Lecture 10

Combined Cycles and

Cogeneration Continued
OTTO, DIESEL AND DUAL CYCLES
 Learning Outcomes

►Conduct air-standard analyses of internal

combustion engines based on the Otto, Diesel,
and dual cycles, including the ability to
►sketch p-v and T-s diagrams and evaluate property
data at principal states.
►apply energy, entropy, and exergy balances.
►determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure.
 Learning Outcomes
►Conduct air-standard analyses of gas turbine
power plants based on the Brayton cycle and its
modifications, including the ability to
►sketch T-s diagrams and evaluate property data at
principal states.
►applying mass, energy, entropy, and exergy
balances.
►determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
back work ratio, and the effects of compressor
pressure ratio on performance.
 Introducing Power Generation
►While coal, natural gas, and nuclear will continue to play
important roles in years ahead, contributions from wind power,
solar power, and other renewable sources are expected to be
increasingly significant up to mid-century at least.
Table 8.2
 Air-Standard Analysis of Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines
►To conduct elementary analyses of reciprocating internal
combustion engines, simplifications are required. Although
highly idealized, an air-standard analysis can provide insights
and qualitative information about actual performance.
►An air-standard analysis has the following elements:
►A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the working
fluid. Ideal gas relations are reviewed in thermodynamic.
►The combustion process is replaced by heat transfer from
an external source.
►There are no intake and exhaust processes. The cycle is
completed by a constant-volume heat transfer process while
the piston is at bottom dead center.
►All processes are internally reversible.
►In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are
assumed constant at their ambient temperature values.
 Air-Standard Analysis of Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines
►For reciprocating internal combustion engines,
three cycles that adhere to air-standard cycle
idealizations are the Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles.
These cycles differ only in the way the heat addition
process that replaces combustion in the actual cycle
is modeled:
►Otto cycle: Heat addition at constant volume.
►Diesel cycle: Heat addition at constant
pressure.
►Dual cycle: Heat addition at constant volume
followed by heat addition at constant pressure.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►The Otto cycle consists of four internally reversible
processes in series:
►Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
►Process 2-3: constant-volume heat addition to the air
from an external source.
►Process 3-4: isentropic expansion.
►Process 4-1: constant-volume heat transfer from the
air.
►The Otto cycle
compression ratio is:
V1 V4
r 
V2 V3
Otto Cycle

The Otto Cycle is a “Spark Ignition” engine cycle. That is to say, that
air and fuel are thoroughly mixed and compressed in the engine
cylinder and at the appropriate point before TDC a spark from an
electrical source ignites the mixture and drives the piston
downward thereby transferring work to a crankshaft.

Air /Fuel Intake Compression Combustion

 Aswith the Brayton Cycle the thermal efficiency of the Otto Cycle
can be best evaluated by first calculating the temperature at the
various cycle locations.

For the isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4 we can say:

==
And the compression ratio as,
= = =

Combining these equations gives us:

==
 The thermal efficiency of the air-standard Otto cycle can expressed
as:
ɳcy = = 1 -
ɳcy =1- = 1 -

Combining these equations gives us:

ɳcy = 1 -

The mean effective pressure of the Otto cycle is the engine output
per unit of swept volume and is represented as:

MEP =
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►Ignoring kinetic and potential energy effects,
closed system energy balances for the four
processes of the Otto cycle reduce to give

W12 W34
u2  u1 , u3  u 4
m m
(Eq. 10.2)
Q23 Q41
u3  u2 , u4  u1
m m

►The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net

work to the heat added:
(Eq. 10.3)
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►Since the air-standard Otto cycle is composed of
internally reversible processes, areas on the T-s and
p-v diagrams can be interpreted as heat and work,
respectively:
►On the T-s diagram, heat transfer per unit of
mass is ∫Tds. Thus,
• Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
heat added per unit of mass.
• Area 1-4-a-b-1 is the heat
rejected per unit of mass.
• The enclosed area is the net
heat added, which equals the
net work output.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►On the p-v diagram, work per unit of mass is
∫pdv. Thus,
• Area 1-2-a-b-1 represents
work input per unit of mass
during the compression
process.
• Area 3-4-b-a-3 is the work
done per unit of mass in the
expansion process.
• The enclosed area is the net
work output, which equals the
net heat added.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►The compression ratio, r = V2/V1, is an important
operating parameter for reciprocating internal combustion
engines as brought out by the following discussion
centering on the T-s diagram:
►An increase in the compression ratio
changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to
1-2′-3′-4-1.
►Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1,
and both cycles have the same heat
rejection process, cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1 has
the greater thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Otto cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the
compression ratio increases.
Consider an air-standard otto cycle. Operating data at principal states in the cycle
are given in the table below. The states are numbered as in the figure below. The
Mass of air is 0.002 kg. determine
a) The heat addition and heat rejection, each in kJ
b) The net work, in kJ
c) The thermal efficiency
d) The mean effective pressure, in kPa
state T (k) P (kPa) u (kJ/kg)
1 305 85 217.67
2 367.4 767.9 486.77
3 960 2006 725.02
4 458.7 127.8 329.01
a) The heat addition is determined by using an energy balance for process 2-3
Qin Q23 m u3  u2  0.002 kg 725.02  486.77  kJ/kg 0.4765 kJ

