A.Y.R.S. PUBLICATION N o .

12

C o l . C. E. Bowden's Radio C o n t r o l l e d Model

CONTENTS

1. The American A.G.M. 5. Peak and Boom Eddies.

2. The London Boat Show. 6. Wind Tunnels.
3. Sail Research. 7. Hull Research.
4. A Programme of Sail Study. 8. Test Tanks.

PRICE 50 cents. PRICE 2 6

 T H E A M A T E U R Y A C H T RESEARCH SOCIETY

Objectives :
1. T o encourage the design and construction of all kinds of
craft whether propelled by w i n d , power or human agency.
2. T o improve and promote the invention of any k i n d of yachting
equipment or accessory.
3. T o b u i l d up a pool of technical information on M a r i n e subjects
available to members on request.

PRESIDENTS :
L o r d Brabazon of Tara, G.B.E., M . C , P . C . Walter Bloemhard

VICE-PRESIDENTS :
D r . C. N . Davies, D.Sc. John L . K e r b y
Austin Farrar, M.I.N.A. Captain E. J. Manners

COMMITTEE :
British : Owen D u m p l e t o n , M r s . R u t h Evans, K e n Pearce, Roland
Prout.

SECRETARY-TREASURERS :
British : American : N e w Zealand :
T o m Herbert, Robert Harris, Charles Satterthwaite,
25, Oakwood Gardens, 9, F lo yd Place, M.O.W.,HydroDesign,
Seven Kings, Great Neck, M u s e u m Street,
Essex. L.I., N.Y. Wellington.

EDITOR A N D PUBLISHER :
John M o r w o o d ,
123, Cheriton Road.
Folkestone,
Kent.

2
 EDITORIAL

L o r d Brabazon of Tara, the British A . Y . R . S . President, is a

man who has the facuhy of intense apphcation to things w h i c h interest
h i m . He has made many flights i n baUoons. He has w o n many
motor car races in the company of the British and French motor
car pioneers such as the H o n . C. S. RoUs. He made and flew the
first British aircraft. D u r i n g the first W o r l d War, he developed the
aerial camera. He played golf at a scratch handicap and w o n the
Curzon cup w i t h his toboggan on the Cresta r u n no less than three
times.
I n sailing, his class was the Bembridge Redwings whose 200
square feet of sail area can be put i n any r i g the owner fancies. Lord
Brabazon tried out (1) an aerofoil sail, (2) a bipod mast r i g , (3) a
gaff rig w i t h vang, (4) the L j u n g s t r o m r i g and (5) an autogyro rotor
and took moving pictures of all of them sailing. He made his own
w i n d tunnel and tested sails of many shapes i n it to find w h i c h was
the best.
As Col. J. T . C. Moore-Brabazon, he made his career i n the
House of Commons. He first worked w i t h the Minister of Transport
and finally ended up as M i n i s t e r of Aircraft Production d u r i n g the
last war, after which he went to the House of Lords. T h e man of
mechanical aptitudes can seldom compete i n Parliament w i t h those
who worship the written or spoken w o r d . However, L o r d Brabazon's
practical knowledge is combined w i t h enough ability to express his
views to have been a good influence on legislators adept at ancient
or modern verbiage.
I feel that the characteristics of most of the people who are
interested in yacht research are similar to those of our British President
and that we could not have a man better suited to our Society.

Charles Satterthwaite has kindly taken over the j o b of N e w

Zealand Secretary of the A . Y . R . S . John M a l l i t t e , the E d i t o r of
the excellent New Zealand yachting magazine Sea Spray is very keen
on the idea of a New Zealand A . Y . R . S . and tells me that many yachts-
men there b u i l d quite large cruising yachts. W e wish them every
success. Charles' new address is : M . O . W . H y d r o Design, M u s e u m
Street, Wellington and not as given i n publication 10.

L A T E E N RIG CORRESPONDENT. C. Baty, P.O. Box

236, Zanzibar, East Africa has been appointed correspondent i n this
most interesting field. H e lives i n a district where the lateen r i g is
in common use and the Arab Dhows make the Monsoon voyages

3
annually. He is w i l l i n g to give anyone details of the A r a b lateen
i n all its forms but tells me that he needs more information about
the Mediterranean and Oceanic lateens.

T h e A . Y . R . S . needs more members to make it a really firmly

established organisation. W e now have just over 300 members i n
Britain but we must have 500 to cover all the p r i n t i n g and publishing
costs w i t h a subscription of 15/- a year. I f every member w i l l talk
about us to his friends or at his yacht club, we could get these few
extra members quite easily. A leaflet is enclosed w i t h this copy
to pass on to someone else or leave at your yacht club.

T h i s publication is on the subject of A M A T E U R R E S E A R C H .

