10.4324 9781849773645 Previewpdf

John Blewitt
Understanding
Sustainable
Development
Understanding Sustainable
Development
Understanding Sustainable
Development
John Blewitt
London • Sterling, VA
First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2008
Copyright © John Blewitt, 2008
All rights reserved
ISBN: 978-1-84407-455-6 hardback
978-1-84407-454-9 paperback
Typeset by MapSet Ltd, Gateshead, UK
Printed and bound in the UK by TJ International, Padstow
Cover design by Yvonne Booth
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Blewitt, John, 1957-
Understanding sustainable development / John Blewitt.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-1-84407-455-6 (hbk.) — ISBN 978-1-84407-454-9 (pbk.) 1. Sustainable development. I. Title.
HC79.E5B58 2008
338.9’27—dc22
2008016057
The paper used for this book is FSC-certified.

FSC (the Forest Stewardship Council) is an
international network to promote responsible
management of the world’s forests.
Contents
List of Figures, Tables and Boxes vii
Introduction ix
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xv
1 Globalization and Sustainable Development 1
2 Worldviews and Ethical Values – Towards an Ecological Paradigm 27
3 Cultural and Contested Understandings of Science and Sustainability 51
4 Connecting the Social with the Environmental: Social Capital and
Environmental Justice 75
5 Sustainable Development, Politics and Governance 99
6 Beyond the Imperatives of Economic Growth and ‘Business as Usual’ 123
7 Envisioning a Sustainable Society 149
8 Tools and Systems for Sustainability 173
9 Communication and Learning for Sustainability 199
10 Leading the Sustainability Process 225
References 251
Appendix 1 The Earth Charter 273
Appendix 2 Principles of Environmental Justice 275
Appendix 3 Shenzhen Declaration on EcoCity Development 277
Index 279
List of Figures, Tables
and Boxes
Figures
1.1 The guiding principles of Securing the Future 20
6.1 Constituents of wellbeing 124
8.1 National ecofootprints (to scale) 176
8.2 The funnel as a metaphor 181
8.3 The Natural Step Framework: The ABCD process 183
8.4 Illustration for a neighbourhood or community 188
8.5 Australia: GDP and GPI, 1950–1996 (constant 1990 prices) 195
8.6 State of the future index 197
Tables
1.1 Ecological and socio-political scales 13

6.1 The sustainability spectrum 136
8.1 UN Habitat Urban Governance Indicators: Project categories and measures of
‘good urban governance’ in developing world cities 174
8.2 TNS’s ABCD analysis 182
8.3 Examples of sustainable community indicators 186
8.4 EU sustainable development ranking 195
8.5 State of the future index 2007: Where humanity is winning and losing 197
9.1 UK National Framework for Sustainable Schools, 2006 222
10.1 Sustainability blunders and solutions 234
10.2 Project SIGMA management framework 235
10.3 Leadership styles for resonant organizational teams 245
Boxes
2.1 Resilience and systems thinking in practice 44

3.1 Global warming: The risks and impacts 64
4.1 Sunderland City Council’s e-Neighbourhood Programme 84
viii Understanding Sustainable Development
4.2 SVTC vision for sustainable communities in Silicon Valley 92

4.3 Environmental justice and environmental space 94
5.1 Political action from the outside: Jose Bove and the Confederation Paysanne 105
5.2 The 2007 World Social Forum, Nairobi 111
5.3 The Green Belt Movement in Kenya 120
6.1 New jobs in the eco-efficient economy: Lester Brown’s Plan B 137
6.2 Sustainable computing at Sun Microsystems 141
7.1 Car-less living in Ecotopia’s new towns 151
7.2 The Hanover Principles 158
7.3 Samuel Mockbee – Learning and the Rural Studio 167
8.1 The ecological footprint of Greater London 178
9.1 Communicating climate change 210
10.1 Schwarzenegger’s guiltless green 227
10.2 One Planet Leaders 232
10.3 Ricardo Semler and the Semco way 239
10.4 A story of leadership, hope and achievement: Gaviotas 248
Introduction
There is a word for it: Zeitgeist. A German known about climate change for many years
word meaning something like climate or spirit but refused to acknowledge that we were
of the times. Today, the Zeitgeist is one that mainly responsible for it. Too big a responsibil-
embraces a growing recognition that human ity for us to handle? Or just an inconvenient
actions have impacted seriously and truth? It is as ridiculous to be a climate
negatively on our planet’s ecosystems. change denier as it is to believe the Earth is
Debates over climate change are now focusing flat. Attitudinal and political change is
on mitigation and adaptation rather than happening slowly, too slowly perhaps; but it is
whether it is happening or what is causing it. happening.
The answer to this last question is fairly simple Sustainable development is simple. It is
and generally agreed. Human action is the the idea that the future should be a better,
predominant cause of the massive and rapid healthier, place than the present. The idea is
acceleration of greenhouse gasses, global not new, but the way it is understood, reflected
warming and climate turbulence. Our ways of upon, cultivated and implemented possibly is.
doing business, of producing goods and Neither modern nor postmodern, sustainable
services, have used the Earth’s resources as if development requires an understanding of the
they were inexhaustible. The Earth itself has natural world and the human social world as
been treated simultaneously as a factory, being not so much ‘connected’ as one and the
pleasure park, garbage dump, larder, market- same. Sustainable development is a process
place and war zone. It is self-evident that we, that requires us to view our lives as elements
as a species, cannot continue as we are doing. of a larger entity. It requires a holistic way of
Obscene poverty and fabulous wealth live side looking at the world and human life. It requires
by side, and the natural world, for many, can a recognition that other people may not see
not be accessed at all. Things are not what things like this at all and will have different
they used to be, although poverty, inequality, perceptions, values, philosophies, aims and
injustice, environmental degradation and war ambitions. It requires an understanding that
are not exactly modern phenomena. But now the world is multi-faceted, fragmented and
we cannot simply continue in the same old complete. This may not be easy to grasp at
way without putting the future at risk of not first, but it is a way of looking at the world and
happening at all. Hence the imperative of one which increasingly makes sense. That, in
sustainable development – our evolving spirit any case, is my view.
of the times. It has been a long time coming There are other views. Sustainable devel-
and there have been many resistances and opment is the product of many stories,
refusals along the way. For instance, we have worldviews, values, actions and perspectives
x Understanding Sustainable Development
which to be fully appreciated require a readi- roots in ensuring that the planet’s ecosystems
ness to listen to others, respect differences, are protected from the ravages of human
suspend established opinions, and see with civilization. Maybe the best way to view
others’ eyes while allowing other voices to sustainable development is as a collage or a
resonate and be heard. Sustainable develop- kaleidoscope of shapes, colours and patterns
ment both requires dialogue and is a dialogue that change constantly as we ourselves
of values. That is the underpinning rationale change. It is for us, therefore, to make sense of
of this book in offering a series of guides and the world in all its complexity. We must avoid
signposts to a range of contributions to this imposing convenient conceptual frameworks
dialogue. Of course, this view is both which the world just does not fit but which
contestable and not particularly original, but if we find comfortable or accessible. There is a
elements within the text motivate further need to acknowledge that we do not, and
thought, reflection and dialogue, then maybe cannot, understand everything,
hopefully our understanding of sustainable however hard we might try. Uncertainty and
development will have been advanced just a the incomplete nature of our knowledge do
little bit further. not require us to apply simple, or simplistic,
Many people are coming to sustainable solutions to problems. Complex problems
development with little understanding of the require complex solutions. Sustainable devel-
key issues and debates. They may have a deep opment warrants an attitude of mind that
and detailed knowledge of one specific area, welcomes change, difference, creativity, risk,
but only the vaguest of inklings of anything uncertainty, a sense of wonder, and a desire
beyond. Others may have a general but and capacity to learn. It is a heuristic – a way
confused understanding of the theories and of learning about life and through life. The
perspectives because they are immersed in its importance of learning should never be
practice. Some people see sustainable devel- forgotten. We can only grow, flourish and be
opment as essentially about the environment, sustainable if we learn.
and indeed sustainable development has its
Speaking Personally
Having just written about values, perspectives passion. I have noticed my social, political and
and sustainable development, it is perhaps ethical values becoming slowly greener with
only right to say a little about my own under- the years. I have a strong commitment to
standing of sustainable development and my social and environmental justice, and a
own learning and journey towards it. Like so number of writers and practitioners have been
many other things, my values have evolved, significant influences on my learning journey.
taken on different hues, as I have learned I have been particularly open to the social
more about the world, other people and ecology of Murray Bookchin, the bioregional-
myself. Having been a teacher in adult, further ism and humanism of Lewis Mumford, and
and higher education for about 25 years, increasingly the ancient wisdom and spiritual
learning is actually my business as well as my engagement of indigenous peoples. The work
Introduction xi
of Greg Buckman, Wolfgang Sacks and colleagues. Teaching is the corollary of learn-
Vandana Shiva has been extremely important ing, but our learning must not simply be
for me too. Finally, I have always been most at confined to abstract academic exercises or a
ease with an interdisciplinary or trans- playing with words. Learning must be married
disciplinary approach to understanding the to change, and words to action. As the
world around us. No one discipline can gener- American philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson
ate a holistic understanding of human beings (Ziff, 1982, p61) wrote in his famous 1836
and their relationship to the planet or each essay Nature:
other. Having said this, I have nonetheless
Words are finite organs of the infinite mind.
tried to be even handed in my selection and
They cannot cover the dimensions of what is
account of ideas, values, issues and actions in truth. They break, chop and impoverish it.
discussed in this book. I have used a variety of An action is the perfection and publication of
sources and have learned a great deal from thought. A right action seems to fill the eye,
many people – friends, family, students and and be related to all nature.
Outline of the Book
The chapters of this book are relatively self- development is told through the establish-
contained, but together make for an ment and work of major institutions, and this
understanding of sustainable development chapter does that too with sections on the
that celebrates complexity and diversity. The World Bank, the United Nations, the World
various sections hopefully demonstrate why Trade Organization, and the major interna-
sustainable development is such a necessity. tional milestones that encompass Stockholm,
Theoretical discussions are interspersed with Rio, Kyoto, Johannesburg, Seattle and other
empirical case studies, and at the end of each iconic place names. Towards the end of the
chapter are some ‘thinking questions’ that chapter the focus narrows to show how
may serve as guides for future and continuing sustainable development policy has been
reflection. articulated in a national context, and, using
Chapter One focuses on issues of global- the example of the ongoing struggles to
ization and sustainable development by conserve the ancient temporal forests of
exploring four specific worldviews and then British Columbia in Clayoquot Sound, the
moving on to examine how the language of relationship between the local and the global
economics has shaped much of the discourse. is analysed. Finally, the idea of sustainable
The human experience of economic growth development constituting a ‘dialogue of
and development offers many salutary lessons values’ is outlined.
– poverty, sweatshops, debt, slums and crime. Chapter Two explores some of the major
The work of renowned economists Jeffrey philosophical, theoretical and ethical contri-
Sachs and Joseph Stiglitz and the more radical butions to the evolving process of sustainable
critiques of globalization articulated by Greg development. Each section is connected so
Buckman and George Monbiot are also that the reader may detect similarities and
discussed. Frequently, the story of sustainable differences between the various perspectives
xii Understanding Sustainable Development
and may gain the opportunity to learn new is not just environmentalism is reinforced
things or perhaps revisit previously discounted throughout by demonstrating the complexity
points of view. From ‘deep ecology’ to ‘actor and interconnectedness of the issues, actions,
network theory’ to ‘environmental moderniza- challenges and hopes of many sustainability
tion’, this chapter maps sustainable practitioners. Human beings have the capacity,
development’s intellectual terrain. Chapter and the capability, to right the wrongs and
Three extends these earlier excursions by repair the damage they have done if they have
reviewing some of the major controversies, the collective will to do so. Chapter Six
disputes and conflicts which sustainable examines the central importance of econom-
development has stimulated. The ideas and ics and business, which have been frequently
priorities of the Danish statistician Bjørn viewed as a major cause of the problem but
Lomborg, whose view on climate change and are now increasingly seen as a necessary part
much else is hotly contested, shows how of the solution. How could it be otherwise,
energetic the debate can be and how a certain given their overwhelming importance in
contrariness can motivate others to develop, fashioning everyone’s ways of life, material
refine and rearticulate their own views. The wellbeing and life opportunities? Views of
role and meaning of ‘sound science’ is also course differ, ranging from the revolutionary
explored using genetic modification as an dismantling of the global economic system to
example. Some space is also dedicated to its restructuring and reshaping through
outlining the concept of the risk society and processes of localization, eco-efficiency and
its relevance to understanding the idea that corporate responsibility as exemplified by such
ultimately sustainability is a political act. companies as Interface and such practices as
Chapter Four moves towards the social fair trade. A discussion of economic growth
and environmental spheres by discussing the and the hegemony of gross domestic product
growing significance of the environmental (GDP) frames these explorations.
justice movement. The reality of the poor, the Now to the future. Chapter Seven looks at
disadvantaged and the exploited always how the future has been and is being
seeming to be the victims of corporate greed, conceived, by addressing the value of utopian
government corruption or history demon- thinking and some practical attempts to
strates that at the core of sustainable establish prefigurative ecovillages. What
development is a moral imperative. Given the humans can dream, they can also create in
unavoidable and mesmerizing advances of their physical lives on Earth. Much attention is
new media technologies throughout the devoted to urban development and environ-
globe, the significance of information and mental design, because today over half the
communication technology (ICT) is also world’s population live in urban settlements
explored as a means towards fashioning a and because the origins of our present crises
more just and healthy world. Chapter Five can often be traced back to problems with
shifts the focus onto the political, looking at urban design and planning. Techniques and
human agency, ecological democratization, examples of backcasting and scenario analysis
environmental campaigning, civic action, the are also discussed. Chapter Eight moves the
politics of place and community empower- focus on to the resolutely practical by explor-
ment. The idea that sustainable development ing the connectivity between means and ends,
Introduction xiii
tools and practices, indices and the nature of ingredients for community development and
human wellbeing and human flourishing. personal engagement. The chapter ends with a
Ecological footprinting and environmental reference to the culture of aboriginal peoples,
space, the Natural Step Framework and the suggesting that leaders are less important
Global Reporting Initiative, and eco-labelling than developing wisdom and respect for
and consumption have as their aim to enable nature and, by implication, each other.
us to live on the only planet we have. Chapter Sustainable development encompasses
Nine links communication, marketing, new far more than can be covered in one book, so
media, education and learning as both accompanying Understanding Sustainable
vehicles for, and integral aspects of, sustain- Development is a website providing illustrative
able development. This immensely important and complementary material, resources and
field is central to fashioning a sustainable links which will enable the reader to further
world, although here, as with so much else, explore subjects, ideas and actions – see
there are debates and disputes as well as www.people.ex.ac.uk/jdblewit/. But beware,
dialogue. Combined with action, communica- there are no magic bullets. No one way of
tion and learning are ways through which squaring the circle. Sustainable development
many peoples, groups and communities can is, and probably always will be, work in
find their true voice and if necessary invite progress. What we do and how we understand
themselves to the high table of policy formu- what we do is key to making fewer mistakes,
lation and practical action. The final chapter, to learning better ways and to nurturing the
Chapter Ten, explores leadership and manage- hope that our future will be a better place
ment, with practical case-study examples and than the past for the Earth and all that lives
by rooting the idea and need for leadership in and relies upon it.
some of the key values and philosophies Some brief acknowledgements are now in
informing the dialogue on sustainability and order. My thanks go to Donna Ladkin, John
sustainable development. The management Merefield, Alan Dyer and Stewart Barr, whose
system Project SIGMA is rooted in the idea of comments on a very scruffy early draft were
environmental modernization, and the maver- immensely valuable, to Rob West of Earthscan
ick businessman Ricardo Semler’s leadership for commissioning the book and appreciating
achievements are rooted in corporate creativ- the need for a dialogic approach, to my many
ity, knowledge innovation and self- students over the years, particularly on the
organization. The practicalities of dialogue, MSc Sustainable Development course at the
the significance of emotional intelligence, and University of Exeter, and to my wife Lorna,
the capacity for understanding, being and who is an inspiration and without whom I
working with others are presented as key could not have written this at all.
List of Acronyms
and Abbreviations
ABCD awareness, baseline, clear and EVH electronic village hall