similarly, the heat rejection is determined using an energy balance for process 4-1

Qout  Q41 m u4  u1  0.002 kg  329.01  217.67  kJ/kg 0.2227 kJ

b) The net work is

Wcycle Qin  Qout 0.4765  0.2227 0.2538 kJ

c) The thermal efficiency

 Wcycle / Qin 0.533 (53.3%)
d) To determine the mean effective pressure, first find V1 and V2
  8.314 kJ  
  0.002 kg   305 K  
mRT1   28.97 kg    1 kPa  103 Nm 
V1    3 2   2.06 10 3 m 3
p1  85 kPa  10 N/m   1 kJ 
 
 
   8.314 kJ  
  0 .002 kg   
 28.97 kg   305 K   3
mRT1      1 kPa   10 Nm  3 3
V1    3 2   2. 06 10 m
p1  85 kPa  10 N/m   1 kJ 
 
 

  8.314 kJ  
  0. 002 kg   
 28.97 kg   367 . 4 K   3
mRT2      1 kPa   10 Nm  4 3
V2   2. 75 10 m
p2  767.9 kPa  103 N/m 2   1 kJ 
 
 

Thus

 
Wcycle   3
 0. 2538 kJ  1 kPa   10 Nm 
mep   103 N/m 2   1 kJ  142.2 kPa
 v2    3 3 0.000275  
   
v1 1     2. 06 10 m  1  
 v1    0.00206   
Consider a cold air-standard Otto cycle. Operating data at principal states in the
cycle are given in the table below. The states are numbered as in the figure below.
The heat rejection from the cycle is 86 Btu per lb of air. Assuming specific heat at
constant volume is given as 0.172 Btu/lb.R, determine
A) the compression ratio
B) The net work per unit mass of air, in Btu/lb
C) The thermal efficiency
D) The mean effective pressure, in lbf/in^2
state T(R) P (lbf/in^2)
1 500 47.50
2 1204.1 1030
3 2408.2 2060
4 1000 95
a) The compression ratio is r = v1/v2 with v = mRT/p

mRT1 / p1 T1 p2 500 1030

r   9
mRT2 / p2 T2 p1 1204.1 47.50

b) The net work is

Wcycle Qin  Qout Q23 / m  Q41 / m cv T3  T2   Q41 / m

 
 0.172 Btu/lbo R  2408.2  1204.1 o R  86 Btu/lb
207.1  86 121.1 Btu

c) The thermal efficiency

W / m Wcycle / m 121.1
  cycle   0.585 (58.5%)
Q23 / m cv T3  T2  207.1
d) To determine the mean effective pressure, first find V1

  1545 ft.lbf  

28 . 97 lb o
R

  o
500 R   2
RT1      1 ft  3
V1   3. 898 ft /lb
p1  47.50 lbf/in 2  144 in 2 /ft 2 
 
 
 
Wcycle   2
121 . 1 Btu/lb 1 ft   778 ft lbf 
mep   
2 2    188 . 8 lbf/in 2

 1   1    144 in /ft   1 Btu 

v1 1   3
  3.898 ft /lb1  9   
 r   
 
Example 2-7:
For an air-standard Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 9, the air the pressure
at the beginning of the compression stroke is 14.7 psia and the temperature of
the inlet air is 60 F. If the heat transfer to the air per cycle is 850 Btu/lb find the
cycle efficiency, the mean effective pressure and the maximum temperature in
the cycle.

Solution: We can use the P – v and T – s diagrams in figure 2-26 as a guide.

