CHE 17 2.

Interstitial
• An atom that occupies a place
Imperfections in Solids
outside the normal lattice position. It
Imperfections may be the same atom as the rest
surrounding it which is known as
• Are anything that disrupts the long
‘self-interstitial’.
ranged ordered arrangement of
• They are most probable if the atomic
atoms that exist in the material
packing factor of the material is quite
• Are also known as defects can be
low like the BCC
zero-dimensional such as a missing
• Is an atom from the crystal that is
atom or extra atom where there
crowded into an interstitial site,
should not be.
small void space that under ordinary
• They could also be one-dimensional
circumstances is not occupied.
(line defect or dislocation)
• In metals, it introduces relatively
• It could be two-dimensional defect
large distortions in the surrounding
such as a pore or void
lattice because the atom is
*there is no such thing as perfect crystal by substantially larger than the
nature interstitial position in which it is
situated.
Crystalline Defect

• Is meant a lattice irregularity having

one or more of its dimensions on the
order of an atomic diameter
Point Defect

• Are imperfect point-like regions in

the crystal. Typical size of a point
defect is about 1-2 atomic diameters
2 Types of Point Defects
1. Vacancy
• The simplest of the point defects, is a
vacant lattice from where the atom is
missing.
• It is usually created when the solid is
formed by cooling the liquid. They
can also occur naturally as a result of
thermal excitation and these are
thermodynamically stable at
temperature greater then 0
*The presence of vacancies increases the
entropy
*There is an exponential increase in the
number of vacancies with temperature
*When the density of the vacancy becomes
relatively large, there is a possibility for them
to cluster together and form voids
*As temperature increases, area increases
The equilibrium number of vacancies for a
given quantity of material depends on and
increases with temperature according to, Metal Alloy

• Results from a process of adding

impurity intentionally into a host
material for metals.
• A substitutional imperfection atom
Where N is equals to,
replaces or substitutes the host atom
in a lattice site which is most similar
in an electrical sense
• An interstitial imperfection atom
like carbon just accepts the void
- when impurities or foreign atoms are spaces within the unit cell structure
introduced into the crystal structure that are not occupied by the host
particularly for metallic materials, they are atom. The ionic radius of the impurity
incorporated into the structure either as a must be relatively small in
substitutional atom or an interstitial atom comparison to anion.
Alloy

• Which impurity atoms have been

added intentionally to impart specific
characteristics to the material
Alloying

• Is used in metals to improve

mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance
 Defect Structure

• Is often used to designate the types

and concentrations of atomic defects
in ceramics
Electroneutrality

• Is the state that exists when there are

equal numbers of positive and
negative charges from the ions
2 Types of Point Defects in Ionic Solids/
Ceramics
- whether it becomes substitutional of
interstitial atoms depends on some 1. Frenkel Defect
conditions and can be determined according • A type of defect that involves a
to Hume-Rothery Rule. cation-vacancy and cation-interstitial
pair
• When an ion is displaced for a regular
position to an interstitial position
creating a vacancy
• Cations are usually smaller and their
displaced easily than anions
• Closed packed structure have fewer
interstitials and displaced ions than
vacancy because additional energy is
required to force the atoms into the
interstitial positions
2. Schottky Defect
• Another type of defect found in AX
material is a cation-vacancy and
anion-vacancy pair
• When a pair of 1 cation and 1 anion
can be missing in an ionic crystal
without violating the conditions of
charge neutrality, then the valency of
ions is equal
• The ion pair vacancy facilitates
atomic diffusion
*In ceramic crystals, existence of point
defects is subjected to the condition of
charge neutrality
 For Schottky defects, in an AX-type
compound, the equilibrium number is a
function of temperature as

Solid Solution

• Addition of impurity atoms to a metal

will result a formation
• Forms when, as the solute atoms are
added to the host material, the
crystal structure is maintained and
no new structures are formed
• Is also compositionally
homogeneous; the impurity atoms
are randomly and uniformly
Stoichiometry dispersed within the solid

• Defined as a state for ionic Liquid Solution

compounds wherein there is the
• If two liquids soluble in each other
exact ratio of cations to anions
(such as water and alcohol) are
predicted by the chemical formula
combined
- A ceramic compound is nonstoichiometric • It is produced as the molecules
if there is any deviation from this exact ratio intermix, and its composition is
which two valence (or ionic) states exist for homogeneous throughout.
one of the ion types
Solvent
- The equilibrium numbers of both Frenkel
• Represents the element or
and Schottky defects increase with and
compound that is present in the
depend on temperature in a manner similar
greatest amount; on occasion,
to the number of vacancies in metals.
solvent atoms are also called host
For Frenkel defects, the number of cation- atoms
vacancy/cation-interstitial defect pairs
Solute
depends on the temperature according to
the following expression:
 • is used to denote an element or
compound present in a minor
concentration
4 factors of the Solute and Solvent atoms Concentration in terms of atom percent of
that determine the degree to which the element 1 in an alloy containing 1 and 2
former dissolves in the latter atoms, is defined by:

1. Atomic Size Factor

2. Crystal Structure: solid solubility the
crystal structures for metals of both
atom types must be the same Compositions Conversions
3. Electronegativity: The more
electropositive one element and the
more electronegative the other, the
greater is the likelihood that they will
form an intermetallic compound
instead of a substitutional solid
solution
4. Valences: a metal will have a
stronger tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valency than
one of a lower valency
Weight Percent
For simplified equation,
• Is the weight of a particular element
to the total alloy weight
Atom Percent