compelling, down to action FTO fair trade organization
ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis GBM Green Belt Movement (Kenya)
AMOEBA Dutch acronym meaning ‘general GCAR Grupo Cultural AfroReggae (Brazil)
method for ecosystem description GDP gross domestic product
and assessment’ GHG greenhouse gas
ANT actor network theory GIS geographic information system
ASA Advertising Standards Authority GM genetic modification; genetically
(UK) modified
BAU business as usual GMO genetically modified organism
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopa- GNP gross national product
thy (mad cow disease) GPI genuine progress indicator
CAT Centre for Alternative Technology GRI Global Reporting Initiative
(Wales) HDI human development index (UN)
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity HDR Human Development Report
CEO chief executive officer (UNDP)
CFC chlorofluorocarbon HPI happy planet index
CJD Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease IA integrated assessment
CMC computer-mediated ICT information and communication
communications technology
CSR corporate social responsibility IMC Independent Media Center
DCSD Danish Committees on Scientific IMF International Monetary Fund
Dishonesty IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on
Defra Department for Environment, Climate Change
Food and Rural Affairs (UK) IPPR Institute for Public Policy Research
DFID Department for International (UK)
Development (UK) ISEW index of sustainable economic
EM ecological modernization welfare
ENGO environmental non-governmental IUCN World Conservation Union
organization LSX London Sustainability Exchange
EPA US Environmental Protection MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Agency NCWK National Council of Women in
ESD education for sustainable Kenya
development NGO non-governmental organization
xvi Understanding Sustainable Development
NIMBY not in my backyard UN United Nations

OECD Organisation for Economic UNDP United Nations Development
Co-operation and Development Programme
PR public relations UNEP United Nations Environment
R&D research and development Programme
SIBART ‘Seeing Is Believing As a UNESCO United Nations Educational,
Replication Tool’ project (EU) Scientific and Cultural
SIGMA Sustainability – Integrated Organization
Guidelines for Management UNFCCC United Nations Framework
project Convention on Climate Change
SOFI state of the future index WCED World Commission on
SPARC Society for the Promotion of Area Environment and Develeopment
Resource Centres WEDO Women’s Environment and
SVTC Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition Development Organization
TEK traditional ecological knowledge WMO World Meteorological
TNC trans-national company Organization
TNS The Natural Step WSF World Social Forum
TRIPS Trade-Related Intellectual WTO World Trade Organization
Property Rights Agreement WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
TVE Television for the Environment
1
Globalization and
Sustainable Development
Aims
The aim of this chapter is introduce the complexity of contemporary ecological and
concepts of globalization and sustainable other problems, and through a vast array of
development, indicating the complex and differing perspectives, values and interests.
contested nature of various debates, actions The chapter ends with the suggestion that
and practices. The significance and critiques of sustainable development is perhaps best
some key international agreements will be understood as a ‘dialogue of values’ – a way of
discussed. Sustainable development has devel- encouraging people to learn, to discover and
oped through political and environmental to evaluate.
struggles, through an engagement with the
Globalization
Like so many other concepts, globalization has worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of
been subject to a considerable amount of contemporary social life, from the cultural to
debate in academic and policy circles. Although the criminal, the financial to the spiritual.
a few people dispute either whether globaliza-
tion is actually occurring, or whether it is a Held et al recognize the importance of various
useful way of making sense of current trends spatial attributes suggesting globalization can
and processes, there is a general consensus that be located on a continuum that includes the
globalization is real and that it characterizes local, national and regional understood as
the nature of our times. There are a number of functioning clusters of states, economic
definitions on offer, including notions of relations, networks and societies. The authors
space–time compression and accelerating continue (1999, p15):
interdependence, but for Held et al (1999, p2):
Globalization can be taken to refer to those
Globalization may be thought of initially as spatio-temporal processes of change which
the widening, deepening and speeding up of underpin a transformation in the organization
2 Understanding Sustainable Development
of human affairs by linking together and • flows – the movements of physical