We saw previously that ). Therefore we can use this relationship to find the
highest temperature in the cycle which is T3.
If,
  ) then we can see that;

= +

We have and we know = .171 Btu/lb-F so all we need is

We can use = to find

= = 520(9)0.4 = 1252 R

So now we can find as:

= + = 1252R + = 6223 R = 5763 F

The cycle can be found as:

ɳcy = 1 - = 1- = 0.585 = 58.5%

 And finally the Mean Effective Pressure is found as:

MEP = =

We need to find and ,

For this we can use our old friend the ideal gas law;

1 = = = 13.1 ft3/lb

Now we can find v2 from the pressure ratio which was given as 9 therefore,

2 = = = 1.46 ft3/lb

And finally:

MEP = = 230.8 psia

 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►The Diesel cycle consists of four internally
reversible processes in series:
►Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
►Process 2-3: constant-pressure heat addition to the
air from an external source.
►Process 3-4: isentropic expansion.
►Process 4-1: constant-volume heat transfer from
the air.
►The Diesel cycle
has a two-step
power stroke:
process 2-3 followed
by process 3-4.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
V1
►The Diesel cycle compression ratio is: r 
V2

V3
►The Diesel cycle cut-off ratio is: rc 
V2
The compression ratio is the ratio between the initial volume and
the volume at the end of Step 1.

The cutoff ratio (α) is the ratio of the volume at the end of Step 1
(BEFORE the fuel is injected and burned) to the volume at the end
of Step 2 (AFTER the fuel is injected and burned).
The expansion ratio is the ratio of the volume at the end of Step 2
to the volume at the end of Step 3.
compression ratio = (cutoff ratio) x (expansion ratio).
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►Process 2-3 is heat addition at constant pressure.
Accordingly, the process involves both heat and work.
►The work is given by (Eq. 9.9)
►Introducing Eq. 9.9 into the closed system energy balance
for process 2-3 and solving for Q23/m gives
(Eq. 10.10)
Note: Enthalpy appears only for notational convenience and
does not signal use of control volume concepts.
►The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net work to the
heat added:
(Eq. 9.11)

Like the Otto cycle, thermal efficiency increases with

increasing compression ratio.
•  
 Pressure ratio is represented as:

rv =

The temperature ratio can be represented by:

= = equ. 2-57

Given that = or = and α = we can rewrite as:

= equ. 2-58

And finally,

= () () = k
 The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle can expressed as:

ɳcy = = 1 -

Since heat is added at constant pressure and rejected at constant

volume, the above equation can be simplified and re-written as:
ɳcy = 1 - = 1 -

If we substitute in the compression ratio and the fuel cut off ratio, we
can re-write the cycle efficiency as:
ɳcy = 1 - []

The mean effective pressure of the Otto cycle is the engine output per
unit of swept volume and is represented as:

MEP =
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►As for the Otto cycle, areas on the T-s and p-v
diagrams of the Diesel cycle can be interpreted as
heat and work, respectively:
►On the T-s diagram, heat transfer per unit of
mass is ∫Tds. Thus,
• Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
heat added per unit of mass.
• Area 1-4-a-b-1 is the heat
rejected per unit of mass.
• The enclosed area is the net
heat added, which equals the
net work output.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►On the p-v diagram, work per unit of mass is
∫pdv. Thus,
• Area 1-2-a-b-1 represents work
input per unit of mass during the
compression process.
• Area 2-3-4-b-a-2 is the work
done per unit of mass in the
two-step power stroke: process
2-3 followed by process 3-4.
• The enclosed area is the net
work output, which equals the
net heat added.
Example 2-8:
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and a
cutoff ratio of 3. At the beginning of the compression process the
conditions are 14.7 psia and the temperature of the inlet air is 60 F.
Calculate the cycle efficiency, the mean effective pressure and the
maximum temperature in the cycle.
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and a cutoff
ratio of 3. At the beginning of the compression process the conditions
are 14.7 psia and the temperature of the inlet air is 60 F. Calculate the
cycle efficiency, the mean effective pressure and the maximum
temperature in the cycle.
Solution: We can designate the states as shown in the P – v and T – s
diagrams in figure 2-28 below.

We can see from the diagrams that the highest temperature in the
cycle is T3.
 Equation 2-56 gave use the relationship between T , T3 , and the fuel cut
2
off ratio (α) as:

α=

We need to find . Equation 2-55 gives us the following relationship:

v1 and v2 can be easily found using the ideal gas law and given pressure
ratio as follows:

v1 = = = 13.1 ft3/lb

v2 = = = 0.873 ft3/lb

With v1 and v2 , we can now find T2.