I n i t , the reader w i l l find various ways i n w h i c h he can increase his
own knowledge of sails and hulls w i t h simple apparatus w h i c h he
can aff'ord. F u l l accuracy w i l l , however, need more expensive equip-
ment and the A . Y . R . S . hopes that, i n time, it w i l l be able to provide
this for the use of its members. I n the meantime, i f only one A . Y . R . S .
member i n every ten were to carry out even one of the experiments
i n this publication once a year, our knowledge of yachting w o u l d
make tremendous strides forward.
Each piece of apparatus described here has been the subject of
a great deal of thought and many of the plans have been seen by quite
a number of experts to see i f they can make any suggestions for improve-
ment. A l l I can say is that they are the best we can now do. W'hen
they come to be made or used, however, several snags may appear
and we w i l l await the reports of the people who t r y them for the final
suggestions and plans.
I t may seem to many that we should not put out plans for re-
search and describe apparatus which has not even been tried. I t
may seem that i t would be better to keep to accounts of tried and
proven mechanisms w i t h just a few suggestions for future work as
we have done up to now. But surely, i f the A . Y . R . S . is going to be
a forward-looking organisation, we must show the way to a fundamental
study of hulls and sails w i t h apparatus w h i c h we can afford. T h a t
is what this publication does.
I t is unlikely that we have covered all the methods of yacht
research suitable for the amateur here. I f anyone knows of any
other method, w i l l he please send me an account of i t . Naturally,
an article would be preferred w i t h drawings i n I n d i a n ink, but a
letter w i l l do.
 THE AMERICAN A N N U A L GENERAL MEETING
T h e first A . G . M . of the American A . Y . R . S . was held on February
2nd, 1957 at the Lauraine M u r p h y Restaurant, Great Neck, L o n g
Island. There were 37 people present, including the guest speaker,
M r . W . P. Carl.
T h e meeting opened at 8 p . m . and Bob Harris gave an account
of how the Society was formed and what were the basic aims of the
British group. He also read the Constitution w h i c h was adopted at
the British A . G . M . to let the members present decide how m u c h
the American work should r u n parallel or complementary to what
was being done in Britain. As both groups w i l l be having the same
publications, i n which the results of all the A . Y . R . S . work w i l l be
published, members everywhere w i l l have the benefit of any work
done by either party.
A telegram then arrived at the restaurant from England, b r i n g i n g
the best wishes of the British A . Y . R . S . for a successful meeting.
W i l l i a m P. Carl, the President of Dynamic Developments, I n c . ,
was then introduced to the meeting and gave a talk on the history
and uses of hydrofoils. Afterwards, he showed most interesting
motion pictures of some hydrofoil boats which had been made i n
the U.S.A. A m o n g them was a film on the principle by w h i c h a
hydrofoil works and it was most excellent. Following the films,
M r . Carl indicated that he w o u l d be glad to prepare a further paper
on hydrofoils for the Society to be given at a later date.
A film taken by Victor Tchetchet was then shown which he
had taken of the three craft Flamingo, Egg Nog and Ocelot at the
races i n Glen Cove, last Summer. T h e first two of these are the
Trimarans and Ocelot is the catamaran described i n American Cata-
marans. T h i s film was quite short but it created great interest and
illustrated the speed of the craft very well.
Walter Bloemhard was the next speaker. He raised a subject
for research of immediate need, and suggested that a paper should
be prepared by the Society on the strength of small craft ; their
hulls, fittings, rigging, etc. He cited the example of several of our
craft being kept from more racing due to nasty mechanical failures.
B i l l MehafFey of Oak Park, Illinois, ofl^ered to assist i n such a project.
T h e first American research project w i l l therefore be to look into
several aspects of small boat strength which w i l l help the amateur
when i t comes to installing a chain plate, a centreboard box, designing
a mast or boom, the loads involved and how to estimate them. T h i s
w i l l not include scantlings but it is more or less how to arrive at them.
Naturally, the language w i l l be kept right w i t h i n the grasp of the
amateur and the calculations w i l l be as simple as possible. T h i s

5
treatise w i l l , of course, pertain to all small boats, including catamarans
and Trimarans.
Bob Harris then took up the terribly difficult question of the
relationship of the professional to the Society. T h i s was a matter
which had been discussed by letter between the American and British
groups without any definite conclusion being reached. I t is, however,
felt that the A . Y . R . S . must have ready access to knowledge which can
often best be got from people who are professionally engaged i n some
branch of yachting. W e therefore need to have such people w i t h us.
Research, too, of the k i n d which we are likely to undertake is unlikely
to be of financial value to the professional yachtsman. As a result
of these two factors, it is felt by both Bob Harris and John M o r w o o d
that people who are professionally engaged i n yachting should not
be debarred from membership of the A . Y . R . S . I t is felt that, i f a
person engages in research from which he is not likely to gain anything
financially, he is an amateur as far as our Society is concerned. For
example, i f a professional boatbuilder were to j o i n w i t h us as a member
and help to develop some new type of craft on the same footing as
other members and did not expect to have any exclusive rights i n the
product afterwards, surely he would be w o r k i n g for the good of
yachting as a whole and not for his personal financial gain. H e w o u l d
thus be an amateur. Supposing also, that one of our members w h o m
we are trying to make into yacht designers designs a really good boat
for which someone offers h i m royalties and he accepts, are we to
deprive ourselves of his services to the Society i n all other matters ?
T h e Constitution and Bye-laws w h i c h had been so carefully
prepared by Walter Bloemhard were then given out and all present
were instructed to send i n their comments on them by post and
provide suggestions for their improvement.
T h e following officers were then elected :
President : Walter Bloemhard, 8, Hicks Lane, Great Neck, N . Y .
Vice-President : John L . K e r b y , 14, D i m i t r i Place, L a r c h m o n t , N . Y .
Secretary-Treasurer : Robert B. Harris, 9, F l o y d Place, Great Neck,
N.Y.
T h e meeting then broke up.

T H E L O N D O N BOAT SHOW ^'

T h e photograph shows the general layout of the A . Y . R . S . Stand.
I n the front is a small ' Blower ' w i n d tunnel. A n electric fan behind
the honeycomb ' A i r straightener ' blows w i n d onto the model yacht
in the basin. T h i s yacht is attached to the wooden plate resting on
the side of the basin by two strings which are parallel to each other

6
 'mum YACHT RESEAKH smn
1 FOLKESTONE. KENT.

and show the direction i n which the sail force acts. For the " T r i a n g "
16 inch model we used, this angle was 20° before the beam for a
w i n d blowing 45° from the bow. T h e " A f t - d i p p i n g " lugsail of
publication 9 gave an angle of 2 2 | ° and the squaresail at the extreme
left of the picture gave an angle of 25° before the beam. We reckoned,
too, that the squaresail produced a greater sail force.
O n top of the honeycomb are t w o models, most beautifully
made by M r s . Evans. T h e one on the left is a Polynesian type and
the one on the right is an Indonesian one. Both are based on a
Shearwater I I I main hull w i t h planing floats of hard chine con-
struction.