expanding human activity across regions and artefacts, people, symbols, tokens and
continents. information across space and time; and
• networks – regularized or patterned
Without reference to these spatial connec- interactions between independent agents,
tions there can be no meaningful articulation nodes of activity or sites of power.
of globalization. This approach implies:
To understand globalization it is probably
1 a stretching (extensity) of socio-political useful to consider issues such as climate
and economic activities across frontiers change or trans-boundary pollution, for
such that events, decisions and activities example acid rain or the fallout from nuclear
in one region of the world have signifi- disasters like Chernobyl. Such phenomena do
cance for individuals and communities in not respect national boundaries.
others; Desertification, environmental degradation,
2 connections across frontiers are regular- resource depletion, world trade, global
ized, rather than occasional or random, communication, new media, population
making for an intensification, or growth movements, refugee crises, crime, war and
in magnitude, of interconnectedness, security issues also rarely stay confined within
patterns of interactions and flows, which states or even regional jurisdictions (Homer-
transcend the various societies and states Dixon, 1999; Barnett, 2001). Economic growth,
making up our world; industrial development and consumerism in
3 the growing extensity, intensity and countries such as India and China are
velocity of global interconnectedness currently having massive global impacts influ-
relates to a speeding up of global inter- encing the wider ecological and economic
actions, due to the development of environment and the everyday life experiences
worldwide systems of transport and of citizens throughout the world. Geographer
communications, which increase the Doreen Massey (1993, p66), who has recon-
speed of the global diffusion of ideas, ceptualized the specificity of place as ‘a
goods, information, capital and people; constellation of relations, articulated together
and at a particular locus’ comprised of many
4 the local and global are often deeply experiences and understandings of its links to
interrelated, so distant events may have the wider world, argues today that social
profound local impacts in other parts of relations of domination and subordination are
the world and very local developments stretched over time, over the whole planet, so
may eventually have enormous global that child labour on one continent supports
consequences. The boundaries between consumer materialism in another, or environ-
domestic and global affairs are therefore mental degradation or conflict in one region
likely to become blurred. subsidizes politics and energy use elsewhere.
Held et al (1999, p377) posit an anthro-
Many globalization theorists, including most pocentric conception of environmental
notably Manuel Castells (1996), frequently degradation which refers to ‘the transforma-
refer to: tion of entire ecosystems or components of
Globalization and Sustainable Development 3
those ecosystems … whose consequences, • the exploitation and destruction of the

whether acknowledged by human actors or global commons – the atmosphere, marine
not, have an adverse impact on the economic environment and hydrological cycles;
or demographic conditions of life and/or the • demographic expansion and exponential
health of human beings’. This conception economic growth that leads to increases
recognizes the importance of the interaction in pollution and consumption of global
between the natural and human-social worlds, raw materials, for example oil and timber;
together with the problems and opportunities and
that human activity generates. Resource • trans-boundary pollution involving the
depletion, water shortages and, of course, transmission of pollutants through the
climate change are again key issues. Given air, soil and water across political borders,
this, the globalization of environmental degra- so their environmentally degrading
dation may take various forms: impact occurs in many other countries.
Perspectives and Worldviews
Public debates, discussions and discourses on in the long run improve the environment
globalization and the environment reveal a and people’s material wellbeing.
wide range of perspectives and worldviews.
Clapp and Dauvergne (2005) offer a fourfold Institutionalists
categorization, while recognizing that their
• The primary causes of global environmen-
categories are ideal types and that many
tal problems are weak institutions and
organizations, groups and individuals share
inadequate global cooperation, which has
elements drawn from two or more. Complexity
failed to correct environmental failures,
and interconnectedness frequently character-
promote development or counteract the
ize both our world and our attempts to make
self-interested nature of some states’
sense of it. The four categories are identified
actions.
in the following sections.
• The main opportunity of globalization is
to enhance opportunities for cooperation,
Market liberals
capacity-building and innovative eco-
• The main causes of global environmental efficient technologies which will generally
problems are poverty and poor economic enhance human wellbeing. The precau-
growth brought on by market failures and tionary principle should inform the
bad government polices that lead to evaluation of new developments.
market distortions (for example subsidies
or unclear property rights). Bio-environmentalists
• Globalization is largely positive because it
• The main causes of the environmental
fosters economic growth and, combined
crisis are excessive economic growth,
with the application of modern science
over-population, over-consumption and
and technology and human ingenuity, will
rampant materialism. has led to the acceleration of exploitation,

• Globalization is driving unsustainable inequality and ecological injustice, leading
growth, trade, investment and debt while to the erosion of local-community auton-
accelerating the depletion of natural omy and the increase of drug-related
resources and filling waste sinks. The way global crime, human trafficking and the
forward is to create a new global re-emergence of slavery (Nordstom, 2007).
economy operating within the Earth’s • The way forward is to reject industrialism
ecological limits. (or capitalism) and reverse or at least take
democratic control of economic global-
Social Greens ization, restore local community
autonomy, empower those whose voices
• The main causes of the global environ-
have been marginalized, and promote
mental crisis are large-scale
ecological justice and local indigenous
industrialization and economic growth.
knowledge systems.
The main impact of globalization is that it
The ‘Capitalization’ of Sustainable Development
The discipline of economics has had a ultimately depend. Human activity consumes
profound influence on the conceptualization this natural capital, relying on the ecosystem
of sustainability and development, and much services to support our standard and quality
of this is due to the application and extension of life. Apart from consuming this natural
of the notion of ‘capital’ beyond the spheres capital – oil, timber, fish and so forth – our
of economics, business and finance. In the productive activities have frequently impaired
18th century the Scottish economist Adam the functioning of environmental services. We
Smith recognized that the accumulation of have polluted rivers, destroyed natural
fixed and reproducible capital, understood habitats, rendered land toxic or air unbreath-
largely as productive machinery, combined able, released greenhouse gases into the
with the increasing division or specialization atmosphere, and consumed mineral and
of labour, was key to economic growth and energy resources that cannot be renewed or
development. Since Smith’s time, economists regenerated.
and other theorists have extended the capital To compensate for the loss, or contamina-
metaphor to include human capital (education, of this critical natural capital, substitutes
tion and skills), social capital (social may be sought in the form of new renewable
relationships and networks) and natural energy technologies, human ingenuity and
capital (natural resources and ecosystem future technological advances (man-made
services), which in turn may be divided into capital). A Micawber-like optimism occasion-
renewable resource capital and non-renew- ally characterizes such an approach –
able resource capital. A further concept, something will always turn up in the end.
critical natural capital, has also been devel- Arguments focus on the extent to which one
oped. This refers to those aspects of the global capital stock may be substituted for another
ecosystem upon which our lives and cultures in order to maintain a constant stock of global
wealth, ensuring future generations do not sustainability practitioners and others

have a depleted inheritance. In the words of throughout the world rarely seem to agree –
Pearce at al (1989), sustainable development at least fully. Consequently, alternative
refers to ‘non-declining natural wealth’ and sustainability conditions have been conceptu-
the maintenance of a constant stock of alized, namely the ‘weak’ (no reduction in
(natural) capital. Problems then arise over: critical natural capital) and the ‘very weak’
(the loss of natural capital must not be more
• Non-substitutability – what can fill the than the increase in human capital and man-
holes in the ozone layer? made capital).
• Uncertainty – what can replace the The substitution of natural capital with
oceans’ role as a climate regulator? man-made capital can be quite expensive.
• Irreversibility – human-made capital Heal (2000) discusses how the Catskill water-
cannot (yet?) replace an extinct species; shed provided New York City residents with
and natural high-quality water for many years.
• Equity – the poor are often disproportion- Then, in the 1990s, the Environmental
ately affected by environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggested that a
degradation in comparison to the filtration plant would soon be needed because
wealthy. of uncontrolled land development and inten-
sive water consumption, costing the City up to
Related to these concerns and the critical $8 billion, with annual operating costs around
unease with conceiving of the biosphere as $300 million. This prompted the City to restore
another form of capital and one that logically the watershed by improving sewage treatment
can carry a price tag, the sub-discipline of and purchasing land to head off further
ecological economics has explored the development. Although still costly, for this
relationship between the scale of human course of action estimates were less than $1.5
productive activity and the natural environ- billion. There are frequently other issues too.
ment, biosphere and ‘services’ the ecosystem For Norton (2005), the real problem arises
provides. If the human productive economy when communities and professionals of
grows too big, with the biosphere being various descriptions speak different languages
unable to support it, then development is of sustainability. He argues for the need for a
literally unsustainable. The ideal condition for radical shift in attitudes, that environmental
development is therefore ‘sustainable devel- policies should be derived from long-term
opment’ – a relational concept referring to a adaptive plans, based on the values embedded
series of practices and processes that ensure in each community or locale. Too often,
‘development’ does not exceed the ecological environmental management disputes and
‘carrying capacity’ of the planet. Sometimes policy conflicts arise between those who wish
known as the ‘strong sustainability condition’, to place a financial price on the value of
this idea insists that over time there should be nature and those who fervently do see nature
no decline in natural capital, that future as being intrinsically valuable. An approach
generations must inherit the same amount of that reconciles these positions needs to
natural resource stocks as previous ones. As encompass short-term goals, which may be
with so much else, policymakers, academics, primarily economic or employment-related,
medium-term goals, which may need to rather than simply on nature – human beings
encompass local and regional imperatives like are part of the wider ecosystem and sustain-
water or land conservation, and the more able development projects need to articulate
long-term goals, which must encompass that fact. For Norton, there is not just scarcity
planetary survival, the health and wellbeing of in the economic sense, but also scarcity of
future generations, and the regulation of good ideas and effective action. In the words
population increase. For Norton, adaptive of Homer-Dixon (2002), there is ‘an ingenuity
management means human intellect and gap’.
practice working as an integral part of nature
The ‘Humanization’ of Sustainable Development:

The Millennium Development Goals
In September 2000, at the United Nations • reversing the spread of major diseases –
Millennium Summit, world leaders agreed on especially HIV/AIDS and malaria;
eight measurable Millennium Development • ensuring environmental sustainability;
Goals (MDGs), to be achieved by 2015, in and
addition to outlining broad commitments to • creating global partnerships for develop-
human rights, good governance and democ- ment with targets for trade, aid and debt
racy. Official United Nations figures indicated relief.
the existence of vast inequalities in an
increasingly affluent world – 113 million By 2006, it was also clear that progress
children do not go to school, over a billion towards meeting these goals was slow and
people earn less than $1 a day, 11 million uneven (UN, 2006), with Asia seeing the great-
children die before they are five and preventa- est reduction in poverty but chronic hunger
ble diseases devastate many populations. still widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. There
Inequality and injustice clearly go hand in were significant increases in universal primary
hand, but the Millennium Declaration, as with education, particularly in India, although urban
so many international agreements, was the and gender inequalities remained serious
product of extended dialogue, detailed problems. Women’s position in the labour
negotiation and frustrating compromise (UN, market and child and maternal mortality rates
2000). had improved slightly, although reproductive
The Millennium Development Goals are: healthcare services were still very poor in many
regions. The incidence of HIV/AIDS, tuberculo-
• halving extreme poverty and hunger; sis and malaria was still high. The rate of
• achieving universal primary education; deforestation had slowed down, but forest loss
• empowering women and achieving continued. Half of all developing nations still
gender equality; lacked basic sanitation systems, and although
• reducing mortality for the under fives by development assistance from the more afflu-
two-thirds; ent nations had increased, it was still below
• reducing maternal mortality by three- the targets set a few years earlier. Fourteen per
quarters; cent of the global population had internet
access, but a digital divide was perceived as to 0.7 per cent of gross national product
separating the developing from developed (GNP) is fairly small. ‘The point is that the
nations, with over 50 per cent of the popula- MDGs can be financed within the bounds
tion in developed regions using the World of the official development assistance
Wide Web, as opposed to 7 per cent in devel- that the donor countries have already
oping regions (less than 1 per cent in the least promised’ (Sachs, 2005, p299).
developed nations). Two years earlier, the 5 Tools and information technologies can
Human Development Report for 2004 had also be extremely powerful and effective –
noted uneven progress, stating soberly that: enhancing communication and informa-
tion dissemination, advancing agronomic
at the current pace Sub-Saharan Africa will
practices such as ‘science-based manage-
not meet the goal for universal primary
education until 2129 or the goal for reducing ment of soil nutrients’, aiding the
child mortality by two-thirds until 2106 – 100 development of new medicines and
years away, rather than the 11 called for by the innovation in biotechnology, etc.
goals. In three of the goals – hunger, income
poverty and access to sanitation – no date can
be set because the situation in the region is Sachs calls for, and has faith in the idea of, an
worsening, not improving. enlightened globalization of democracies, of
(Fukuda-Parr, 2004, p132) science and technology, market economies
and multilateralism, with progressive public
Despite all this, the economist Jeffrey Sachs policies at national and international levels
(2005) sees no real reason why the MDGs leading the way. He believes that the big
cannot be realized in full, as they are trans-national corporations have not caused
eminently achievable, requiring relatively the global crisis, although their past behaviour
modest amounts of aid from developed is not unblemished. The anti-globalization
countries and alterations to trading regula- movement’s hostility to capitalism is conse-
tions. He gives five major reasons for this quently not especially well founded. He writes
thinking: (2005, p357):
Too many protestors do not know that it is

1 The number of the world’s extreme poor
possible to combine faith in the power of
has declined to become a relatively small trade and markets with understanding of their
proportion of the global population – less limitations as well. The movement is too
than 20 per cent. pessimistic about the possibilities of capitalism
2 The MDGs aim to end extreme poverty, with a human face, in which the remarkable
power of trade and investment can be
not all poverty or to equalize incomes. harnessed while acknowledging and address-
3 Low-cost interventions to improve energy ing limitations through compensatory
generation, water, sanitation, disease collective actions.
control and so on can significantly
improve living standards and enhance Less sanguine is Aswani Saith (2006), who
economic development. notes that the MDGs owe too much to the
4 The rich parts of the world are now United Nations Development Programme and
extremely rich and the aim of increasing for some represent a narrowing of the
the overseas aid from developed countries (sustainable) development agenda to just a
few issues in what used to be called the ‘Third The global neo-liberal economic agenda,
World’. Various points are made: poverty and structural inequality, and the gap between the
deprivation exist in Japan, the UK and the US rhetoric and reality on human rights and
too; people with disability, who make up environmental protection seem to go largely
around 10 per cent of the global population, unchallenged and unexamined. Veteran neo-
receive no mention, and neither do the elderly, Marxist critic Samir Amin (2006) sees the
who increasingly constitute a significant MDGs as clearly designed to shore up the
percentage of the global poor; and there are North’s global economic and political
no goals and targets for secondary education. dominance of the South. The rhetoric of
The identification of the goals and their ‘partnership’ and the notion of ‘good gover-
accompanying indicators and metrics also nance’ is really about opening up commercial
offer concern. For instance, feminist critics markets for the major economic powers. He
find it difficult to see how gender empower- asks cynically what else can be expected from
ment can be reduced to a single target or goal, an initiative emanating from Japan, the US
as this issue cuts across so many other areas. and Europe and co-sponsored by the
For example, universal primary education is an International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
important vehicle for the achievement of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
gender equality and should therefore not be Development and the World Bank, which for
separable in either policy development or Amin is little more than ‘the G8’s Ministry of
implementation. Setting targets may also Propaganda’.
easily distort social and cultural behaviour, The World Bank’s emphasis is largely on
inducing governments to divert funds to meet the economic aspects of sustainable develop-
reportable targeted areas to the exclusion of ment, suggesting, in language reminiscent of
others arguably as important but not incorpo- corporate business strategies, that if human
rated in the MDGs. Problems with data, wellbeing is to be enhanced, then society has
particularly regarding malaria, tuberculosis to carefully manage its ‘portfolio of assets’,
and maternal mortality, make accurate assess- and recognizing that this mix of ‘assets’
ment and evaluation a most important issue. necessary to support improvements is likely to
There is little point in setting targets if it is change over time. Economic growth at the
uncertain which actions will produce what expense of social and personal wellbeing or
outcomes. The MDGs require that initiatives the natural environment, however, is not a
are costed, but Saith (2006, p1178) suggests feasible option for the future. Unchecked
that: industrial development has led to horrifying
environmental damage in some areas, which,
This immediately reveals the futility of such
like the devastation of the Aral Sea in the
exercises. One might ask: what would it cost to
overcome violence against women? What former Soviet Union, has led to massive
might it cost to address the issue of son human, environmental and economic costs –
preference and the appalling and falling sex disease, pollution, and loss of livelihoods and
ratio at birth? What would it cost to get the ecological habitats. Given this, in theory, then,
parents to agree to send the girl child to
school? How much would have to be spent to global societies are confronted with three
change the laws on property rights? options (World Bank, 2003, p24):
1 simultaneously addressing environmental concerns that can be dealt with at

concerns along with economic growth, relatively low cost in the short run; and
even in the short run; 3 placing higher priority on maintaining or
2 placing higher priority on economic restoring the environment in the short
growth, while addressing environmental run.
Joseph Stiglitz and Globalization

Former Chief Economist at the World Bank ers. These ‘structural adjustments’ have had
and Chair of President Clinton’s Council of profoundly adverse effects on many urban
Economic Advisers, Joseph Stiglitz (2002) has dwellers, increasing poverty and hardship to
been an eloquent and constructive critic of such an extent that researchers have
economic globalization, suggesting that the wondered how the poor actually survive
experience of the 1980s and 1990s has been (Rakodi, 1997; Potts, 1997). And it is not just
at best uneven and at worst disastrous for the urban areas that have suffered – as Potts
many developing countries. As a result of IMF and Mutambirwa (1998) have shown, the
and World Bank policies, many saw their debts strength of rural–urban economic interaction
increase, their economies weaken, their means the destiny of the countryside is often
environments degraded, and social injustice tied to that of the town or city. The idea that
and economic inequality spiral downwards. economic growth, driven by the free market,
Globalization has not brought the economic would ultimately benefit everyone via the
benefits to poorer countries which advocates magical notion of ‘trickle down’ economics
of liberalization in the West promised. The has been a fiction. The hegemonic dominance
developed world did not open up their of the ‘Washington Consensus’, forged
markets to goods coming from the developing between the IMF (on 19th Street), the World
world; the developed world did not abolish Bank (on 18th Street) and the US Treasury (on
subsidies to their own farmers while 15th Street), focused on a one-size-fits-all
frequently benefiting from the loosening of strategy, emphasizing downscaling govern-
controls on capital flows that enabled money ment intervention in the economy,
to easily move in and out of countries deregulation, rapid liberalization and privati-
irrespective of the social consequences. zation. In most cases, this strategy did not
Conditions attached to IMF loans undermined work (for example in Africa and Latin
the sovereignty and social infrastructure of America), but where it was tempered or
developing nations, with governments forced ignored (in East Asia), economic resilience and
to privatize their assets, abandon plans for development was able to emerge from the
public investment in health, training and global economic turbulence of the 1990s. The
education, and lower or abolish trade tariffs. Asian Development Bank argued for alterna-
There is very little for unskilled workers to do tives, for a ‘competitive pluralism’ in which
in lesser developed countries in a globalized governments in developing countries,
economy apart from live in slums and join the although basically relying on markets, were
informal sector of beggars and casual labour- active in shaping and guiding these markets
through promoting new technologies and by regulation of the economy and participa-
insisting private businesses seriously consider tion in decision-making processes at all
the social welfare of their employees and the levels.
wider society in which they live. Stiglitz,
however, is not opposed to globalization as The voice of the developing nations ought to
such, as he believes that with appropriate be listened to more frequently. The fictional
regulation, equitable trade laws, and good trial of international financial institutions that
nation-state and corporate governance it can took place in Sissako’s 2006 film Bamako is
be a genuine force for global good. There are taking place in many other forums within
alternatives to the Washington Consensus, global civil society. The US ought to recognize,
which he develops in both Fair Trade for All and act on, its moral obligations to emit less
(Stiglitz and Charlton, 2005) and Making greenhouse gases, particularly CO2, offer more
Globalization Work (Stiglitz, 2006). aid and negotiate better trading arrange-
Acknowledging that making globalization ments. Developing countries frequently do not
work ‘will not be easy’, Stiglitz (2006, p13) have sufficient resources to avoid illegal
suggests a number of general actions that logging, so they should be paid to stop further
can, and should, be initiated to produce a deforestation by, according to the Rainforest
more comprehensive approach to global Coalition led by Papua New Guinea, being
development. These include: allowed to sell carbon offsets for new forest
planting. Stiglitz (2006) also believes that,
• increasing foreign assistence from the although global corporations frequently facili-
rich countries to the poor to the value of tate technology transfers, raise skill standards
at least 0.7 per cent of their GDP; and develop markets which do help develop-
• cancellation or relief of foreign debt of ing countries, their primary purpose to make
which the decision by the G8 at money is clearly articulated by their fiduciary
Gleneagles in 2005, when the debts owed relationship to their stockholders.
by the 18 poorest developing nations to Consequently, to counteract the harmful
the IMF and World Bank was written off is effects of corporate actions, Stiglitz feels it
an example; necessary to reshape private incentives with
• genuine fair, rather than free trade, social costs and benefits to avoid environmen-
recognizing the limitations of economic tal destruction and labour exploitation. This
liberalization and iniquities produced by can be achieved through:
global corporate monopolies and cartels;
• protection of the global environment on • a combination of corporate social respon-
which all economies ultimately depend sibility and stronger regulations to
through a sensible and workable public prevent unfair competition;
management of global natural resources • limitation of corporate power through
and regulations on their usage and on the implementation of effective global
actions giving rise to ‘externalities’ and anti-trust laws;
costs; and • better corporate governance, whereby
• good, democratic government, including companies are held accountable to all
enhanced possibilities for democratic stakeholders – employees and communi-
ties as well as shareholders – making Stiglitz’s time at the World Bank did see some
environmental destruction a crime just changes, with development priorities being
like fraud and embezzlement; refocused on poverty reduction, partnership
• international laws being enacted against and the creation of ‘good policy environments’
price fixing and labour exploitation; and rather than simply economic growth. Despite
• reducing the scope for corruption, with these changes, however, limiting conditions
bribery being viewed as an unfair on development loans remain, constraining
competitive practice and bank secrecy the possibilities of developing nations to ‘own’
eradicated so as to prevent the incentive the preferred development policy (Pender,
to, or possibility of, enhancing after-tax 2001).
profits garnered from questionable
business practices.
Anti-globalization Critiques
Activists and campaigners like Greg Buckman harvests and livelihoods of many local farmers
(2004), Vandana Shiva (2000), Walden Bello in India and other nations (Shiva, 2000). For
(2002) and George Monbiot (2004) criticize Bello (2002), founding director of Focus on the
existing global institutions and international Global South, the IMF and the World Bank
trading systems. Their views have informed have been ‘unmitigated disasters’, with
some of the more radical approaches to oligarchic decision-making defining the World
sustainability and sustainable development. Trade Organization (WTO), and the centralizing
They advocate alternatives that have a differ- tendencies of all three organizations,
ent value base, offering different sets of combined with the inordinate power of big
prescriptions and types of knowledge than corporations, has militated against popular
those currently characterizing the dominant struggles for decentralization and democracy
neo-liberal discourse of economic growth, in many developing nations. At the very least,
development and globalization. For Wolfgang corporate power needs to be checked and
Sachs (1999), of the Wuppertal Institute for regulated more effectively. In Deglobalization:
Climate, Environment and Energy, the costs Ideas for a New World Economy (Bello, 2004),
and benefits of economic globalization have he states that continuing anti-globalization
not been equitably globalized, and nature has action must be married to concrete proposals
itself been colonized through the 1994 TRIPS for an alternative system re-empowering local
(Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights) and national economies and re-embedding
Agreement, which gives corporations the right the economy in society, rather than having
to patent genetic materials such as micro- society driven by imperatives such as profit
organisms, seeds and even cells. This has maximization, cost-efficiency and other
helped ‘modernize’ agriculture, reinforcing the market verities. This may be accomplished by:
commercial advantages of growing cash crops
in the developing world for markets in devel- • allowing countries to use their own inter-
oped countries, and has effectively stolen the nal financial resources to promote
development rather than becoming His prescription or manifesto includes the

