The Math Trail as a Learning Activity Model

for M-Learning Enhanced Realistic

Mathematics Education: A Case Study
in Primary Education

Georgios Fessakis(&), Paschalina Karta, and Konstantinos Kozas

University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece

{gfesakis,psemdt140162,psed150073}@aegean.gr

Abstract. Seeking a systematic combination of the pedagogical model of

m-learning with the Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) approach, this
study concerns the use of math trail as a learning activity model that can take the
advantages of mobile computing devices for the design of effective learning
experiences in an authentic context. The paper presents the design and the study
of the first pilot implementation of a math trail, using mobile devices for primary
school students. In this math trail, the students are guided, through a digital map,
to a sequence of preselected sites of a park where they solve specially designed
math problems using data from the environmental context. The students measure
real objects’ dimensions either with conventional instruments or by measure-
ment applications of their tablet. According to the findings of the study, students
solved the puzzles by applying mathematical knowledge, discussion and col-
laboration. The students applied and reinforced their knowledge through an
effective and engaging learning activity. Moreover, the students were puzzled
about the differences of the measurements by conventional and digital instru-
ments and this confusion triggered social negotiation. Further research is needed
for a grounded theory development about m-learning design for RME.

Keywords: Learning design
M-learning
Realistic mathematics education

Math trails

1 Introduction

The widespread use of various kinds of mobile devices (e.g. Tablet PC, Smartphones,
iPad) and their integration into the daily life of children have created new facts on the
potential of the pedagogical model of mobile learning (m-learning). Due to the
extensive use of technology inside and outside the school setting, today’s children are
classified as “i-generation students” [1]. The broad use of mobile devices creates new
challenges for the learning design. Learning technology researchers and teachers are
trying to integrate mobile devices into schools in a meaningful way. In this paper, we
focus on the learning design of meaningful m-learning activities for elementary school
mathematics. The authors are interested in the idea that m-learning is consistent with
the principles of the Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) approach, and it can

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

M. E. Auer et al. (eds.), Teaching and Learning in a Digital World,
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 715,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73210-7_39
324 G. Fessakis et al.

improve its applications. This paper proposes the use of the math trail as a learning
activity model for systematic mobile learning design for mathematical education [2] in
elementary school students. The following sections of the paper present a brief intro-
duction of m-learning and math trails and then the design and the analysis of the case
study of the math trail that was designed for this research.

2 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Mobile Learning
Widely spread portable computing devices and wireless internet are now radically
transforming the notions of discourse and knowledge [3] and make possible new
learning models such as m-learning [4]. M-learning, which is defined as the use of
wireless handheld devices in order to engage participants in some form of meaningful
learning [5], as a component of formal or informal education [6]. During m-learning
experiences, the learners have access anytime and anyplace to information in order to
perform authentic activities [7]. In other words, m-learning constitutes a relatively new
pedagogical model in which students learn as they move, interacting with each other,
their environment as well, through the mediation of applications that run on varying
types of mobile digital devices [8]. As it is supported by UNESCO m-learning gives
literal meaning to the principle that “the world is a classroom” [9]. Until recently, the
context “sensitive location depended learning” has been applied mainly to the informal
learning because of the cost of the devices and the requirement to move outside the
school environment [10]. With the broad use of the mobile devices and the wireless
internet access, mobile learning functions bridges the gap between formal and informal
learning [8].

2.2 Mobile Learning and Realistic Mathematics

Freudenthal [11], the main representative of RME movement, has argued that math-
ematics had to be taught in such a way to become useful for solving everyday-life
problems. He was a strong supporter of “Mathematics for All”, trying to make
mathematics accessible to everybody and he also advocated problem-solving as a
teaching method. According to RME, learners should find the starting point of their
learning in rich, complex structures of the real world and afterward they must continue
to the abstract structures of the world of symbols. Other RME researchers consider
important to view concepts as problem-solving tools and discover them through their
application in authentic contexts [12]. With the use of digital technology, learners can
develop deeper understanding of mathematics, because technology as a mindtool can
support learners’ inquiry, decision making, reflection, reasoning, and problem-solving
capacity [13]. The principles of RME constitute a context in which digital technology
could provide significant assistance in teaching and learning [14], because digital
technology itself influences the kind of mathematics that are taught and enhances
students’ learning [13]. Furthermore, networked mobile devices contribute to mathe-
matics education by fostering the collaboration between participants [15].
 The Math Trail as a Learning Activity Model 325