7
 O n the right of the picture is a model of a Shearwater I I I cata-
maran, lent by the Prout brothers.
Just to the left of the flash on the sail is a chine catamaran model
w i t h a furlable and reefable aerofoil sail made by T o m Lancashire.
T h i s sail has a variable shape for each tack and could be very useful.
Next come two Micronesian catamarans. T h e one below was
made by Sandy Watson to the design shown i n N o . 7 publication.
Catamaran Construction. T h a t above i t is a model of the canoe
which Sandy and I made and sailed i n 1955.
Next comes one of the T r i a n g hulls w i t h a " M i l l " self steering
gear made by Owen D u m p l e t o n w h i c h demonstrated the possibilities
of this type most beautifully. W h e n b l o w n on one side, the rudder
turned one way and when b l o w n on the other side, the rudder turned
the other way.
T h e mechanism on the floor w i t h the wheel is the " Owen Electric
Helmsman " developed by Owen D u m p l e t o n . I t consists of the
three units shown, the " M o t o r " u n i t w h i c h turns the wheel, the
" Compass " unit which controls the motor u n i t from a magnetic
compass and a " Handset " w h i c h is on the wall. O n the stand,
the mechanism was mounted on three wheels and w o u l d t u r n to any
compass course set and stay there, " h u n t i n g " every now and then
t i l l a new course was set. T h e " Handset " could be taken f r o m the
wall and used to steer the mechanism b y two push buttons, one for
port and one for starboard.
Behind the " Helmsman " can just be seen the mast of the model
of B i l l O'Brien's catamaran Jumpahead. W e hope to have a fuller
description of this craft soon.
A t the back of the stand is a model of the " K i t e r i g " made by
M r s . Evans. I t is shown close hauled on the starboard tack. The
hull can clearly be seen coming towards us. T h e string of the kite
acts forwards of the beam b u t Aft of a right angle to the wind's direction.
Below and to the left of the kite r i g is Captain Manners' " Cata-
manner," a chine catamaran of the " Split-boat " type w i t h the flat
sides outwards.
On the left at the back are the " Double Lugsail " and the A f t -
dipping " lugsail made by D a v i d Snare. These are described i n
N o . 9 Sails and Aerofoils.
A t the front on the left are the semi-elliptical squaresail w h i c h
had the good figures i n the w i n d tunnel and the " Mast A f t " r i g ,
both made by D a v i d Snare. Above them is a t o w i n g model of a
hydrofoil craft w i t h triangular-shaped shding foils forward and a
T foil aft.

8
 Finally, there is our piece de resistance, a shallow, water filled tank
w i t h a very small model of the hydrofoil craft, just described. The
model was towed down the tank by a string r u n n i n g over a pulley
w i t h a weight at the end. T h e model j u m p e d clear of the water and
ran most convincingly on its foils. I am holding it i n m y hand,
ready to let i t go.
Our thanks are due to M r s . Evans, David Snare, Owen D u m p l e t o n ,
the Prout brothers, Sandy Watson, Captain Manners and Roger
Moore for making the models and to Reg Briggs for making the W i n d
T u n n e l and " Test t a n k . "
T h e International M o d e l Aircraft Company presented us with
the ten 16-inch Penguin hulls on which we showed the experimental
rigs and used in the w i n d tunnel. T h e Honeycomb was given to
us by Dufaylite Developments, L t d . , Boreham W o o d , Herts and
Messrs. Smiths kindly presented us w i t h one of their 30-knot speedo-
meters.
T h e stand was manned by M r s . M o r w o o d , Captain Manners,
D r . Davies, Owen D u m p l e t o n and T o m Herbert. I t was most
k i n d of all these people to help w i t h the good work. I have had
several appreciative letters about the help w h i c h people had received.
I n all, I think that we showed the yachting public the nature of
catamarans, outrigged craft, hydrofoils, experimental sails and the need
for yachting research. T h e t h i n g I myself learned from them i n
return was that there is a very definite interest i n t w i n keels for con-
ventional keel boats, such as have been developed by the H o n . R. A .
Balfour and have been used in Buttercup. T h i s interest was so
great that it w o u l d appear that people are even prepared to sacrifice
some speed for the greater convenience of t w i n keels, i f that is necessary.
M y own feeling, however, is that t w i n keels fitted to a suitable design
of boat, may actually be faster than a single central keel, but I may
be wrong.

Our stand also allowed us to meet the Editors of the Yachting

magazines who have helped us so much, the yacht designers and
builders and the members of the yachting trades. D u r i n g the whole
Boat Show, we were constantly meeting people who can help us and
most of them have offered to do so wholeheartedly because they feel
that we have some useful purpose to serve for the advancement o f
yachting. T h i s alone has convinced all of us who were on the stand
that we can, and must, do everything we can to b r i n g the sailing boat
to the utmost peak of its efficiency i n all its forms and to find out all
the details of handling and managing yachts so that the yachting
public w i l l get the best of healthy recreation from them.

9
 SAIL RESEARCH
T h e following are the main ways of carrying out sail research :
1. A given r i g can be studied to see what settings of the sails
w i l l give the greatest forward thrust on the boat on each course from
the w i n d and in each w i n d speed. For example, a normal sloop
rig can be sailed w i t h a speedometer and the effect on the speed noted
of altering the angle of the boom from the midline. A similar result
can be got by placing dynamometers i n the stays (a dynamometer
is a strain gauge like a spring balance b u t w i t h very little " give "
when the tension increases). Other things w h i c h can be studied i n
this way are the leads of the fore and main sheets, the tension i n the
forestay, the use of the leech line, the mast rake, etc.
2. A given r i g can be studied to find out how the w i n d flows
across i t . T h e presence of eddies behind the mast and the w i n d
flows around the edges of the sails can be noted so that the yachtsman
can have a better appreciation of the way the w i n d produces a force
from his sails. T h i s kind of study w i l l increase the sailing skill of
the person doing the test and help h i m to w i n races. T h e way the
w i n d alters i n its speed around the sails is of importance here.
3. A given r i g can be studied to find out its eiTect on the w i n d
at some distance away f r o m i t i n all directions and how i t causes the
direction and speed of the w i n d to alter.
4. A given r i g can be studied by mooring the boat on which
it is set to fixed objects by spring balances. I f there is no current
i n the water, the strains i n the spring balances, combined w i t h w i n d
speed measurements, w i l l allow " Co-efficients " to be calculated
for all courses from the w i n d . (A co-efficient is the force per u n i t
w i n d speed, unit sail area and unit air density). T h e value of using
co-efficients is that similar tests can be done w i t h other w i n d speeds,
sail areas and air densities and the same results should ordinarily
appear.
These four methods of study are very useful to study the r i g
of a class boat, but, when i t is wished to study a new sail or sail r i g ,
other methods can be used.
5. One Design Class M e t h o d . T h e new sail r i g can be fitted
to a boat i n a One-design class and sailed w i t h other boats of the
class for a whole season. W h e n there is a comparable standard of
helmsmanship, this method w i l l give results w h i c h are not only accurate
and reliable but w i l l also be acceptable to yachtsmen. T h e Bembridge
Redwings of the Isle of W i g h t have been a development class of this
type for many years. T h e hulls are standard and 200 square feet
of sail area are allowed w h i c h may be set i n any way w h i c h the owner