dependent on foreign investment and establishment of a world parliament, modelled
foreign financial markets; in part on the World Social Forum, and the
• redistributing land and incomes to create establishment of an ‘international clearing
a vibrant internal market that would union’, which would replace much of the
secure economic prosperity and free up undesirable work of the International
financial resources for internal invest- Monetary Fund, many commercial banks and
ment; the World Bank, whose policies and actions
• lessening the salience accorded to have increased the financial debts of the
economic growth in favour of emphasiz- developing world. More economically sensitive
ing equity in order to fundamentally and benign policies, including debt reduction
reduce ‘environmental disequilibrium’; and/or abandonment, will replace them.
• strategic economic decisions being made Between 1980 and 1996, nations in sub-
subject to democratic debate and Saharan Africa paid out twice the sum of their
decision-making processes and not left to debt in interest, owing three times as much in
the guiding invisible hand of the market; 1996 as they did 16 years earlier. Finally,
and Monbiot (2003) advocates the creation of a
• civil society organizations constantly ‘fair trade organization’ (FTO) to replace the
monitoring both the private sector and iniquitous World Trade Organization, whose
the state. operations seem to consistently benefit the
rich nations at the expense of the poor. This
New approaches to production, distribution would lead to greater global political and
and exchange should be developed that economic equality as well as a social and
enable the emergence of a system that cultural equity only currently dreamed of.
includes community co-operatives and private Economic development for poorer
and public enterprises and excludes trans- countries can only take place through a
national corporations. combination of trade and aid together with a
For environmental activist George degree of protection. Free trade rules benefit
Monbiot, globalization refers to, first, the strong mature economies and not weak devel-
removal of controls on the movement of what oping ones, which require a degree of
has become known as ‘footloose’ capital; government intervention to maintain social
second, the removal of trade barriers and the standards, business and economic security. For
‘harmonization’ of trading rules; and third, the Monbiot, contemporary free trade rules are
growth of multinational corporations, which similar in effect and purpose to the imperial
displace local and national businesses. relationships and treaties imposed on weaker
However, the problem is not globalization as nations – Brazil, Persia, China, Japan and the
such, but the inability of people, civil society Ottoman Empire – in the first half of the 19th
and governments to control and restrain it. He century. Poor nations are forced to grow cash
writes that ‘our task is not to overthrow crops and export raw materials to the affluent
globalization, but to capture it, and to use it as developed nations, who then ‘add value’
a vehicle for humanity’s first global through production processes and refinement,
democratic revolution’ (Monbiot, 2004, p23). while externalizing any environmental costs to
the country of origin. ‘Footloose capital’ would production, manufacture and distribution, its
be fettered. Multinationals would not be own operations and those of its suppliers and
sub-contractors met the necessary standards.
allowed to move from country to country If, for example, a food-processing company
seeking lower labour and environmental based in Switzerland wished to import cocoa
standards in order to boost or maintain from the Ivory Coast, it would need to demon-
profitability. Instead, corporations would be strate that the plantations it bought from
were not employing slaves, using banned
obliged, through incentives, to set high
pesticides, expanding into protected forests or
standards and would be punished if they did failing to conform to whatever other
not. Producers and consumers should carry standards the FTO set. The firm’s performance
their own costs and not dump them on other would be assessed, at its own expense, by a
people. Monbiot writes (2003): monitoring company accredited to the organi-
zation. There would be, in other words, no
The FTO would, in this respect, function as a difference between this operation and the
licensing body: a company would not be activities of the voluntary fair trade movement
permitted to trade between nations unless it today.
could demonstrate that, at every stage of
Sustainable Development and the

Question of Spatial Scale
Sustainable development is about protecting US operates at a national level, but its effects
and conserving the planet’s natural environ- may be experienced far wider. And there are
ment and promoting social equity and a countless numbers of community groups,
degree of economic equality within and businesses, and formally or informally struc-
between nations. This can be conceptualized tured activist organizations that operate at
as a process of convergence, so the question the very smallest scales. National or neigh-
of spatial scale is a necessary element in any bourhood campaigns to reduce, recycle or
serious thinking, and action, designed to make reuse will ultimately rely on individual house-
our world a better place. It is possible to
Table 1.1 Ecological and socio-political
conceive of scale in ecological and socio-
scales
political terms (Table 1.1).
Institutions and organizations operate at Ecological Scale Socio-political Scale
many different levels. The United Nations and Biosphere World
the World Bank are large international bodies Biome type Supra-national regions
operating on the global scale, and through Biome State
their various projects they shape the lives of Landscape Region
people in specific communities and house- Ecosystem Locality 1: city, town
Community Locality 2: village,
holds. These bodies may develop and
community,
implement policies, treaties and actions that
neighbourhood
affect all ecological scales. The European Population Household
Union operates at a supra-national level and Organism
the Environmental Protection Agency in the
Source: Grainger (2004).
holds and citizens wanting to conduct carbon neutral, this may be practically impos-
themselves in a more sustainable manner. sible. However, the actions of ‘transition
Complementing, and perhaps complicating, towns’ may contribute to overall sustainability
this further are the various ‘capitals’ dispersed at higher levels and, most importantly, inspire,
across the planet on a variety of spatial scales. communicate or model sustainable action for
When we consider also the possible ‘condi- people in other localities. As towns and cities
tions’ – strong, weak or very weak – it may are intensive resource users, often having
become very difficult to see some capitals huge environmental footprints, any improve-
applying to more than one spatial scale. ment will impact positively on global
Grainger suggests that under the very weak sustainability. Actions at the local level, if
condition, critical natural capital is meaning- multiplied, may influence policy and practice
ful at a global scale but becomes less so at at higher levels. We can act locally and think
lower ones. There are implications too with globally. We can also act globally and nation-
regard to practical action and communication. ally too, as Pontin and Roderick (2007)
As a consequence of natural and other demonstrate in their call for a ‘converging
endowments, it may not be possible for a world’ of equitable resource use across the
small town or village to be sustainable if planet, initiated by grass roots, community-
sustainability is understood in isolation from based action incorporating carbon offsetting,
the wider ecological or political processes, or if civic dialogue, fair trade business develop-
it is isolated from other towns, villages and ment, one planet living, localization and the
surrounding rural hinterlands. Although an emergence of broader solidarity movements
individual town may strive towards being linking North and South.
Policy and Progress: The Long Road to

