, smectite-illite seen at depth below ~3000mTVDSS. This top
transformation can be observed clearly from interval overpressure is located at the same level where the
by interval. The illitic and smectite compaction water salinity starts to decrease, therefore this
trends were determined empirically from Gulf of phenomenon might demonstrate the relationship of
Mexico by Dutta (2002), with trend equations: pore pressure increase and salinity reduction.

 Smectite trends (red line) CONCLUSIONS

ρ (g/cc) = 2.918 – 0.00517*Δt (μs/ft) Eq.1
 The salinity of the hydrocarbon reservoirs are
significantly different from the salinity of the
 Illite trends (blue line) aquifers. Based on modern Mahakam salinity
ρ (g/cc) = 3.044 – 0.005*Δt (μs/ft) Eq.2 studies, saturation calibration with core data,
Rwa salinity and water sample salinity
Within the interval of 0-1,000 meter subsea, the clay extrapolation with depth by taking into account
overall is in smectite compaction trend. Within1,000- compaction trend and clay diagenesis, water
2,000 meter subsea, the clay is already started to salinity value of 25,000 ppm is considered to be
approach telodiagenesis line (the clay close to illite the most reliable value to be applied in water

 
 saturation computation over hydrocarbon Purnama, A.S., 2010, The Dynamics of Mahakam
bearing zones of Tunu Main Zone. Delta – Indonesia, Based on Spatial and Temporal
Variations of Grab Samples, Cores, and Salinity,
 The significant water salinity difference between AAPG International Conference and Exhibition.
hydrocarbon zone and water bearing zone is
suspected due to fresh water expelled from clay Dutta, N.C., 2002, Deepwater Geohazard Prediction
compaction and diagenesis, replacing water in using Prestack Inversion of Large Offset P-Wave
the water bearing zone. The decreasing salinity Data and Rock Model, The Leading Edge, July 2002.
by depth over Tunu Main Zone is valuable
information for overpressure study in Mahakam Husein, S., 2011, Dynamic of Saline Water Incursion
area. The charging of expelled water from clay in the Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan, Proceeding
diagenesis to reservoir is suspected as one of JCM HAGI and IAGI, Makassar, Indonesia.
additional causes of overpressure in Mahakam
area. Powers M.C., 1967, Fluid-Release Mechanisms in
Compacting Marine Mudrocks and Their Importance
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in Oil Exploration, AAPG Bull 51:1240 1254.

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Ramdhan, A.M., 2010, Overpressure and
TOTAL E&P Indonesie and INPEX Management. Compaction in the Lower Kutai Basin, Indonesia,
Special thanks are addressed to Indonesian Durham Theses, Durham University. Available at
Government for permission to publish this paper. Durham E-Theses.

REFERENCES Vinas, Maria-Jose, 2013, NASA's Aquarius Sees

Salty Shifts, Greenbelt, Earth Science News Team
Bachtiar, A., Wiyono, J., Liyanto, Syaiful, M., (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/aquarius/news
Purnama, Y.S., Rozalli. M., Krisyunianto. A., and /data-first-year.html)
Figure 1 - Location map of Tunu Field. Tunu Main Zone Interval bounded by MF6 regional markers (N17)
at the top, and MF9.5 (N14) at the bottom (red box). The data used within this study is respectively
taken within this interval.

Figure 2 - Rwa method equations to compute apparent water salinity.

 
Figure 3 - Apparent water salinity from RWA method (wsal app) calibrated with water sample data in Tunu
Main Zore Interval. Calculated wsal app data good match with wsal from water sample and can
use for this study.

Figure 4 - Water salinity sensitivity in Tunu Main Zone. SWT using Salinity 25.000 ppm matches with SWT
capillary pressure core data.
Figure 5 – Apparent water salinity (wsal app) sand in Tunu Main Zone decreases by depth (cross plot 1).
Compaction trend from sonic data versus TVDSS in Tunu field (cross plot 2). Compaction water
from shale charged the aquifer and flushed the initial water in aquifer. Salinity of irreducible water
as initial water in hydrocarbon bearing reservoir, derived from SWT log calculation calibrated
with capillary pressure data (cross plot 3).

Figure 6 - Dual salinity concept in water bearing zone and hydrocarbon bearing zone from log analysis within
Tunu Main Zone.

 
Figure 7 - General Illustration of irreducible water generation in hydrocarbon bearing reservoir. Apparent
water salinity in Tunu decrease by depth (a). Salinity at initial condition before hydrocarbon
migration (b). Salinity in irreducible water at hydrocarbon bearing reservoir after hydrocarbon
migration (c). Clay compaction and clay diagenesis expel fresh water replacing movable water in
hydrocarbon zone (d). Salinity of irreducible water and aquifer after mixing with compaction water
(e).

Figure 8 - Computed apparent water salinity (wsal_app) in Channel and Bar facies. Wsal_app in Bar shows
more saline, this phenomena could be due to thin bed shoulder effect, possible bar isolation, and
burial effect.
Figure 9 - Lateral distribution of apparent water salinity based on geological area. West area is GA6, Central
area is GA5, East Area is GA1, GA2, GA3, North and South Area is GA4.

 
Figure 10 - Apparent water salinity maps using P50 of wsal app data. From SU1-SU4, the high salinity area
is located in the eastern part of Tunu Field. For SU-5, the apparent water salinity map reveals
minor lateral variation of data. Average apparent water salinity is 12 kppm along SU5 with
variation of data in several places.
Figure 11 - Smectite to Illite transformation is interpreted starting from interval 1.000-2000 meter subsea
based on Dutta crossplot.

 
Figure 12 - Pure shale Resistivity along TMZ (left picture) represents insitu water and Aquifer resistivity
along TMZ (middle picture). Resistivity trend line (NCT) and aquifer resistivity line plotted in
same cross plot (right). Resistivity of pure shale deflects to the left of NCT Resistivity, indicating
the presence of over pressure in Tunu Main Zone.