10
fancies. I n this class, many different rigs have been tried since i t
first came out. Unfortunately, there has not as yet been any account
of the types and varieties and how they performed. A t present, the
rig used has crystalised into a very high aspect ratio Bermudian sloop
rig w i t h a j i b which does not overlap the mainsail.
6. Model Yachts. I n most Western countries there are well
established classes of model yachts racing on ponds and reservoirs.
They use a " Vane " self steering gear which keeps them on a constant
course to the w i n d and the better ones have a standard of style
and finish seldom seen i n their full scale sisters. T h e i r owners claim
that they are twenty years ahead of full scale yachts i n development
and I can well believe this, such is their keenness and workmanship.
Here again, is a method of research w h i c h anyone w i t h a new idea
could use. I f he can w i n races against the present yachts, his idea
is really good, believe me. Col. Bowden, when he was developing
his wingsail, made t w o identical model yachts which he steered by
radio. H e used a normal r i g on one and his wingsail on the other
and got comparative information f r o m doing so. Fritz Rabe's experi-
ment w i t h a wingsail is described i n Sails and Aerofoils.

7. Wind Tunnels. Where the difference between one sail and

another is very slight, none of the previous methods w i l l give us a
certain answer because of the variations of the skill of helmsmen and
the distortion i n the shapes of sails w i t h use. I f we therefore want
to know the final answer to such a subtle t h i n g as where to put the
position of greatest flow i n a sail, whose effect cannot be measured
by more than a hundred yards i n a distance of several miles, we must
t u r n to more accurate tests where every feature is under the most
perfect control. T h i s can be done by using an artificial w i n d whose
every particle can be measured and this w i l l usually mean that a full
sized yacht cannot be tested because of the expense. Such an apparatus
is called a " W i n d t u n n e l , " though there need not actually be a tunnel.
W i n d tunnels may be large or small, the cost varying w i t h the size.
Small ones such as we had at the Boat Show are cheap and useful.
The larger w i n d tunnels may be very expensive and are more accurate.
Details of several kinds w i l l be given later.
These, then, are the methods which have been or could be used
to do research into sails. Doubtless other methods w i l l be worked
out and, i f they are, I should be very glad to have accounts of them
to put i n future publications.
A l l the free sailing tests of yachts such as sailing w i t h speedo-
meters or dynamometers and t r y i n g new sails either on full sized
or model yachts need very little elaboration i n this publication. O n l y
people w i t h free access to scientific equipment and w i t h engineering

11
experience would ordinarily t r y out dynamometers i n their stays.
T h e other free sailing tests w o u l d not be a matter of serious concern
to undertake and w o u l d give results of self evident value. W e w i l l
be very happy to publish any results anyone may get, however.
T h e four other kinds of tests are very suitable for A . Y . R . S .
members to carry out either on their o w n or w i t h interested members
f r o m their yacht clubs. Three of these tests have been grouped together
as " A Programme of Sail Study for Yachtsmen and Yacht C l u b s . "
T h i s is designed to appeal to yachtsmen w h o not only want to do a
scientific study b u t who also want to improve their sailing skills and
is w r i t t e n i n a form suitable for presentation to an A . G . M . or C o m -
mittee meeting. W i n d tunnels are a different matter and are dealt
w i t h separately.

A PROGRAMME OF SAIL STUDY

FOR
YACHTSMEN AND YACHT CLUBS
prepared by
THE A M A T E U R Y A C H T RESEARCH SOCIETY

T h e object of the study w h i c h is presented here is to show the

yachtsman, i n the most practical way, how and w h y the forces on
his sails develop. I t is hoped that, by knowing these things, he w i l l
improve his skills and be able to sail his boat better and faster.
T h e study suggested here is divided into three parts :
1. A study of the w i n d flowing over the sails and huU of the boat.
2. A study of the effect of the sailing boat on the speed and direction
of the w i n d at some distance from the boat i n all directions.
3. A study of the forces produced by the sails and their reduction
to " Co-efficients."
T o make these three studies anything like complete, each one
of them would need to be carried out for all courses of the boat f r o m
the w i n d and for all reasonable angles of heel. T h e first t w o tests are
done w i t h a dinghy dug into a sandy beach. For the t h i r d test, the
dinghy is put into an artificial pond sunk i n the sand.
T h e cost is negligible i n these tests, even for amateurs, except
for two gauges to measure the w i n d speed called anemometers and
two or three spring balances. T h e second anemometer is needed
to keep track of variations i n the natural w i n d speed while w i n d speeds
close to the sails are being measured.

12
 SAIL STUDY — PART ONE

Equipment needed. Bamboo poles, light cloth streamers, w i n d

vanes, two anemometers, log book. Alternatively, many smoke
producing jets and cameras.
1. A dinghy is dug into the sand of a beach at a measured angle
to the direction of the w i n d and at a measured angle of heel. Ballast
or a crew will be needed to keep it i n position. T h e sails are then
trimmed to the w i n d as accurately as possible.
2. A cloth streamer tied to the end of a bamboo pole is then
run all over the sails to mark the direction of the w i n d flowing i n all
parts. Alternatively, a row of smoke streams could be released
u p w i n d of the sails and their course could be photographed. T h e w i n d
direction w i l l be recorded i n both the vertical and horizontal planes
and its nature of flow noted. T h e flow may be steady and even i n
some places. I n others it may be eddying, indicating that the sail
is " Stalled " there. A l l these points w i l l be noted carefully i n the
log book of the study.

3. T h e peak and boom eddies, i f they can be identified and

the smaller eddies produced by the mast and those which occur at
the edges of the sails w i l l be recorded.
4. T h e " Wake " of the sails w i l l be noted.