Sustainable Development
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a growing Boulding wrote ‘The economics of the coming
concern that economic growth, development Spaceship Earth’, in which there were no
and lifestyle demands in industrial nations unlimited reservoirs of anything, with human-
were undermining the ecological balance, ity having to find its place in a cyclical
economic stability and security of the planet. ecological system capable of continuous
World famous pressure groups were formed, reproduction while continually needing inputs
like Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace. A of energy. In 1970 the first environmental
number of ecologically minded writers came event to have any real social and cultural
to prominence, key texts including Rachel impact was held in the US, following an earlier
Carson’s Silent Spring (2000, first published discussion in the United Nations that there
1962), Charles A. Reich’s The Greening of should be a global holiday, an Earth Day, to
America (1970), Theodore Roszak’s Making of draw attention to environmental degradation.
a Counter Culture (1969) and Where the In 1972 the editors of The Ecologist issued a
Wasteland Ends (1972), and E. F. Schumacher’s call to action, writing, in A Blueprint for
Small is Beautiful (1973). In 1966 Kenneth E. Survival (Goldsmith et al, 1972, p15):
The principal defect of the industrial way of placing the responsibility for human survival
life with its ethos of expansion is that it is not firmly in the political arena at a time when
sustainable. Its termination within the lifetime
of someone born today is inevitable – unless it
leaders seemed more concerned with Cold
continues to be sustained for a while longer by War ideological posturing than addressing
an entrenched minority at the cost of impos- issues of global poverty, social inequality,
ing great suffering on the rest of mankind. justice, self-determination, human rights and
the depletion of natural resources. The
1972 also saw the publication of Limits to Commission did not redefine development,
Growth by a global think-tank known as the but noted:
Club of Rome and the first serious interna-
One must avoid the persistent confusion of
tional discussion of global environmental
growth with development, and we strongly
issues at the United Nations Conference on emphasize that the prime objective of devel-
the Human Environment in Stockholm. opment is to lead to self-fulfilment and
The Club of Rome (Meadows et al, 1972) creative partnership in the use of a nation’s
report attempted to combine optimism productive forces and its full human potential.
(Brandt, 1980, p23)
concerning human potential to innovate and
transcend environmental and demographic
In 1983 work started on a major study by the
problems with a warning that if contemporary
World Commission on Environment and
trends continued there would be dire conse-
Development that would firmly establish
quences. Their global model was built
sustainable development as the most signifi-
specifically to investigate five major trends –
cant concept and practice of our time. In 1987
accelerating industrialization, rapid population
the results were published as Our Common
growth, widespread malnutrition, depletion of
Future (the Brundtland Report). More than
non-renewable resources and a deteriorating
half of the Commission were representatives
environment. The authors posed a key
from developing countries, ensuring that
question: What do we want our world to be
global environmental concerns would not
like? Achieving a self-imposed limitation to
overwhelm the desire to eradicate problems of
growth would require considerable effort. It
human need and poverty. Unlike Brandt,
would involve learning to do many things in
Brundtland did offer a definition of sustain-
new ways. It would tax the ingenuity, the
able development (WCED, 1987, p43):
flexibility and the self-discipline of the human
race. Bringing a deliberate, controlled end to Development that meets the needs of the
growth would be a tremendous challenge, not present without compromising the ability of
easily met. Would the final result be worth it? future generations to meet their own needs.
What would humanity gain by such a transi-
tion, and what would it lose? Thirty years later, This definition is still commonly used, despite
three of the authors published an update its attracting serious criticisms for suggesting
(Meadows et al, 2005) indicating how their that economic growth, industrial moderniza-
theory of limits to growth remained vital and tion and market imperatives should be key
significant. drivers and goals for all nations. Whereas the
In 1980 the Brandt Commission published industrialized North seemed to be, and in
its North–South: A Programme for Survival, many ways still is, concerned with environ-
mental impacts, the issues confronting the Five years later, in 1992, the UN Conference on
majority South included poverty, health, Environment and Development, the follow-up
income, agricultural sustainability, food to Stockholm, was held in Rio de Janeiro. This
security, educational opportunity and achieve- meeting, known as the Earth Summit,
ment, shelter, sanitation, desertification and produced a number of agreements, including
armed conflict. Nevertheless, the Brundtland the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Report did tacitly recognize the internal Development, the Framework Convention on
contradictions within the concept when it Climate Change, the Convention on Biological
stated (WCED, 1987, p43): Diversity, a non-binding Statement on Forest
Principles, and the hugely cumbersome but
[Sustainable development] contains within it
nonetheless important agreement known as
two key concepts:
1 The concept of ‘needs’, in particular the Agenda 21 (Grubb et al, 1993).
essential needs of the world’s poor, to The Convention on Biological Diversity
which over-riding priority should be (CBD) and the negotiations before and after
given; and the Kyoto Protocol on climate mitigation are
2 The idea of limitations imposed by the
state of technology and social organiza- two important examples of multilateral
tion on the environment’s ability to meet environmental agreements (MEAs).
present and future needs. Maintaining biological diversity is key to
maintaining the planet’s overall health.
Although acknowledging its analysis and Healthy ecosystems replenish natural
recommendations to be specifically rooted in resources, offering all creatures the dynamic
the 1980s, Our Common Future concluded its equilibrium upon which life depends. If plant
outline of sustainable development by stating and animal species disappear, as they are
that its realization requires (WCED, 1987, p65): doing at an unprecedented rate, then
monocultures will emerge that are highly
• A political system that secures effective susceptible to disease, global warming and
citizen participation in decision-making;
other ecological changes. Industrialized
• An economic system that is able to
generate surpluses and technical knowl- systems of agricultural production and other
edge on a self-reliant and sustained basis; commercial activities are creating monocul-
• A social system that provides for tures, and both governments and corporations
solutions for the tensions arising from officially recognize that such impacts must be
disharmonious development;
• A production system that respects the mitigated and managed – biological diversity
obligations to preserve the ecological must be conserved, resources must be used
base for development; more sustainability and the benefits from the
• A technological system that can search planet’s genetic resources shared (more)
continuously for new solutions;
equitably. Following Rio, many national strate-
• An international system that fosters
sustainable patterns of trade and finance; gies have been based on these broad
and international agreements, although indige-
• An administrative system that is flexible nous peoples and local communities have not
and has the capacity for self-correction.
always found their inputs accepted when the
actual implementation processes are closely
scrutinized. Trade and commercial imperatives
have tended to lead to rather weak attach- including the Kyoto Protocol and the reports
ments to sustainable development. Probably of the United Nations’ Intergovernmental
most depressing have been the limited, tortu- Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), concentrate
ous and hesitant agreements leading to and almost exclusively on reducing greenhouse gas
from Kyoto – so far the only international, emissions, largely ignoring the wider social and
legally binding agreement on climate change. gender impacts. By 2007, only:
The agreed 5.2 per cent reduction by 2012 of
four out of the fourteen National Adaptation
greenhouse gas emissions relative to 1990 (8
Plans of Action that have been submitted to
per cent for the EU) was seen by many, even in the global climate change convention specifi-
1997, as painfully inadequate, not least cally mention the importance of gender
because developing nations like China were equality. The MDGs set out global benchmarks
not included. The conversion of pollution on gender equality, poverty eradication and
environmental sustainability, although
sources into tradable commodities through national reports have so far neglected to
emissions trading was allowed, with the seriously address the linkages between these
biggest entitlements going to the worst areas.
polluters. The biggest per capita emitter of all, (WEDO, 2007, p3)
the US, refused to accept even this. Ten years
later, at the G8 summit in Germany, the A United Nations Environment Programme
American administration of George W. Bush (UNEP, 2006) survey, ‘Gender mainstreaming
finally recognized the reality of human- among environment ministries’, discovered
induced climate change, but still refused to that just two countries involved in climate
endorse international action to significantly change activities had incorporated a gender
curb emissions. Towards the end of 2007, the perspective. However, as well as arguing that
US hosted its own international conference on women often suffer disproportionately from
climate mitigation, and reluctantly agreed to unsustainable development, the organization
support as yet unspecified climate reduction promotes women as important agents for
targets at the United Nations-sponsored community empowerment, social leadership
climate conference in Bali. and positive change. As the World
Issues of climate change, global poverty, Conservation Union has shown (IUCN, 2007),
economic inequality and water shortage also communities often cope more effectively
highlight the significance of gender in sustain- during natural disasters when women play a
able development. Although much attention leadership role in early warning systems and
has focused inevitably on the appalling post-disaster reconstruction than when they
inequalities and hardships many women do not. The report also notes that women’s
experience, gender issues cannot be separated local knowledge and skills may offer tangible
from wider social, cultural or environmental benefits, for example the Inuit women of
concerns. The Women’s Environment and Northern Canada have a deep understanding
Development Organization (WEDO) has of weather conditions, being traditionally
campaigned vigorously to combat the inter- responsible for evaluating hunting conditions.
governmental blindness to the gender When a drought occurred in the small islands
implications of environmental policy and of Micronesia, local women who had a sound
actions. Global climate change negotiations, knowledge of island hydrology found potable
water by digging a new well. WEDO (2007, p3) and good governance.
adds that ‘women tend to share information Rio was, despite all the compromises and
related to community wellbeing, choose less shortfalls, a significant achievement which
polluting energy sources and adapt more over the years has gained in stature and
easily to environmental changes when their authority, not least, and somewhat paradoxi-
families’ survival is at stake’. cally, because of the reluctance of the US to
The 40 chapters of Agenda 21 offer an accept sustainable development policies, its
action plan for sustainable development, frequent refusal to recognize the importance
integrating environmental with social and of the precautionary principle as a guide to
economic concerns, and articulating a partici- environmental law, the necessity of reaching
patory, community-based approach to a global agreements on cutting greenhouse gas
variety of issues, including population control, emissions and its continuing support for neo-
transparency, partnership working, equity and liberal economic globalization. Also, again
justice, and placing market principles within a somewhat paradoxically, the fact that the Rio
regulatory framework. Local Agenda 21 (LA21), Declaration was seriously criticized by many
its local realization, was and remains not radical green groups made its achievement all
legally binding, although by the end of 2000 the more valuable and iconic. For instance, The
many countries, including the UK, had policies Ecologist magazine published a sharp critique,
and frameworks for sustainable development Whose Common Future? (The Ecologist, 1993),
at local and regional levels, with municipal in which the editor Edward Goldsmith noted
governments in many countries taking a the real question is not how the environment
strong lead. In those, particularly should be managed, but who, and in whose
Scandinavian, countries where local govern- interest? We may share one planet, but we do
ment has a considerable degree of autonomy so in an unequal and frequently unjust way. In
to raise income locally and regulate environ- addition, poverty is not the absence of a
mental matters, LA21 has been most Western lifestyle and neither is it the cause of
successful. However, throughout the world, environmental degradation, rather it is a
even though local government priorities and consequence. Globalized neo-liberal econom-
powers may differ, global structures of ics and free trade will destroy cultural and
economic, financial and political power which biological diversity, not conserve it. Pollution
include support for the neo-liberal free trade and other externalities are caused, not cured,
system have compromised attempts to by modernization and development, and
fashion sustainable development from the global environmental management, technol-
bottom up. The local cannot be disassociated ogy transfer and World Bank-financed
or disconnected from the global, conceptually infrastructure projects (for example US$50
or practically. Nonetheless, the LA21 process billion for 500 dams in 92 developing
continued with, from 2002, Local Agenda 21 countries) reinforce the economic and political
turning into Local Action 21. In 2004 the hegemony of the developed nations, particu-
‘Aalborg Commitments’ (CEMR/ICLEI, 2004) larly the US (Baker, 2006), while leading to
was published, showing many local authorities further environmental and social problems.
within the European Union to be firmly There is much evidence to support these
embracing the need for urban sustainability assertions. After serious protests and much
adverse publicity, in part due to the relentless ment, fostering health and education, provid-
campaigning of the Booker Prize-winning ing shelter, eradicating poverty, and sustaining
novelist Arundhati Roy, the World Bank economic growth. The role of trade and
reviewed its commitment to the Narmada overseas development aid, the importance of
Dams project in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh debt reduction and good governance in the
in India, admitting that it was likely that one developing world, and the mobilization of
million people would be adversely affected national economic resources and external
through displacement and/or loss of livelihood investment were directly addressed. Economic
by the project. The Bank withdrew its support. crises underscore the importance of effective
In 2002, the Johannesburg Summit social safety nets (UN, 2002b).
reviewed progress. The tensions apparent in For many anti-globalization protestors
1992 remained, with the ideas and values of who had earlier demonstrated against the
market liberals and institutionalists still extension of the free trade rules of the WTO in
dominating, though the final Declaration Seattle, the Johannesburg Summit was also a
noted that global disparities in wealth and disappointment, despite some positive
environmental degradation now risk becoming advances. Economic insecurity was recognized
entrenched and that, unless the world acts in as affecting human wellbeing, and globaliza-
a manner that fundamentally changes the tion itself was recognized as a new challenge
lives of the poor, these people may lose confi- for those advocating sustainable develop-
dence in democratic systems of government, ment. And despite all the criticisms,
‘seeing their representatives as nothing more disappointments and missed opportunities,
than sounding brass or tinkling cymbals’, as the intense diplomatic activities did achieve a
stated in Paragraph 15 of the 2002 number of important things, not least a
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable recognition that sustainable development at a
Development (UN, 2002a). Little was said global level has led to, and requires, policies,
about financing international development, procedures and principles supporting inter-
though in the same year, at an International governmental cooperation and a global civil
Conference on Finance for Development in society that will check, monitor, promote and
Monterrey, northeast Mexico, a consensus was campaign for change in the face of official
reached on financing sustainable develop- reluctance, indifference or denial.
National Policy Context:

Sustainable Development in the UK
In the UK, following growing public interest in ment in 1990, entitled ‘This common inheri-
environmental issues throughout the 1980s, tance’, and responded directly to the 1992 Rio
with Prime Minister Thatcher making a speech Summit by producing the UK’s first national
on global environmental issues to the Royal strategy on sustainable development in 1994,
Society in 1988, sustainable development ‘Sustainable development: The UK strategy’.
emerged as a national and regional policy This was prompted by continuing debates
issue. The Conservative Government published relating to world trade, development, pollu-
a comprehensive White Paper on the environ- tion control, and various anxieties derived
from economic and consumer growth, and, explicitly acknowledged the significance of
more specifically, the Treasury’s application of ecological limits to economic growth. The five
monetary values to ecosystem services. This guiding principles discussed in Securing the
rationalist cost–benefit approach to sustain- Future (Defra, 2005a) are:
ability has continued to tend to characterize
the policies of both Conservative and Labour 1 living within environmental limits;
Governments. 2 ensuring a strong, healthy and just
In 1999 the ‘New Labour’ Government society;
openly addressed sustainable development in 3 achieving a sustainable economy;
a series of policy statements and public 4 promoting good governance; and
speeches, though action came slower than 5 using sound science responsibly.
words. In the UK Government’s 1999 state-
ment on sustainable development, ‘A better The Government also identified four clear
quality of life’, the tension between social and priorities for action:
environmental equity and economic growth
remained evident. A Sustainable Development 1 sustainable consumption and production;
Commission was established in 2001, with 2 climate change and energy;
former Director of Friends of the Earth and 3 natural resource protection environmen-
co-founder of the charity Forum for the tal enhancement; and
Future Jonathan Porritt in the chair. Despite its 4 sustainable communities.
insider status, the Commission issued a critical
report on the Government’s record on sustain- Cross-disciplinary research and the design of
ability in 2004. This led to a reworking of UK sustainability indicators that consistently
policy, resulting in a more refined understand- measure human wellbeing were also identified
ing of sustainable development, which as key priorities.
Living with environmental limits Ensuring a strong, healthy and

Respecting the limits of the planet’s just society
environment, resources and Meeting the diverse needs of all
biodiversity – to improve our people in existing and future
environment and ensure that the communities, promoting personal
natural resources needed for life are wellbeing, social cohesion and
unimpaired and remain so for future inclusion, and creating equal
generations. opportunity for all.
Achieving a sustainable Promoting good Using sound science

economy governance responsibly
Building a strong, stable and Actively promoting effective, Ensuring policy is developed and
sustainable economy which provides participatove systems of governance implemented on the basis of strong
prosperity and opportunities for all, in all levels of society – engaging scientific evidence, while taking into
and in which environmental and people’s creativity, energy and account scientific uncertainty
social costs fall on those who impose diversity. (through the precautionary
them (polluter pays), and efficient principle) as well as public attitudes
resource use is incentivized. and values.
Source: Defra (2005a, p16).

Figure 1.1 The guiding principles of Securing the Future
Sustainable Development as a ‘Dialogue of Values’
There has been no shortage of academic Much of this is echoed in Adams (2001, p381),
critiques of sustainable development. Banerjee who in his analysis of environment and
(2003) offers a trenchant analysis of the sustainability in the Third World argues there
sustainable discourse, powerfully arguing that is ‘no magic formula for sustainable develop-
the concept of sustainable development is ment’, no easy reformist solution to poverty
subsumed under, and largely defined by, the and that, contrary to dominant practice,
dominant economic paradigm, and is development ‘ought to be what human
informed by colonial thought which has communities do to themselves’ rather than
resulted in the disempowerment of a majority what is done to them by states, bankers,
of the rural populations in the developing experts, agencies, centralizing planners and
world. Banerjee acknowledges that the others. A ‘green development’ is required, for
sustainable development discourse encom- which there can be no clear blueprints or
passes notions of plurality, and even genuine managerial strategies, because of the
dialogue, but asserts through his analysis of overwhelming need to be open-ended, open-
biotechnology, Western science, biodiversity minded and democratic. Green development is
and intellectual property rights that there about who has the power and how it is
remains a very real danger of marginalizing or managed. It is about empowerment and self-
co-opting the traditional ecological knowl- determination.
edge of indigenous peoples and others who Ignacy Sachs’s (1999) concern with social
depend on their land for their livelihood. A sustainability is a reaction to the dominance
great deal of the discussion around green of the economic discourse in many interna-
business focuses on technicist solutions and tional organizations’ approach to sustainable
eco-efficiency, with green marketing development. Social sustainability encom-
ultimately reduced to the economic bottom passes the absence of war, serious civic
line at the organizational level, obscuring violence and state oppression of citizens
macro-economic factors and likely ecological which destroys community and undermines a
impacts. Conventional rationalizations of people’s sense of hope and meaning. For
competitive advantage still pervade govern- Amartya Sen (1999), realizing human capabili-
mental and corporate literature: ties in a sustainable society means equity,
democracy, human and civil rights, and a
Current development patterns (even those
continuing enhancement of people’s ability to
touted as ‘sustainable’) disrupt social system
and ecosystem relations rather than ensuring do what they have good reason to value. It
that natural resource use by local communities means being able to conceive of alternatives,
meets their basic needs at a level of comfort being able to act and think differently, and
that is satisfactory as assessed by those same having the capacity and opportunity to do so.
communities. What is needed is not a common
future but the future as commons. It means protecting biodiversity, because
(Banerjee, 2003, p174) society is closely interwoven in a coevolution-
ary relationship with the biosphere. It means
conceiving and practising development
holistically and systemically, not one- This coevolutionary approach to historical

dimensionally, not simply economically or explanation offers tremendous insights but
socially, politically or anthropocentrically. does not lend itself to predicting the future, as
Development must be synonymous with in this theory there are no simple cause and
substantive and instrumental freedoms, effect relationships and so prediction becomes
including those relating to: rather dangerous. However, Norgaard identi-
fies five lessons from this understanding:
• political expression, dialogue and organi-
zation; 1 Experimentation should always be under-
• economics and income sufficiency; taken cautiously and on a small scale.
• social opportunity such as health and 2 Experiments whose effects might be long
education; lasting, for example disposal of nuclear
• transparency and openness in govern- waste, should be avoided.
ment and social interaction; and 3 Without cultural and biological diversity,
• security, understood in terms of welfare, coevolution is prone to stagnate.
food sufficiency and employment. 4 All things are interconnected, so change
tends to be evolutionary rather than
For Norgaard (1994), Western science, the abrupt or revolutionary.
environment and material resources are 5 The significant exploitation of hydrocar-
connected within mutually interactive bons has disconnected cultural evolution
coevolving systems, where one does not from ecosystems, so the main priority of
control any of the others. In 19th century sustainable development must be to
Europe, the application of scientific restore this connective relationship.
knowledge facilitated the use of coal and
hydrocarbons, which in turn directed and Working from a similar perspective, Cairns
intensified scientific activity, agricultural, (2003 and 2004) sees sustainability as being
technological and industrial development, and too complex to allow scientific uncertainties
the emergence of a new social, moral and to be reduced to a level that many decision-
political order. Urbanization, class division, makers and managers would prefer. Strategies
multinational business, global trade and for sustainability need to be both top–down
bureaucratic management systems helped and bottom–up, ethically grounded in a
concentrate economic and political power and language and literacy comprehensible to
the strategy of imposing this Western practice whatever the organizational level or
and ideology of development on non-Western geographical locality people find themselves
others. Consequently: living and working in. This will enable effective
communication, social learning and leadership
correcting the unsustainability of develop-
to emerge, hopefully effecting the paradigm
ment is not simply a matter of choosing
different technologies for intervening in the shift in thought and action required. As Cairns
environment. The mechanisms of perceiving, (2004, p2) writes:
choosing and using technologies are embed-
ded in social structures which are themselves The complex interactions of biology/ecology,
products of modern technologies. economics, and technological and social
(Norgaard, 1994, p29) factors must be understood and coped with in
an ethical, sustainable way to save both current exploitative economic paradigm’ of