• Is the umber of moles of an element

in relation to the total moles of the
elements in the alloy.
For an alloy that contains two hypothetical
atoms denoted by 1 and 2, the concentration
of 1 in wt% is defined as:

The number of moles in some specified mass

of a hypothetical element 1, maybe
computed as follows:
For average density and atomic weight,

Dislocations

• Is a Line imperfection or one-

dimensional defects around which
some of the atoms are misaligned
• They are abrupt changes in the
regular ordering of atoms along the
Line Defects line in the solid.
• They occur in high densities and are
• Atoms are orderly arranged without strongly influenced by the
any disruptions in ideal solids. mechanical properties of metals.
However, under mechanical loads, all They are characterized by burger’s
solids tend to reshape themselves vector whose direction & magnitude
• These occurs usually by process can be determined by constructing a
called slip, which means the loop around the disrupted region and
translation of one plane of atoms observing the extra interatomic
over another under implied sheer spacing needed to close the loop
stress. • Occurs when an extra incomplete
• An example would be a zinc metal plane is inserted. The dislocation line
subjected to tensile stress. A microral is at the end of the plane
structural analysis of the deformed
zinc metal would show the
occurrence of slip planes due to
permanent dislocation of atoms
because of the force applied

2 Types of Dislocation
1. Edge Dislocation
• Is a linear defect that centers around
the line that is defined along the end
of the extra half-plane of atoms
• Is characterized by a burger vector
perpendicular to the dislocation line.
It may describe as an edge of an extra
plane of atoms within a crystal
structure. Thus, regions of
compression & tension are
associated with an edge dislocation Mixed Dislocation
• Due to extra incomplete plane of
• A combination of the two types of
atoms above the dislocation line are
dislocations which is mostly found in
squeezed together and one in a state
crystalline materials that have
of compression whereas atoms
neither pure edge nor pure screw,
below, are pulled apart and
but exhibits both components
experiences tensile stresses

2. Screw Dislocation
• Has its dislocation line parallel to the
Burgers vector
burger’s vector. It is like a spiral ramp
with an imperfection line down its • The magnitude and direction of the
axis. lattice distortion associated with a
• It results when displacing planes dislocation.
relative to each other through sheer.
- dislocation are commonly originated with
The sheer stress is associated with
during plastic deformation. During
atoms adjacent to the screw
solidification and as a consequence of
dislocation. Therefore, extra energy
thermal stresses that result from rapid
is involved as it is in the cased of ED.
cooling
- edge dislocation arises when there is higher energy state than the atoms at
mismatch in the orientation of the adjacent interior positions
parts of the growing crystal 2. Grain Boundary
• A boundary separating two small
- screw dislocation allows easy crystal
grains or crystals having different
growth because additional atoms can be
crystallographic orientations in
added to the step of the screw. Any
polycrystalline materials
dislocation in a crystal is a combination of
• Within the boundary region, which is
edge and screw character.
probably just several atom distances
Interfacial Defects wide, there is some atomic mismatch
in a transition from the crystalline
• Also known as area defects are
orientation of one grain to that of an
boundaries that have two-
adjacent one
dimensional and normally separate
• Chemically reactive than the grain
regions of the material with different
themselves as a consequence of this
structures and/or crystallographic
boundary energy
orientations on either side of them
• They refer to the regions of
distortions that lie above the surface
having thickness of few atomic
diameter.

Types of Interfacial Defects

1. External Surfaces
• One of the most obvious boundaries,
along which the crystal structure
terminates 3. Phase Boundary
• Surface atoms are not bonded to the • Exist in multiphase materials,
maximum number of nearest wherein a different phase exists on
neighbors, and are therefore in a each side of the boundary;
 furthermore, each of the constituent 3. Twist Boundary: when the angle of
phase has its own distinctive physical misorientations is parallel to the
and/or chemical characteristics boundary, which can be described by
4. Twin Boundary an array of screw dislocations
• A special type of grain boundary
Annealing Twins
across which there is a specific mirror
lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on • Are typically found in metals that
one side of the boundary are located have the FCC crystal structure, which
in mirror-image positions of the mechanical twins are observed in
atoms on the other side BCC and HCP metals.
• Results from atomic displacements
Bulk or Volume Defects
that are produced from applied
mechanical shear forces (mechanical • Other defects that are much larger
twins), and also during annealing than those heretofore discussed exist
heat treatments following in all solid materials
deformation (annealing twins). • They are normally introduced during
• Occurs on a definite crystallographic processing and fabrication steps.
plane and in a specific direction, both
Atomic Vibrations
of which depend on the crystal
structure. • May bethought of as imperfections
or defects. Every atom in a solid
material is vibrating very rapidly
about its lattice position within the
crystal.
Catalyst

• Is a substance that speeds up the rate

of a chemical reaction without
participating in the reaction itself.
• One of the catalysts exists as a solid;
Types of Grain Boundary reactant molecules in a gas or liquid
phase are absorbed onto the
1. Small- (or low-) angle: when this
catalytic surface, at which point
orientation mismatch is slight, on the
some type of interaction occurs that
order of a few degrees. Also, can be
promotes an increase in their
described in terms of dislocation
chemical reactivity rate
arrays.
2. Tilt Boundary: One simple small-
angle grain boundary is formed when
edge dislocations are aligned in the
manner.
Macroscopic

• They are large enough to be

observed with the unaided eye
• Are often evident on aluminum
streetlight posts and also on highway
guard rails.
• Relatively large grains having
different textures are clearly visible
on the surface of the sectioned lead
ingot
Microscopic

• Having diameters that may be on the

order of microns, ad their details
must be investigated using some
type of microscope