5. T h e w i n d flow around the h u l l of the boat w i l l be recorded.

6. These tests can be repeated i n the eddying parts of the w i n d

flow w i t h a balanced vane w h i c h w i l l record the direction of eddying
flow.

7. A n anemometer is then held near the sail at all parts and the
w i n d speeds recorded. Due to the variations of the true w i n d speed,
a second anemometer is placed outside of the influence of the sails
being examined, and every time a recording of the w i n d speed near
the sails is taken a recording of the w i n d speed by the outside anemo-
meter is also taken. Variations of the real w i n d speed can then be
allowed for i n the sail w i n d speed.

8. T h e angle of heel is then altered and all the tests are repeated.

9. W h e n all the tests for all angles of heel on one course have
been done, the boat is then set to a different direction and the same
procedure is repeated.

10. T h r o u g h o u t the whole series of readings, a close watch

must be kept on the direction of the true w i n d as well as its speed.

13
 11. Accurate recording of all information taken is a necessity
and all readings should be taken w i t h the utmost care so that they
are as reliable as possible.
Presentation of Results. T o present the results of this part of
the study, profile sail plans w i l l be used for both sides of the sails
and the nature of flow and w i n d direction at each part w i l l be drawn
on them. T o show the deviation i n a horizontal plane, sectional
drawings of the r i g at different levels w i l l be used and the w i n d flows
marked on them. Streamlines w i l l be marked where they are k n o w n .

SAIL STUDY — PART T W O

Equipment needed. Smoke producing apparatus, w i n d vanes,
tricycles, bamboo poles and streamers, a kite or " M e t " balloon,
cameras, anemometers and log book.
W h i l e the study of part one is taking place, other workers can
be recording the w i n d flows i n both direction and speed at some
distance away from the boat on each course and for each angle of
heel. T o make this simpler, it might be worth while to draw a g r i d
of lines on the sand w i t h , say, 10 feet spacing between those of each
direction. T h e lines of the grid would ordinarily be i n line w i t h and
across the direction of the true w i n d flow.
There are four ways i n which the w i n d directions can be
studied :
1. Jets of smoke can be released u p w i n d of the boat and their
course noted. W h e n this has been done, the jets could be moved
and the procedure repeated.
2. Several w i n d vanes can be placed at different heights up a
pole on a wheeled cart. T h e cart is then wheeled directly down one
of the lines of the grid and the directions of the various w i n d vanes
noted at intervals of, say, 10 feet.
3. A tricycle can have its front wheel (which must have no
castor action) steered by a w i n d vane which can be altered i n height.
T h i s can then be pushed along when it w i l l follow the streamline
at the level of the w i n d vane.
4. Cloth streamers can be tied to the ends of many poles stuck
in the sand so that all the streamers are of the same height. A n aerial
photograph taken either f r o m a kite or captive " M e t " balloon flying
over the boat w i l l then show the directions of the streamers.
T h e deviation of the streamlines due to the presence of the boat
may not be very great. T h e effect of the sails on the w i n d flow around
the boat may be better shown by recording the variations i n the

14
w i n d speed. T o do this, the anemometers can be placed i n a cart
of some sort and wheeled down the lines of the grid and the w i n d
speed recorded at the points where the cross lines occur. As each
reading is taken, a simultaneous reading of the w i n d speed outside of
the influence of the yacht's sails must be taken to allow for variations
in the true w i n d speed. These readings of the w i n d speeds are
another way of finding out the streamlines of the w i n d flow because
the streamlines w i l l lie at right angles to the lines drawn t h r o u g h
places of equal w i n d velocity.
I n this study, the course of the " Wake " of the sails should be
followed to extinction. As w i t h part one, everything studied should
be repeated for all courses of the boat and for all angles of heel.
Presentation of Results. T h e presentation of the w i n d flows i n
this part w i l l be done almost entirely by drawing i n the streamlines
at the various heights where the w i n d flows have been studied. The
sails w i l l , of course, be shown as a section. I t is not expected that
any very great vertical deviation of the w i n d w i l l occur but, should
this appear, another series of tests m i g h t be necessary to examine i t
in more detail. These further tests could use w i n d vanes placed
w i t h their flats facing upwards and downwards to study the vertical
deviation. Alternatively, smoke trails and photographs could be
used. T h e results of such tests could be given by drawing i n the
streamlines of the vertical planes.

SAIL STUDY — P A R T THREE

Equipment needed. Hardboard to make an artificial pond, lengths

of 4-inch by 2-inch deal, pulley blocks, two spring balances, one
anemometer, a clinometer and log book.
A large circular artificial pond is made from the hardboard whose
diameter is about two feet greater than the length of the dinghy being
studied. Its depth should be several inches greater than the draft
of the dinghy w i t h the C.B. raised. T h e pond is made watertight,
dug into the sand w i t h about three inches of the r i m above its surface
and then is filled w i t h water.
T h e dinghy is put into the pond and is attached by three lines to
a framework of the 4" by 2" deal beams so that the side force of the
sails can be measured by one spring balance and the thrust force by
another. T h e anemometer, placed at some distance away f r o m the
the dinghy w i l l take the w i n d speed.
W h e n the dinghy and the framework to w h i c h i t is attached
have been put so that the boat is set to a measured angle f r o m the
w i n d , the thrust force, the side force and the w i n d speed are recorded

15
 /

Fig. 1. Taking Sail Coefficients

by three separate persons at the same moment. T h i s is then repeated,

say, three times w i t h the sails being r e t r i m m e d between each. These
readings are then taken for each angle of heel up to about 3 0 ° ,
and for each course of the dinghy f r o m the w i n d . I n this study, a
crew w o u l d be needed i n the dinghy to keep i t at the desired angle
of heel which w o u l d be recorded by a clinometer w h i c h they could
watch i n a m i r r o r .

Presentation of Results. T o present the results of this series of

tests, each value of the thrust and side force w o u l d be reduced to a
" Co-efficient " by dividing it by | A p v^. These coefficients w o u l d '
then be tabulated and graphed as a series of curves to the course of
the boat f r o m the w i n d . These curves w o u l d include the effect
of the angle of heel on the coefficients.