2.3 Research Review for Mobile Learning and Realistic Mathematics

Research review reports that only 1.9% of research published between 2009 and 2014
had as a subject the investigation m-learning for Mathematics education [16]. Available
research on RME and m-learning is even more limited [17–20]. The results of a
systematic research review regarding m-learning applications in mathematics education
have shown positive results concerning: performance in basic mathematical concepts
and arithmetic in Kindergarten [14, 21] and the first grade [22], in engagement and
confidence of secondary education students [19] and finally in team collaboration and
understanding of graphs [23]. The studies above do not concern key distinctive features
of the pedagogical model of m-learning, such as students’ movement and their inter-
action with the natural environment, but the use of mobile devices as a more flexible
type of electronic computers. Moreover, the search of educational applications, for
elementary school mathematics, in mobile devices (e.g. in app store and iTunes ser-
vices) showed that most the available apps are educational applications concern
arithmetic drill and practice instructional games. In other words, they do not require
moving in space and do not utilize the sensors of portable devices. Hence, a research
gap is ascertained regarding the combination of mobile learning with RME.

2.4 Mobile Learning, Realistic Mathematics Education and Math Trails

In an attempt to explore models for the use of space and context sensitive applications
of mobile devices in learning designing in general and for mathematics learning more
specifically, the authors consider various models of activities such as treasure hunt
games [24] and math trails. As stated in Ref. [25], math trail is a walk (a tour) towards
the discovery of Mathematics. More typically, the math trail includes a pre-planned
route, which is defined by a sequence of stops in which students examine the envi-
ronment in a mathematical way [2]. A remarkable collection of mathematical trails is
available from the MathCityMap project of the University of Frankfurt (https://
mathcitymap.eu). The math trail constitutes a learning activity model that combines:
movement, communication, collaboration, problem-solving, links of school knowledge
with the real world and other school subjects, practical application of knowledge and
skills in the conceptual and natural environment [26]. The compatibility of the
mathematical trails features with the principles of RME is quite evident. Mobile
devices support the advanced interaction between the user and the environment. The
above statements highlight the need to search the possibility of the m-learning appli-
cation in order to improve mathematics trails and realistic mathematics.

3 The Mathematical Trail “The Fairy of the Waterfalls”

For research purposes, a math trail was designed, which was named “The fairy of the
waterfalls”. The site chosen is the waterfalls’ park of Edessa city in Greece. The
estimated duration of the trail was approximately 1–2 h. To make it more attractive, a
story was integrated into the math trail. Students are requested to solve a series of math
problems in order to find the fairy of waterfalls. As soon as the students solve a
326 G. Fessakis et al.

problem, they earn some pieces of the fairy’s puzzle. In the end, after they provide
correct answers to all problems, they can assemble the puzzle and see the image of the
famous fairy. There are six problems in the trail located in corresponding stops of the
park area. In order to facilitate the children to find these six places, a Google Map was
made for the specific mathematical trail. The math trail map that was given to the
students is available on: http://goo.gl/iMeu53. Each stop of the math trail is marked by
a corresponding pinpoint on the map. Arriving at each stop of the trail, students can see
on the digital map, a photo of the stop and a text with instructions about the problem.
At each stop, the students are requested to solve the problems in Table 1.

Table 1. The math trail’s stops and problems

For the required measurements, students were provided with a conventional tape
measure and the application “Object Height” (Fig. 1). The measurement applications
usually require the user’s height and then they permit the measurement of the user’s
distance from a specific target point on the camera of the device. They also measure the
height of objects on the camera, by applying the Pythagorean Theorem for a given
angle of inclination which they measure with the help of the tilt sensor of the device.
 The Math Trail as a Learning Activity Model 327

Fig. 1. Object Height app’s user interface screenshots

The “Object Height” is a specific mobile application for measuring both height and
length. In order to use the app, the user has to follow three steps: Step 1. Insert his/hers
height, Step 2. Take a photo so that the red line that appears on the camera (Fig. 1) is at the
base of the object to be measured and Step 3. Take a photo so that the red line of the camera
is on the top of the object. This will show the height of the object and the user’s distance
from it. The application works by using the same principles as a simple theodolite, or as a
more modern geodetic measurement station. This measuring apps accuracy is very sen-
sitive to the user’s alignment and skills. As a result, the digital measurements will vary
among student groups as well as those made with the tape measure.