natural systems and humankind. Ethical views economic growth. All that is required, suggest
must not alienate humankind from the natural
world. Science has documented much of what
Johnston et al, is to articulate sustainability in
is at risk and some of the actions needed to terms of a robust set of principles and a
reduce risk. Instead of denigrating the knowl- practical operational framework relevant to
edge (for example of global warming) and both personal and organizations’ actions.
placing undue emphasis on the uncertainties
Perhaps it is sociologist Blake Ratner’s
(which always exist in science), leaders and
citizens should give attention to those areas notion of sustainability as a ‘dialogue of
upon which mainstream science has reached a values’ which constitutes the most fruitful
consensus. Unsustainable practices can be way of engaging with, and understanding, the
halted, but, even though remedies are known, theories, values, perspectives and practices of
they are not acted upon. It is not too late for a
paradigm shift to occur. sustainable development. Ratner identifies
three basic tendencies in sustainable develop-
ment practice, namely the technical, ethical
For Ignacy Sachs, development is akin to liber-
and the dialogic:
ation and transformation, particularly if
understood as a self-organizing and inten- The sustainability concept is meaningful,
tional process freeing people from poverty and therefore, not because it provides an encom-
exploitation. Sachs, like the World Bank, recog- passing solution to different notions of what
is good, but for the way it brings such differ-
nizes that tradeoffs will occur, but argues that
ences into a common field of dispute, dialogue
some are totally ethically unacceptable: and potential agreement as the basis of collec-
tive action.
Thus, for example, whole development is (Ratner 2004, p62)
incompatible with economic growth achieved
through increased social inequality and/or
violation of democracy, even if its environmen- Sustainable development and sustainability are
tal impacts are kept under control. dynamic concepts and processes. Meanings
Environmental prudence, commendable as it is, and practices change as the world changes, as
cannot act as a substitute for social equity.
Concern for the environment should not our skills, knowledge and capabilities develop,
become a diversion from the paramount imper- and as communication and dialogue improves.
atives of social justice and full democracy, the At every spatial scale, from the neighbourhood
two basic values of whole development. to the global level, different interests will come
(Sachs 1999, p33)
together and sometimes collide, but it is only
through discussion, debate, critical reflection,
Sustainable development is therefore multidi-
learning and dialogue that agreement and
mensional, encompassing social, ecological
action can and will emerge. The achievement
and economic goals and perspectives, and this
of the Rio and Johannesburg summits, and
breadth has led some critics to view the
particularly the composition of the genuinely
concept as vague, self-contradictory and
remarkable document known as The Earth
incoherent, incapable of being put into
Charter (Gorbachev, 2006), could only have
practice. Consequently, Johnston et al (2007,
been reached by people listening, talking and
p61) want to ‘reclaim’ the concept, rooting it
learning from one another – and being willing
in a theory and set of principles enabling
to do so. Thus for Baker (2006), it is probably
development to be separated from ‘the
better to talk about ‘promoting’ rather than
achieving sustainable development, as this promoting and realizing sustainable develop-

enables us to attune ourselves to differing and ment goals. Thus, despite all the criticisms of
emerging understandings, timescales and global summits and partnership projects as
pathways across the world. The concept, then, being muddled compromises or lost opportu-
is multifaceted because the issues, challenges nities, this very heterogeneity has allowed a
and problems we confront are complex, coming together and an identification of some
complicated and various. Different countries common ground on which to build further
exhibit different levels of development, have action and agreement. In this way, sustainable
different values, cultures and traditions, are development is similar to ‘democracy’ and
endowed with differing amounts of natural ‘justice’ in being a concept which can be easily
resources, and so have, certainly according to contested or dismissed as rather woolly. But
Brundtland, differentiating responsibilities in who would really want to throw these out?
Case Study: Global Meets Local at Clayoquot Sound

Despite the slogans, banners and protests, it is Consequently, Clayoquot Sound is more than
sometimes difficult to see how the global the active protests and the 800 or so arrests of
meets the local, how abstract forces of supply 1993, the clear-cut logging practices of big
and demand, of conflicts between the old and corporations and the degrading of one of the
the new and the cultural and economic, have most beautiful natural environments on the
broader effects. The fierce struggles, conflicts, planet. ‘Clayoquot Sound’ involves whole
debates and dialogues surrounding the networks of actors, values, spaces and places,
logging of the old growth forests on compromises and power plays.
Vancouver Island in western Canada from the Although the physical action occurred in
mid 1980s onwards shows how sustainable a remote rural locality, the conflict was also
development frequently engages the local and quite urban. The major logging company had
global simultaneously, how ultimately the its headquarters in Vancouver, profits and
process is unavoidably political and unavoid- products went to Toronto and Los Angeles, the
ably personal. At Clayoquot the interests of Ministry of Forests was located in Victoria, and
local businesses, the provincial government, the environmentalists pitched their media
native peoples and environmental activists messages to audiences in New York and
combined with regional and global economic London. It demonstrated that if rural and
forces, with the needs and wants of individual urban areas are to be sustainable, then linear
and corporate consumers, and with the production processes relying on a one-way
growing global concerns with wilderness extraction of natural resources and the exten-
preservation, environmental protection and sive waste of unused material, have to be
the maintenance of community. The issues replaced by a more circular model, where
were (and are) far from simple, but through waste is reused and recycled – a resource for
political action, global media debate and further productive activity. Clayoquot activists
engaged dialogue, the concept of sustainable launched a global campaign to save other
development was refined, applied and revised. temperate rainforests. Ecotourism was identi-
fied as the economic saviour of the area, elected representatives; and

enabling business to become aligned with the • the problematization of science as a
environmentalists, but the indigenous people contested and highly politicized way of
of the locality, the Nuu-chah-nulth, feared knowing the world (Whose science?, In
their place-based cultural heritage would be whose interests?, incorporation of tradi-
overrun by more outsiders. As Warren tional ecological knowledge in scientific
Magnussen and Karena Shaw (2002, pp7–8) deliberations, and so on), through its
argue in A Political Space: Reading the Global differing and competing methodologies
through Clayoquot Sound, Clayoquot is a site and truth claims.
where many phenomena converge:
Sandilands (2002) suggests the experience of
• the globalization of political struggle Clayoquot offers lessons in the delicate move
through the mass media, cultural towards dialogue and the recognition of
exchanges and international trade pragmatic hybridity. In seeing a future for the
relations; locality in tourism, both extractive industry
• the shift from an industrial (logging jobs) and wilderness were rejected, as a multiplicity
to post-industrial economy (tourism jobs), of interests, interpretations, perspectives,
dependent on information technology and actions and goals became entwined in the
orientated towards the consumption of unending politics of sustainable development.
signs, of the aesthetic natural beauty of A Memorandum of Understanding between
the Sound, in the global cultural market- the major conflicting parties was signed in
place to attract tourists and their dollars; 1999, and the United Nations designated the
• ethno-nationalist resistance to the area a Biosphere Reserve in 2000. This settled
homogenizing impact of the capitalist some of the issues, but not all. In March 2007,
economy and Western culture; the Friends of Clayoquot Sound announced
• the global challenge to patriarchal gender that environmental groups and the Tla-o-qui-
relations, as well as the norms of sexual aht First Nation people had won a five-year
and personal identity, for example female moratorium on logging in Clayoquot Sound’s
corporate spokespeople feminizing the intact Upper Kennedy Valley (around 4000
image of an international logging hectares), despite the provincial government’s
company; 2006 logging plan, which had included this
• the rise of indigenous peoples as credible area and where 75 per cent of the original
claimants to sovereignty under interna- forest had already been clear-cut. At the time
tional law (British Columbia was not of writing, this deferral allows time for the
colonized through treaty negotiations); Tla-o-qui-aht to develop their own land-use
• the threat of environmental calamity and plan for the entire Kennedy watershed, even
the concomitant rise of a globalized though the logging of 7000 hectares further
environmental movement; downstream is still scheduled to start in 2008.
• the continuing critique of state institu- The dialogue and the struggle continue.
tions for their political/democratic But the rainforests in the developed and
inadequacy as a result of their actions, for developing worlds remain threatened by
example closed meetings and exclusion of economic globalization.
Thinking Questions
1 Examine your own everyday activities, purchases, enjoyments, work,

travel, holidays and so on. In what ways is globalization part of our every-
day life experience? Note down examples from your own work and life
experience.
2 How would you characterize your own view on globalization and sustain-
ability?
3 What is the lasting value of the big international conferences on sustain-
able development?
4 What is the significance of the Millennium Development Goals?
5 What are the advantages and disadvantages of conceiving sustainable
development as a dialogue of values?
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John Blewitt

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List of Figures, Tables and Boxes vii

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xv

1 Globalization and Sustainable Development 1

2 Worldviews and Ethical Values – Towards an Ecological Paradigm 27

3 Cultural and Contested Understandings of Science and Sustainability 51

4 Connecting the Social with the Environmental: Social Capital and

5 Sustainable Development, Politics and Governance 99

6 Beyond the Imperatives of Economic Growth and ‘Business as Usual’ 123

7 Envisioning a Sustainable Society 149

8 Tools and Systems for Sustainability 173

9 Communication and Learning for Sustainability 199

10 Leading the Sustainability Process 225

Appendix 1 The Earth Charter 273

Appendix 2 Principles of Environmental Justice 275

Appendix 3 Shenzhen Declaration on EcoCity Development 277

1.1 Ecological and socio-political scales 13

2.1 Resilience and systems thinking in practice 44

4.2 SVTC vision for sustainable communities in Silicon Valley 92

Outline of the Book

ABCD awareness, baseline, clear and EVH electronic village hall

NIMBY not in my backyard UN United Nations

of human affairs by linking together and • flows – the movements of physical

those ecosystems … whose consequences, • the exploitation and destruction of the

Perspectives and Worldviews

rampant materialism. has led to the acceleration of exploitation,

The ‘Capitalization’ of Sustainable Development

wealth, ensuring future generations do not sustainability practitioners and others

The ‘Humanization’ of Sustainable Development:

Too many protestors do not know that it is

1 simultaneously addressing environmental concerns that can be dealt with at

Joseph Stiglitz and Globalization

development rather than becoming His prescription or manifesto includes the

Sustainable Development and the

Policy and Progress: The Long Road to

National Policy Context:

Living with environmental limits Ensuring a strong, healthy and

Achieving a sustainable Promoting good Using sound science

Source: Defra (2005a, p16).

Sustainable Development as a ‘Dialogue of Values’

holistically and systemically, not one- This coevolutionary approach to historical

an ethical, sustainable way to save both current exploitative economic paradigm’ of

achieving sustainable development, as this promoting and realizing sustainable develop-

Case Study: Global Meets Local at Clayoquot Sound

fied as the economic saviour of the area, elected representatives; and

1 Examine your own everyday activities, purchases, enjoyments, work,

Oxford University Press for the UNDP, New York, books/l2l/summer2002/

London Klein, N. (2000) No Logo, Flamingo, London

available at www.demos.co.uk/files/ Lovins, A. B., Lovins, L. H. and Hawken, P. (1999) ‘A road

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