16
A METHOD OF STUDYING PEAK AND BOOM EDDIES

One of our members has suggested the following method of

studying peak and boom eddies. A tubular scaffold is erected like
football posts, w i t h two vertical poles at the sides and a pole across
the top. A network of wires is then put in the figure to f o r m a lot
of small squares. A t every point where the wires meet, lengths of
white cotton thread are then tied on w i t h a blob of cotton wool at
the free end. Alternatively white k n i t t i n g wool can be used. I f
this structure is then placed down w i n d of a boat w i t h sails erected, a
photograph of i t f r o m d o w n w i n d w i l l show the peak and boom eddies
because the threads w i l l corkscrew, whereas they w i l l come straight at
the camera elsewhere. O ur member suggests taking about 12 photo-
graphs w i t h the boat on different courses.

W h e n this Programme of Sail Study was first w r i t t e n , it was

sent to some of our members, who commented on it as follows :
Sir Geoffrey Taylor : T h e main difficulty is that the w i n d is
never sufficiently steady i n one speed or direction to make i t possible
to get a steady reading even at sea. Y o u w i l l have to examine your
readings carefully after they have been made to ensure that the con-
ditions were as steady as possible, i.e., the change of readings of each
observer dur ing the chosen interval must be small.
Y o u might measure the shape of the sail by drawing horizontal
black lines on the sail and then photographing the sail by a wide angle
camera placed as low as possible in the boat and pointing up parallel
to the heeled mast.
Incidentally, you w o u l d , I imagine, have two balances to measure
the side force at each end rather than combining them i n one, for
the position of the " centre of effort " is as important as any other
thing i n the mechanics of sailing.
Professor H. B. Squire : 1. T h e natural w i n d fluctuates and
it w i l l be necessary to take readings d u r i n g steady intervals of about
5 seconds. T h i s is one of the main difficulties.
2. T h e h u l l probably upsets the air flow badly. Tests i n
Part I should also be made w i t h o u t the h u l l by carrying the mast i n a
hollow tube driven into the sand.
3. A few measurements of the variation of w i n d velocity w i t h
height should be made.
4. I n Part H I , the required angle of heel should be obtained
by ballast and/or outriggers.

17
 Dr. C. N. Davies : Simultaneous w i n d speed recording w i l l
only help as regards fluctuations i n speed. Swing i n direction w i l l
be a nuisance. Obstruction by the body of the observer on the
cloth streamer on the end of the bamboo w i l l change its direction
somewhat.
Only under the meteorological state of inversion is turbulence
negligible and the w i n d is usually light on such occasions.
I dislike the engineering basis of a hardboard bathtub to be
sunk i n the sand and made watertight. I prefer concrete.
D r . Davies also suggested that it be made quite clear that what
all these static tests were studying was the variations of the " Apparent
w i n d , " or the w i n d the boat actually sails i n . Its speed and direction
are different from the " Real w i n d " due to the forward speed of the
boat.
Summary. F r o m these comments and those of many other
people, the main difficulty w i l l be w i t h w i n d fluctuations. I f this
is going to be troublesome, i t seems a little ambitious to t r y to take the
position of the centre of effort at the first trial by using two balances
for the side force. Surging might cause trouble. Professor Squire's
suggestion about outriggers to maintain the angle of heel seems to
be well w o r t h while and w o u l d be far better than using a living crew.

WIND TUNNELS
A " W i n d T u n n e l " consists of a motor driving a fan, thus p r o -
ducing a current of air w h i c h flows around the sails being tested.
T h e fan may blow the air onto the sails as i n our little model at the
L o n d o n Boat Show or i t may be put on the other side of the sails and
suck the air away after i t has passed them. Apparently, i t doesn't
matter too much which method is used but the " suction " method
gives a slightly smoother air flow, though this does not so fully represent
the w i n d . I n both types, there must be a honeycomb placed u p w i n d
of the sails to straighten the air flow. T h i s straightening only removes
oblique w i n d flows such as are made by the swirling blades of the
fan. Large eddies such as one finds i n the natural w i n d and w h i c h
also occur as the result of the air coming off corners of furniture
i n the laboratory may pass through a honeycomb because they can
be converted into variations i n w i n d speed. T h e y w i l l not ordinarily
cause much i n the way of noticeable effects.
There are three main types of w i n d tunnel :
1. The " Blower " type. T h i s is the k i n d we used at the Boat
Show. I t is shown diagrammaticajly i n Fig. 2. A l l one needs is a
fan, an electric motor and a honeycomb air straightener. Though

18
not elaborate, i t can be very useful and its very simplicity makes i t
the most valuable for the amateur. Even i n the smallest size, i t
can be made to give us some useful information. T h e tests we have
done on our little w i n d tunnel, for example, gave results w h i c h are
i n accord w i t h what L o r d Brabazon found and are to be expected
from a theoretical appreciation of the sails concerned.

Fig. 2. A Blower" tunnel Fig. 3. A " Sucker" tunnel

2. The " Sucker " type. T h i s type is shown i n Fig. 3 and

produces a smoother airflow than the " Blower " type. Again, a
fan, an electric motor and an air straightener are used b u t a " T u n n e l "
is also needed to direct the air to the sails and fan. W i t h this system,
therefore, there is greater cost and space occupied. T h e size of
model which can be p u t i n a tunnel of this k i n d is only about three
quarters of the height of the tunnel, whereas models of almost the
full height of the air stream can be used i n the " Blower " type.
T h o u g h this tunnel system has these disadvantages, the smoother
airflow which i t produces may make i t w o r t h while, b u t against this
smooth airflow is the fact that the rougher flow of the " Blower "
type is more like the natural w i n d flow w i t h its eddies and i t is also
likely to reduce the " Scale effect " and make the model behave as
i f i t were a little bigger.

3. The " Closed" type. T h i s is shown i n Fig. 4. I t uses

the same air all the time by r u n n i n g i t around i n a circuit and is there-
fore more economical for high speed w i n d tunnels. However, because
energy is constantly being added to the air, i t w o u l d become hot i f
some cooling system were not to be included and this and the friction
of the walls make i t wasteful of energy and unsuitable for the low
speeds we want for sail tests.