4 Methodology, Research Questions, and Research

Conditions

The following research questions were posed before the study:

RQ1: Can math trails, enhanced by mobile technologies, help primary school
students in the development of mathematical concepts, such as the length, the
circumference, the area and their measurement?
RQ2: Can math trails, enhanced by mobile technologies, be effective, attractive and
feasible for primary school students?
RQ3: Can math trails, enhanced by mobile technologies, foster collaboration
among the learners?
The methodology chosen is a combination of the design experiment [27] and
exploratory case study [28]. For the collection of research data questionnaires, the
students’ worksheets, the interviews and the researcher’s observation log have been
used. The second author participated in the implementation of the trail as the teacher.
The participants of the research were four children of the sixth grade of a public
Elementary school in Edessa. The details of the participants are shown in Table 2. The
rules of research ethics were followed the children’s and their guardians’ consent was
given after they were informed about the purpose and the research process. All children
knew how to use a tablet while children who had their own tablet mentioned that they
use it 1–3 h per day for gaming and web browsing.
328 G. Fessakis et al.

Table 2. The participants of the research

A/A Alias Gender Age Owns tablet
1 P.A. M 12 Yes
2 E.K. F 12 Yes
3 X.A. M 12 Yes
4 L.K. F 12 No

Children implemented the math trail on Sunday, 18/12/2016 and the total duration
of the process was 75 min. In order to prepare the children, a three-hour meeting took
place, one day before the trail implementation. In this meeting, the students became
familiar with the use of the map on tablet and the measuring tape. In addition, students’
previous knowledge of the concepts of the trail was examined by written exercises
using paper and pencil. The examination showed that the children knew the formulas
for rectangles dimensions but they faced problems with the formulas for the cycle.
During the preparation of the students, previous knowledge was recalled, questions
were answered and misconceptions were worked out.

5 Findings

The students completed the trail and solved the problems that corresponded to all six
stops. They also kept their interest and enthusiasm during the entire activity. The
students collaborated, discussed and made common decisions and initiatives. All the
students used the tablet and the applications, Google Maps and Object Height. The
difficulties that appeared in the solution of the problems were expected for this level of
education. More specifically, children mixed up the concept of the radius with the
diameter during the calculations related to the circle (stops 1 and 3). However, they
came up with a solution, by discussing the problem and referring to the preparation
material. Students were familiar almost with the whole park area and they found some
of the stops without using the map. Nonetheless, in some cases (e.g. stops No. 3 &
No. 4) they used the map and their GPS position trace to find the point that they were
looking for. The automatic navigation of Google Maps was not used by the students
even they were allowed to. Students noticed discrepancies in the representation of the
GPS position on the map, when the internet connection was not strong enough and they
critically interpreted these discrepancies based on the position of the known landmarks.
The dialogues that took place in stop 4 (the staircase) are characteristic:
L.K.: “Miss, the map shows that we are moving, it doesn’t show where we are”.
L.K.: “Miss, we are here [at stop No. 4] but the sign on the map for stop No. 4 is
farther away”.
As it was expected, students came up with different results in measurements with
the measuring tape and the Object Height App. Table 3 shows characteristic comments
of the students on the differences in measurements in various stops. Generally, the
students trusted more the measurements with the measuring tape instead of the tablet,
since for them this kind of a measuring procedure is like a black box.
 The Math Trail as a Learning Activity Model 329

Table 3. Vignettes from the math trail implementation

In the case of discrepancies, they tried to re-measure so that tablet measurements

approximate the values of the measuring tape. The cases of stops 3 and 6 (Table 3) are
more interesting where the children could only use the tablet. In the case of stop 3, the
students were asked to measure from a distance the diameter of a circular metal
structure. The first measurement was rejected as false by the children because they
empirically considered it to be very large. Also in the case of stop 6, students concluded
that the height of the waterfall cannot be measured with the measuring tape so they just
estimated a part of it by using the tablet. Children were amazed when the teacher told
them that this was possible using analogy in photos, in the discussion after the trail
walk.