 
= where T1 = 520 R, v1 = 13.1 ft3/lb and v2 = 0.873 ft3/lb

So we get;

T 2 = T1

If we substitute in the compression ratio and the fuel cut

off ratio, we can re-write the cycle efficiency as:

ɳcy = 1 - []

The mean effective pressure of the Otto cycle is the engine

output per unit of swept volume and is represented as:

MEP =
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression of an air-standard
Diesel cycle are 95 kPa and 300 K, respectively. At the end of the heat addition, the
Pressure is 7.2 Mpa and the temperature is 2150 K. Determine
a) The compression ratio
b) The cutoff ratio
c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle
d) The mean effective pressure, in kPa
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 18 and
a cutoff ratio of 2. at the beginning of the compression process, the working fluid is
at 14.7 psia, 80 F, and 117 in^3. utilizing the cold-air standard assumptions,
determine
a) The temperature and pressure of air at the end of each process
b) The net work output and thermal efficiency, and
c) The mean effective pressure
a) The temperature and pressure values at the end of each process can be
Determined by utilizing the ideal-gas isentropic relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4.
But first we determine the volumes at the end of each process from the definition
of the compression ratio and cutoff ratio
v1 117 in 3
v2   6.5 in 3
r 18
v3 rc v2  2 6.5 in 3  13 in 3
v4 v1 117 in 3
Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas, constant specific heats)
k1
v 
 540 R 18
1 .4  1
T2 T1  1  1716 R
 v2 
k
v 
p2  p1  1  14.7 psia 18 841 psia
1.4

 v2 

Process 2-3 (constant pressure heat addition to an ideal gas)

p3  p2 841 psia
p2 v2 p3v3  v3 
  T3 T2   1716 R  2  3432 R
T2 T3  v2 
Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas, constant specific heats)
k 1 1.4  1
v   13 in 3 
T4 T3  3   3432 R  
3 
1425 R
 v4   117in 
k
v 
p4  p3  1   841psia 18 38.8 psia
1 .4

 v2 

b) The net work for a cycle is equivalent to the net heat transfer. But first we find
The mass of air

m
p1v1

14.7psia  117 in 3  

 1 ft 3 
 0.00498 lbm
RT1  3 
0.3704 psia ft /lbm R  540 R   1728 in 
3

Process 2-3 is a constant pressure heat addition process

Qin m h3  h2  mc p T3  T2 

 0.00498 lbm 0.240 Btu/lbmR   3432  1716 R  2.051Btu

Process 4-1 is a constant volume heat rejection process

Qout m u4  u1  mcv T4  T1 
 0.00498 lbm 0.171 Btu/lbm R  1425  540 R  0.754 Btu
Thus
Wnet Qin  Qout 2.051  0.754 1.297 Btu

Then the thermal efficiency becomes

W 1.297 Btu
  net  0.632 63.2% 
Qin 2.051Btu

The thermal efficiency of this Diesel cycle under the cold air-standard assumptions
could also be determined from the equation

1  rck  1 
 Diesel 1  k  1  
r  k  rc  1 

Wnet W
mep   net
Vmax  Vmin V1  V2

1.297 Btu  778.17 lbf ft  12 in 

 
2 
  110 psia
117  6.5 in  1 Btu  1ft 
 Air-Standard Dual Cycle
►By considering heat transfer to the air
undergoing the power cycle as occurring in two
steps: constant volume followed by constant
pressure, the air-standard Dual cycle aims to
mimic the pressure-volume variation of actual
internal combustion engines more closely than
achievable with the Otto and Diesel cycles.
 Air-Standard Dual Cycle
►The air-standard Dual cycle consists of five internally
reversible processes in series:
►Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
►Process 2-3: constant-volume heat addition to the air
from and external source.
►Process 3-4: constant-pressure heat addition to the air
from an external source.
►Process 4-5: isentropic expansion.
►Process 5-1: constant-volume heat transfer from the air.
►As for the Diesel
cycle, the Dual cycle
has a two-step
power stroke:
process 3-4 followed
by process 4-5.
 Air-Standard Dual Cycle
►Using closed system energy balances for each of
the processes, the following expression for thermal
efficiency for the air-standard Dual Cycle can be
developed:

(Eq. 9.14)

Note: As for the Diesel cycle, enthalpy appears only for

notational convenience and does not signal use of control
volume concepts.