Construction. T h i s w o u l d present few difficulties, especially i f

the " Blower " type were to be used. T h e sails to be tested could
be mounted i n a small dinghy i n a concrete bath and hitched to three

19
 Fig. 4. J " Closed" wind tunnel

spring balances as i n Fig. 5, or to one spring balance as i n F i g . 6

T h e motor w o u l d have to have a range of speeds so that the " Scale
effect " w o u l d be capable of being found f r o m the results themselves.
By increasing the w i n d speed, we could find out the effect of i n -
creasing the " Scale."
Cost. T h e cost of a w i n d tunnel depends largely on the strength
and size of the w i n d flow required. T h e one we had at the Boat
Show only cost a couple of pounds. For an A . Y . R . S . w i n d tunnel,
we would really need a tunnel about 10 feet square and an 8 h.p.

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

20
electric motor. L o r d Brabazon's motor was I h.p. and his models
had masts i n the region of 2 feet high. Sir Richard Fairy's tunnel
was 17 feet high and he used a 10 h.p. motor. Both these tunnels
were of the " Blower " type.
Instruments needed. T o get the best out of a w i n d tunnel, certain
things w o u l d be needed, though a very great deal of very useful know-
ledge could be got w i t h the simplest equipment. For the ultimate
in frills, Owen D u m p l e t o n suggests the use of the following : Smoke
puff dispensers, stroboscopic lights, really good photographic equip-
ment, electric strain gauges, adequate pitot and static pressure probes
w i t h sensitive pressure gauges and, of course, a group of devoted and
enthusiastic workers.

HULL RESEARCH

H u l l research by methods w h i c h we could still apply has been

used from the earliest times. W i t h o u t question, the ancient Egyptians
used some method of finding out w h i c h of two hulls had the lesser
resistance and some method of doing this was almost certainly applied
by every race w h i c h aspired to faster ships and used the common
balance i n the course of its everyday trade.
I n our modern age, the custom of " weighing " t w o hulls i n a
current of water has gone out of fashion and the reason for this is
hard to find. Perhaps i t gives extra prestige to the Ancient M a r i n e r
to look at a h u l l and say, " N o w there's a nice Uttle h u l l b u t i t w o n ' t
be as fast as the hulls we had when I was a b o y . " Perhaps i t is the
result of Froude's finding that the resistance of hulls at low speeds
is mostly due to wetted surface and designers can merely measure the
wetted surface and predict the light w i n d performance w i t h fair
accuracy. Or, perhaps, i t was the discovery that tank tests of a sailing
yacht made w i t h the model u p r i g h t and making no leeway d i d not
give the same result as the f u l l sized yacht sailing close hauled. Suffice
it to say that N a t Herreshoff, who probably designed more successful
yachts than anyone else, d i d not hesitate to tow models of his yachts
against each other i n a pond and the more successful modern American
yacht designers use tank tests freely. One m i g h t say that the i m -
partiality of a test stimulates a designer to his best w o r k .
Even i n a one design class, some simple test can be of value.
T h i n k of the long hours of polishing w h i c h are put i n to keep a dinghy
at the peak of condition. Are they really necessary ? A ten minute
towing test before and after the polish w o u l d give the answer.
Similarly, i t w o u l d be a simple matter to find out the best fore and
aft t r i m for various speeds.

21
 I n the case of the Ocean Racers, however, I should t h i n k that
a simple resistance test w o u l d be of the greatest interest. As most
people know, races are w o n largely by the skill of the helmsman and
crew i n getting the utmost f r o m the yacht. A fast h u l l i n the hands
of a person who is keener on enjoying the race than w i n n i n g i t , w i l l
not shine, whereas a slower h u l l w i t h a perfectly tuned r i g and a crew
who w i l l drive her, w i l l often beat her. A resistance test w o u l d
make the point quite clear as to where success should lie.
Perhaps i t is merely human not to want to know that you have a
faster h u l l than your more successful competitor, but I cannot help
feeling that the rate of yacht development w o u l d increase greatly i f
every yacht were to be compared w i t h the other yachts i n its class.
A case i n point here is the t w i n keels such as have been developed
by the H o n . R. A . Balfour or those used on Buttercup. We w o u l d
all like to know i f these are more or less efficient than a single keel.
A b o u t an hour's t o w i n g w i t h suitable apparatus w o u l d give us the
answer.
Method of Hull Research. There are three main ways of h u l l
research, all suitable either for full scale yachts or models.
1. A simple balance test.
2. A test w i t h two lines, one taking head and the other taking the
lateral resistance.
3. A test w i t h two parallel lines.
The Balance Test. T h i s test is the ancient one. T o w ropes
from two boats placed i n a tideway or river current are tied to the
ends of a pole and the point of balance is found where the pole w i l l
remain at right angles to the current. T h e lengths of the two sides
of the pole from the point of balance w i l l give the relative resistances
of the two boats. A more modern version of this, described by Bob
Harris and others, is to use a motor boat and place a pole across its
bows so that each of the boats under test is well clear of its wash.
T h i s system can only give the resistance of the two boats when they
are not making leeway. Heel can, of course, be given to the boats
under test but this is rather unrealistic i n the absence of leeway because
heel implies side force and side force implies leeway.
The Head and Lateral Resistance Test. I t is necessary to test
two yachts at one time w i t h this method. Otherwise, the lateral
force of one yacht w o u l d cause leeway i n the motor boat. I n this
case, a pole is firmly fixed across the bows of the motor boat and
there is a block at either end through w h i c h lines pass to take the
head resistances of the yachts under test by spring balances on the
motor boat.