6 Results

This section, based on the findings, gives answers to the research questions.
RQ1: Can math trails, enhanced by mobile technologies, help primary education
students in the development of mathematical concepts, such as the length, the cir-
cumference, the area and their measurement?
330 G. Fessakis et al.

The students practiced in measuring length, the distinction of the radius from the
diameter and the circumference from the area. They also applied all the knowledge
acquired in school to realistic situations of everyday life in the natural environment in
the area calculation of a rectangle and a circle transferring. In addition, the students
became familiar with the concept of accuracy and measurement error. With the use of
the digital map, the students practiced in reading the map and its use to navigate in
space. Math trail and the use of the tablet can contribute to the strengthening of the
knowledge of mathematical concepts. Furthermore, the students realized the limits of
their ability to make accurate measurements and calculations. This experience
improved significantly their mathematical and computational thinking.
RQ2: Can math trails enhanced by mobile technologies be effective, attractive, and
feasible for primary school students?
As far as efficiency is concerned, the experiment results are positive since the
learning objectives of the math trail, such as the application of mathematical concepts
in authentic environment, the use of a tablet as a learning tool, the radius distinction
from the diameter, the comparison of the measuring tape with the application Object
Height, the use of a digital map, as well as the collaboration were achieved satisfac-
torily by all students.
The application of the mathematics trail seems to be feasible and worth of the extra
effort and time required. This is not only due to its effectiveness but also due to its
impact on the quality of the students’ interaction. Moreover, the math trail that was
applied seemed to be particularly attractive to the students. On the question “how they
characterize the mathematical trail” their answers are: “good, fun, fantastic, and
different”. Finally, the students stated that they would wish to participate again in such
an activity in the future. The following statement of P.A is characteristic.: “Miss, if you
repeat this experiment, please choose us again to do it together!”.
RQ3. Can math trails, enhanced by mobile technologies, foster collaboration
among the learners?
The math trail with the specific script of action has fostered collaboration among
the students for map reading and navigation as well as for the solving of math prob-
lems. The students had intensive on task discussions about navigation, measurements
and problem-solving. Students overcame the difficulties that appeared in the solution of
the problems through their collaboration. Table 3 contains characteristic episode of the
quality of interaction among students as well as students and the teacher.

7 Summary-Discussion

M-learning is a modern pedagogical model which can make learning more enjoyable
and effective as it utilizes mobile devices which are very popular. M-learning can
support the construction of knowledge in the context of its application. These char-
acteristics make mobile learning compatible with RME. However, the applications of
mobile technologies in RME are fairly a few and they do not take full advantage of the
pedagogical model. In order to facilitate the design of m-learning application for RME,
the enhancement of a math trail with mobile technologies was explored. The math trail
had a positive impact on the students learning and contributed to the transfer of school
 The Math Trail as a Learning Activity Model 331

knowledge to authentic situations. The results of this research are in alignment to those
of other researchers [18, 19, 24]. M-learning fosters collaboration, facilitates the math
trail implementation, and makes it more efficient and attractive. The students applied
and improved their map skills with the support of GPS and Google Maps application.
Moreover, by the comparison of the measurements with a tape measure to the ones of
the Object Height application, the students understood better the concepts of mea-
surement accuracy, error and approximation. The students reached the limits of the
potential practical applications of measurement with measuring tape and a tablet. Thus,
they laid the foundations for acquiring new knowledge such as the applications of the
Pythagorean Theorem and measurements through ratios in photos. Generally, the
researchers believe, according to the findings of this research is that mobile learning
can contribute to the improvement and the enhancement of realistic mathematics
education for primary school students. The research can be continued in the future with
more trails, a larger sample of children and more detailed records of the interactions
during implementation. It could also be the basis for developing an online community
of practice that will share math trails with mobile technologies.