►Like the Otto and Diesel cycles, thermal efficiency

increases with increasing compression ratio.
 Air-Standard Dual Cycle
►The specific internal energies and temperatures at
each principal state are determined using methods
similar to those used for the Otto and Diesel Cycles.
►Areas on the T-s and p-v diagrams of the Dual
cycle can be interpreted as heat and work,
respectively, as in the cases of the Otto and Diesel
cycles.
An air standard dul cycle has a compression ratio of 9. At the beginning of
compression, p1=100 kPa, T1=300K. The heat addition per unit mass of air is
1400 kJ/kg with two-thirds added at constant volume and one-third added at
constant pressure. Determine
a) The temperature at the end of each heat addition process, in K
b) The net work of the cycle per unit mass of air, in kJ/kg
c) The thermal efficiency
d) The mean effective pressure, in kPa
Assuming ideal gas with k=1.4, specific heats at constant volume and constant
pressure are given as 0.718 kJ/kg-K and 1.005 kJ/kg-k respectively
a) State 2: for the isentropic compression
k1
 v1 
300 9 
0.4
T2 T1   722.5 K
 v2 

State 3: for the constant volume heat addition

Q23 / m u3  u2 cv T3  T2 

Q23 / m 933.33
 T3   T2   722.5 2022.4 K
cv 0.718

State 4: for the constant pressure process,

Q34 / m h4  h3 c p T4  T3 
Q34 / m 466.7
 T4   T3   2022.4 2486.8 K
cp 1.005
State 5: for the isentropic expansion
k1 k1 k 1
v  v v  v T 
T5 T4  4  T4  2  4  T4  2  4  1121 .6 K
 v5   v1 v3   v1 T3 
b) For the cycle,
WcycleQin Q51 Qin Q

    u5  u1   in  cv T5  T1 
m m m m m
1400   0.718 1121 .6  300  810.1 kJ/kg
c) The thermal efficiency is
Wcycle / m 810.1
  0.579 57.9% 
Qin / m 1400
d) The mean effective pressure is given by

Wcycle Wcycle
mep  
V1  V2 V1 1  V2 / V1 
Thus
 8.314 kJ 
  300 K 
RT1  28.97 kgK   1 kPa  103 N.m  m3
V1    3 
2 
 0.86096
P1 100 kPa   10 N/m  1 kJ  kg

mep 
 810.1 kJ/kg   103 Nm  1kPa 
  3
0.86096 m /kg 1  1 / 9  1kJ  10 N/m 2 
3

1058.5 kPa
Consider an air-standard dual cycle. Operating data at principal states in the cycle
Are given in the table below. The states are numbered as in figure below. If the
mass of air is 0.05kg. Determine
a) The cutoff ratio
b) The heat addition to the cycle, in kJ
c) The heat rejection from the cycle, in kJ
d) The net work, in kJ
e) The thermal efficiency
state T (K) P (kPa) U (kJ/kg) h (kJ/kg)
1 300 95 214.07 300.19
2 862.4 4372.8 643.35 890.89
3 1800 9126.9 1487.2 2003.3
4 1980 9126.9 1659.5 2227.1
5 840.3 265.7 625.19 866.41
 RT3 RT4
P3 P4  
v3 v4
v3 T 1980 K
since rc   rc  4  1.1
v4 T3 1800 K

b) Heat addition to the cycle occurs during process 2-3 and process 3-4. For
constant volume process 2-3
kJ
Q23 m u3  u 2   0.05 kg 1487.2  643.35 42.19 kJ
kg
For constant pressure process 3-4
m u4  u3  Q34  W34 Q34  mp  v4  v3 

Thus
Q34 m  u 4  u3   p v4  v3   m h4  h3 
kJ
 0.05 kg  2227 .1  2003.3 11 .19 kJ
kg

Total heat addition is

Q in 42.19 kJ  11 .19 kJ 53.38 kJ
c) Heat rejection from the cycle occurs during process 5-1
kJ
Q51 m u1  u5   0.05 kg  214.07  625.19  20.56 kJ
kg
The negative sign indicates heat transfer is from the system

The total heat rejection is

Qout 20.56 kJ

d) The net work can be determined from the net heat transfer for the cycle

Wcycle Qin  Qout 53.38 kJ  20.56 kJ 32.82 kJ

e) The thermal efficiency is

Wcycle 32.82 kJ
  0.6148 61.48% 
Qin 53.38 kJ
 Actual Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines

►As implied by the discussion of the Otto, Diesel,

and Dual cycles, it is advantageous for actual
reciprocating internal combustion engines to have
high compression ratios.
►However, since the temperature of the fuel-air
mixture being compressed in spark-ignition
engines also increases with compression ratio,
the possibility of autoignition or “knock” limits
the compression ratio of such engines to the
range 9.5-11.5, when fueled with unleaded
gasoline.
 Actual Reciprocating Internal Combustion
Engines
►Since only air is compressed in the cylinder,
compression-ignition engines do not experience
engine knock due to premature autoignition of fuel.
Accordingly, such engines can
►operate at higher compression ratios than spark-
ignition engines.
►use less refined fuels having higher ignition
temperatures than the volatile fuels required by spark-
ignition engines.
 Considering Reciprocating
Internal Combustion Engines
►What are reciprocating internal combustion engines?
►They are reciprocating engines commonly used in
automobiles, trucks, and buses.

►How do reciprocating internal combustion engines

differ from the vapor power plants considered in
Lectures 2-5 and the gas turbines considered in later
sections of Lectures 7-8?
►Processes occur within reciprocating piston-cylinder
arrangements rather than by mass flowing through
a series of interconnected components.
 Considering Reciprocating Internal Combustion
Engines – Two Types
►Spark-ignition
►A mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark
plug.
►This type is
• advantageous for applications up to about
300 hp (225 kW).
• lightweight and relatively low cost.
• predominantly used by automobiles in the
U.S.
 Considering Reciprocating Internal Combustion
Engines – Two Types
►Compression-ignition
►Air is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature.
►Combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is
injected.
►This type is
• preferred for high-power applications and when
fuel economy is required.
• used in heavy trucks and buses, locomotives
and ships, and auxiliary power units.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
► Displacement volume: volume
swept by piston when it moves from
top dead center to bottom dead
center
Top dead center

Stroke
Bottom dead center

►Compression ratio, r : volume

at bottom dead center divided by
volume at top dead center
 Introducing Engine Terminology
Four-stroke cycle
Four strokes of the piston
for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft
►Intake stroke
With the intake valve open,
piston stroke draws a fresh
charge into the cylinder.
► For spark-ignition engines,
the charge includes fuel and
air.
► For compression-ignition
engines, the charge is air
alone.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
►Compression stroke
With both valves closed,
piston compresses charge,
raising the pressure and
temperature, and requiring
work input from the piston to
the cylinder contents.
► For spark-ignition
engines, combustion is
initiated by the spark plug.
► For compression-ignition
engines, combustion is
initiated by injecting fuel
into the hot compressed
air.
 Introducing Engine Terminology

►Power stroke
The gas mixture expands
and work is done on the
piston as it returns to bottom
dead center.

►Exhaust stroke
The burned gases are
purged from the cylinder
through the open exhaust
valve.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
►Smaller engines operate on two-stroke cycles
with intake, compression, expansion, and exhaust
accomplished in one revolution of the crankshaft.
►Internal combustion engines undergo
mechanical cycles, but the cylinder contents do
not execute a thermodynamic cycle – matter is
introduced at one composition and is later
discharged at a different composition.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
►Mean effective pressure, mep, is an important
performance parameter.
►mep is a theoretical constant pressure that if it
acted on the piston during the power stroke
would produce the same net work as actually
developed in one cycle.

(Eq. 9.1)

►For two engines of equal displacement volume,

the one with a higher mep would produce the
greater net work, and if the engines run at the
same speed, greater power.
 Simulating Reciprocating
Internal Combustion Engines
►Detailed study of performance of reciprocating
internal combustion engines requires consideration of
complexities including:
►Combustion processes occurring within the cylinder.
►The effects of irreversibilities related to combustion,
heat transfer, and friction.
►Heat transfer between the gases in the cylinder and
the cylinder walls.
►The work required to charge the cylinder and exhaust
the products of combustion.
►Accurate analyses of reciprocating internal
combustion engines normally requires computer
simulation.
COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
 EXAMPLE
In a given internal combustion engine the mass flow rate of exhaust gasses exiting
the engines is 1,800 lb/min. with a temperature of 750 °F. If exhaust gasses are
directed through a heat exchanger with an effectiveness of 85% and exits at 250 °F,
find the heat recovery rate in Btu/hr for the system. Assume a C p of the exhaust
gasses of 0.272523168 Btu/lb-F .
ƞheat exchanger
Tin Tout
mexhaust

Q = m Cp ∆T = m Cp (Tin – Tout) ƞheat exchanger

Q = (1,800 lb/min x 60 min/hr) (0.272523168 Btu/lb-F) (750F – 250F) (0.85)

Q = 12.51 x 106 BTU/hr