22
 Fig. 8. Head and lateral resistance " Weighing"

T o measure the lateral resistance of each yacht under test, lines

of equal length are fastened to the bow and stern and are brought
together to a spring balance on the motor boat. By adjustment of

23
the three Hnes, the head and side resistances can be taken. The
forward Hne must, of course, be accurately aligned w i t h the fore and
aft axis of the yacht. A n angle of heel can be given to the yachts
under test by ballast on the side deck.
W i t h a model yacht, a similar system can be used but the angle
of heel can be given by a t h i r d line from the mast head to the spring
balance taking the side resistance. W i t h a model, the forces on the
hull can also be taken i n a m i l l stream, a tidal flow or even between
the bows of a catamaran.
The Parallel Line Test. A t full scale, a motor boat w o u l d again
tow two yachts, one on either side. Each yacht would be attached
to i t by two lines which are parallel to each other. O n the motor
boat, the lines w o u l d pass around blocks on beams placed at an angle
to the fore and aft line and go aft to one or two spring balances on
each side. These balances w o u l d give the head and lateral resistances

i
Fig. 9. Parallel line test

when combined w i t h the angles of the lines and also the positions of
the centres of lateral resistance. T h e angles at w h i c h the beams
were set w o u l d make the towed yachts take up the same angles of
leeway. Heel could be given by ballast.
For a model, the system shown i n the drawing has m u c h to
recommend i t . Here a trolley runs along the side of a pond and
a bar on i t is connected at either end to the bow and stern of the
model. Heel can be given by having two lines at b o t h the bow and
stern connected to the top and b o t t o m of short masts. Leeway is
defined by the angle of the bar.

24
 Harold P. Wiggins has sent me the following account of two test
tanks which may be of value. I quote his letter.
" Some years ago, I knew a fellow who was keen on dinghy racing
and used to like to b u i l d his own dinghys, and he certainly built
several very successful ones.
" He made for himself a testing tank which looked like a glorified
horse trough. I t was made of wood, something like the attached
sketch. A t one end it had a sort of gallows f r o m which was suspended
a triple tackle made f r o m some very nice pulleys, such as are used
for the weights of old grandfather clocks, w h i c h he had picked up
cheap i n a j u n k shop. T h i s , w i t h various weights hung on i t , gave
him a very steady and easily adjustable motive power for t o w i n g his

A Simple T«.iKr\ To.»\

S,.. /5' x22"x/V'

Fig. 10. A Test Tank

models on the tank. T h e models were made f r o m hard wax such

as the Xational Physical Laboratory use for their models on the tanks
at Teddington. T h e advantage of using this hard wax is that it is
not only easy to mo uld but it is also easy to scrape down or add to
between making test runs. I'sing the same weight on the tackle,
it is very easy to time w i t h a stop watch consecutive runs of the model
after slight alterations of the hull shape. W h e n he had completed
these tests to his satisfaction, he then took off the lines of the model,
which was usually on the scale of 1 inch to 1 foot, to make a drawing
for the actual dinghy he proposed b u i l d i n g . T h e test must have been
of value because his dinghys were certainly very good and fast.

25
 " A perhaps rather more scientific elaboration of this idea was
used by Alexander H a l l & Co. of Aberdeen i n 18.39 when they were
designing the first real clipper ship ever b u i l t , viz. the Scottish Maid.
She was of ' markedly unusual and experimental type,' the result
of prolonged tank tests that Halls carried out. ( T h i s is the earliest
example I know of models being tank tested, although I think it
probable that the French had done something similar in the eighteenth
century because their warships i n those days were so markedly superior
in speed to any other country's, i n c l u d i n g Great Britain's).
" Halls evidently used a tank similar to m y friend's but, I think,
better in conception. T h e description of their tank is so interesting
that I transcribe it here f r o m the ' Mariner's M i r r o r ' V o l . X X I X ,
Page 74.
" ' T h e new model (of the Scottish Maid) was the result of
painstaking study and exhausting experiments w i t h models in a
glass tank and of methods that were not only highly original for those
days, but were extremely ingenious and effective. W i l l i a m ( H a l l )
was anxious to observe closely the direction of water diverted by the
bows and h u l l of the ship cleaving it and found means of attaining
this by b u i l d i n g a glass sided tank 10 feet long by 16 inches deep
and 12 inches wide, and by filling this w i t h water to a depth of about
10 inches and to a further depth of l\s of transparent red-
coloured spirits of turpentine.

" ' W h e n the model was placed i n the tank, the view seen t h r o u g h
the sides of the tank was a red band of the lighter spirit extending
\ s down the h u l l of the model f r o m the water line, and the
clear water below i t . A line attached to the mast of the model was
carried forward to a d r u m on the edge of the tank and over i t , a weight
was attached. T h e same weight and drop being used w i t h various
models and shapes of hull allowed comparison of the results seen
i n the speed of the model and i n the water movements, as well as the
b u r y i n g or lifting of the bows.

" ' Some of the most striking and valuable of the observations
made were due to the clever device of covering the surface of the
water w i t h red spirits of turpentine. T h i s showed clearly how, w i t h
certain lines of bow and h u l l , the fluid displaced at the stem was forced
downwards under the forward pressure, although the spirit being
lighter w o u l d naturally tend to remain on, or quickly r e t u r n to the
surface. W i t h certain models, at least one-third of the red fluid was
observed to escape the pressure by passing downwards and along the
bilges, and then rise towards the quarters, spreading out at the same
time i n the wake.'

26
 " F r o m these experiments of Halls' " continued M r . Wiggins,
" one of the characteristics of the famous clipper ships was evolved,
viz. the hollow water lines forward. These hollow water lines can
be very clearly seen i n the famous Cutfv Sark now that she lies i n
dry dock at G r e e n w i c h . "
I t is quite obvious that these test tanks, described by M r . Wiggins,
were both very useful. However, it w o u l d seem that the modern
dinghy or yacht designer w o u l d be better served by a test tank w h i c h

r •

' •
1
Fig. 11. Taking head and lateral resistance in a Test Tank

gave h i m some indication of the lateral resistance developed by a

hull at various angles of heel and leeway. T h e modification to these
tanks which could achieve this w o u l d be to have a trolley r u n n i n g
along the side of the tank w h i c h was towed by the falling weight.
The yacht hull could be attached to the trolley by one of the connections
already described. Ideally, the tank should be four times as deep
as the draught of the yacht and four times the w i d t h of its beam.

27
 Amateur Yacht Research Society
B C M AYRS
London
W C I N 3XX UK
www.ayrs.org office(a)ayrs .org
Contact details 2012

J. PARSONS (KENT NEWSPAPEKS^ I.TD.. POINTERS, T H E BAYLE, FOLKESTONE.