References
1. Bouck, E.C., Flanagan, S., Miller, B., Bassette, L.: Technology in action. J. Spec. Educ.
Technol. 27(4), 47–57 (2012)
2. Cross, R.: Developing math trails. Math. Teach. 158, 38–39 (1997)
3. Traxler, J.: Defining mobile learning. In: Isaías, P., Borg, C., Kommens, P., Bonanno,
P. (eds.), Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on Mobile Learning, Qwara,
Malta, pp. 261–266 (2005)
4. Zhang, Y.: Design of mobile teaching and learning in higher education: introduction.
Handbook of Mobile Teaching and Learning, pp. 3–10 (2015)
5. Traxler, J.: Current state of mobile learning. Mob. Learn Transform. Deliv. Educ. Train. 1,
9–24 (2009)
6. Stevens, D., Kitchenham, A.: An analysis of mobile learning in education, business, and
medicine. In: Kitchenham, A. (ed.) Models for Interdisciplinary Mobile Learning: Delivering
Information to Students, pp. 1–25. IGI Global, Hersey (2011)
7. Martin, F., Ertzberger, J.: Here and now mobile learning: an experimental study on the use of
mobile technology. Comput. Educ. 68, 76–85 (2013)
8. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Traxler, J.: Mobile teaching and learning. In: Kukuluska-Hulme, A.,
Traxler, J., (eds.) Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers, pp. 25–44
(2005)
9. Kraut, R.: UNESCO Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning. UNESCO, France (2013)
10. Markouzis, D., Fessakis, G.: Interactive storytelling and mobile augmented reality
applications for learning and entertainment—a rapid prototyping perspective. In: Interna-
tional Conference on Interactive Mobile Communication Technologies and Learning
(IMCL) 2015, pp. 4–8 (2015)
11. Freudenthal, H.: Why to teach mathematics so as to be useful. Educ. Stud. Math. 1(1), 3–8
(1968)
12. Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., Drijvers, P.: Realistic mathematics education. In:
Encyclopedia of Mathematics Education, pp. 521–525. Springer, Dordrecht (2014)
332 G. Fessakis et al.

13. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. In: Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics, vol. 1 (2000)
14. Clements, D.H.: From exercises and tasks to problems and projects: unique contributions of
computers to innovative mathematics education. J. Math. Behav. 19(1), 9–47 (2000)
15. Koole, M.L.: A model for framing mobile learning. Mob. Learn. Transform. Deliv. Educ.
Train. 1(2), 25–47 (2009)
16. Soykan, E., Uzunboylu, H.: New trends on mobile learning area: the review of published
articles on mobile learning in science direct database. World J. Educ. Technol. 7(1), 31–41
(2015)
17. Daher, W.: Students’ perceptions of learning mathematics with cellular phones and applets.
Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 4(1), 23–28 (2009)
18. Baya’a, N., Daher, W.: Students’ perceptions of mathematics learning using mobile phones.
In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Mobile and Computer Aided Learning,
vol. 4, pp. 1–9 (2009)
19. Bray, A., Oldham, E., Tangney, B.: Technology-mediated realistic mathematics education
and the bridge21 model: a teaching experiment. In: Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the
European Society for Research in Mathematics Education, Prague, pp. 2487–2493 (2015)
20. Cahyono, A.N., Ludwig, M.: MathCityMap: exploring mathematics around the city.
Presented at the 13th International Congress on Mathematics Education (ICME-13),
Hamburg (2016)
21. Zaranis, N.: Does the use of information and communication technology through the use of
realistic mathematics education help kindergarten students to enhance their effectiveness in
addition and subtraction? Presch. Prim. Educ. 5(1), 46–62 (2017). https://doi.org/10.12681/
ppej.9058
22. Zaranis, N., Baralis, G., Skordialos, E.: The use of ICT in teaching substraction to the first
grade students. In: Proceedings of Fourteenth the IIER International Conference, Paris,
France, pp. 99–104 (2015)
23. Widjaja, Y.B., Heck, A.: How a realistic mathematics education approach and
microcomputer-based laboratory worked in lessons on graphing at an Indonesian Junior
High School. J. Sci. Math. Educ. Southeast Asia 26(2), 1–51 (2003)
24. Fessakis, G., Bekri, A.-F., Konstantopoulou, A.: Designing a mobile game for spatial and
map abilities of kindergarten children. In: 10th European Conference on Games Based
Learning, ECGBL 2016, Scotland, pp. 183–192 (2016)
25. Shoaf, M.M., Pollak, H., Schneider, J.: Math Trails. COMAP, Lexington (2004)
26. Richardson, K.M.: Designing math trails for the elementary school. Teach. Child. Math. 11
(1), 8–14 (2004)
27. Cobb, P., Confrey, J., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., Schauble, L.: Design experiments in
educational research. Educ. Res. 32(1), 9–13 (2003)
28. Yin, R.: Case study Research. Design and Methods. Sage Publications, New Delhi (2014)