ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIPALI HARKHANI
WHAT IS THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM?
• The gastrointestinal tract (digestive
tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut,
or alimentary canal) is an organ system within
humans and other animals which takes in
food, digests it and absorb energy and nutrients, and
expels the remaining waste as feces.
• The major organs of the digestive system:
• Mouth.
• Pharynx.
• Esophagus.
• Stomach.
• Small Intestine.
• Large Intestine.
• Rectum.
Accessory digestive organs:
liver
gallbladder
pancreas.
Salivary gland
Functions of GI tract
• Ingestion: taking of food into the alimentary tract.
i.e. eating & drinking.
• Propulsion:mixes & moves the contents along the
alimentary tract.
• Digestion:consist of:
• Mechanical breakdown of food e.g. mastication
(chewing)
• Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by
enzymes.
• Absorption:this is the process by which
digested food substances pass through the walls
of some organs of the walls of some organs of
the alimentary canal into the blood for
circulation.
• Elimination:food substances that have been
eaten but cannot be digested & absorbed are
excreted from the alimentary canal as faeces by
the process of defaecation.
 MOUTH
• The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary
canal that receives food and produces saliva.
• The oral mucosa is the mucous
membrane epithelium lining the inside of the
mouth.
• Relations:
• Anteriorly-lips
• Posteriorly-continue with the oropharynx
• Laterally-muscles of cheeks
• Superiorly-bony hard palate
• Inferiorly-muscular tongue & the soft tissues of the
floor of the mouth
• The palate forms the roof of the mouth & is divided
into the anterior hard palate & posterior soft
palate.
• The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with
mucous membrane,hanging down from the middle.
• TONGUE
• The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth, that
manipulates food for mastication, and is used in
the act of swallowing.
• It is of importance in the digestive system and is
the primary organ of taste in the gustatory system.
• The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered
by taste buds housed in numerous lingual papillae.
• The human tongue is divided into two parts,
an oral part at the front and a pharyngeal part at
the back.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• lingual artery
• external carotid artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• lingual veins
• internal jugular vein
• NERVE SUPPLY
• hypoglossal nerve
• Taste and sensation: glossopharyngeal nerve
• FUNCTIONS
• Mastication (chewing)
• Deglutition (swallowing)
• Speech
• Taste
• TEETH
• The human teeth function to mechanically break
down items of food by cutting and crushing them in
preparation for swallowing and digesting. Humans
have four types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars,
and molars, each with a specific function.
• PRIMARY TEETH
• Among deciduous (primary) teeth, ten are found in
the maxilla (upper jaw) and ten in the mandible
(lower jaw), for a total of 20. The dental formula for
primary teeth is 2.1.0.2/2.1.0.2.
• Start to come in (erupt) at about 6 months of age
• In the primary set of teeth,
• two types of incisors – centrals and laterals,one
canine & two types of molars – first and second.
• All primary teeth are normally later replaced with
their permanent counterparts.
• PERMANENT TEETH
• Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla
and 16 in the mandible, for a total of 32. The dental
formula is 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3.
• Age 21, all 32 of the permanent teeth have usually
erupted.
• The permanent teeth are the:
• Two incisor (for cutting)-central incisor, lateral incisor
• One canine (for tearing)
• Two premolar(for crushing)-first premolar, second
premolar,
• Three molar (for grinding)-first molar, second molar,
and third molar.
• PARTS
• ENAMEL
• Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized
substance of the body.
• It is one of the four major tissues which make up the
tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.
• 96% of enamel consists of mineral, with water and
organic material comprising the rest.
• The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to
grayish white.
• DENTIN
• Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum
and the pulp chamber.
• The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70%
inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10%
water by weight
• Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an
organic matrix of collagenous proteins.
• CEMENTUM
• Cementum is a specialized bone like substance
covering the root of a tooth.
• Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than
dentin and enamel.
• DENTAL PULP
• The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth
filled with soft connective tissue.
• This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that
enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the
root.
FUNCTIONS OF TEETH
• Two incisor -for cutting
• One canine -for tearing
• Two premolar-for crushing
• Three molar-for grinding
• ERUPTION
• Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth
development in which the teeth enter the
mouth and become visible.
• Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from
around six months until two years of age.
BLOOD SUPPLY
• Maxillary arteries
VENOUS DRAINAGE
Internal jugular veins
NERVE SUPPLY
Maxillary nerves
Mandibular nerves
 SALIVARY GLANDS
• The salivary glands in are exocrine glands that
produce saliva through a system of ducts.
• Humans have 3 paired major salivary glands:
• Parotid
• submandibular and
• Sublingual
• as well hundreds of minor salivary glands.
• Parotid glands
• The two parotid glands are major salivary glands
wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans.
• The largest of the salivary glands.
• They secrete saliva to
facilitate mastication and swallowing,
and amylase to begin the digestion of starches.
• It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct.
• Submandibular glands
• The submandibular glands are a pair of major
salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws,
superior to the digastric muscles.
• The secretion produced is a mixture of
both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral
cavity via the submandibular duct.
• Sublingual glands
• The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary
glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the
submandibular glands.
• Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity
comes from these glands.
• The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature
• Minor salivary glands
• There are 800 to 1,000 minor salivary glands located
throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa of
the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal,and
lingual mucosa
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• External carotid artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• Jugular veins
• COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
• About 1.5 litres of saliva is produced daily & it consists
of:
• Water
• Mineral salts
• An enzyme
• Mucus
• Lysozyme
• Immunoglobulins
• FUNCTION OF SALIVA
• Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and
to the maintenance of oral hygiene.
• Without normal salivary function the frequency
of dental caries, gum disease and other oral
problems increases significantly.
• Lubricant
• Saliva, coats the oral mucosa, mechanically
protecting it from trauma during eating,
swallowing and speaking.
• In people with little saliva soreness of the
mouth is very common, and the food (especially
dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.
• Digestion
• The digestive functions of saliva include moistening
food and helping to create a food bolus.
• This lubricative function of saliva allows the food
bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the
esophagus.
• Role in taste
• Saliva is very important in the sense of taste.
• It is the liquid medium in which chemicals are
carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated
with lingual papillae).
• Other Function
• Saliva maintains the pH of the mouth. Saliva is
supersaturated with various ions.
• THE PHARYNX
• The pharynx is the part of the throat that is
behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above
the esophagus and the larynx, or the tubes
going down to the stomach and the lungs.
• The pharynx is the portion of the digestive tract
that receives the food from your mouth.
• Branching off the pharynx is the esophagus,
which carries food to the stomach,
 • THE ESOPHAGUS
• The esophagus or oesophagus,commonly known
as the food pipe or gullet, The esophagus is a
muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx)
with the stomach.
• The esophagus runs behind the windpipe
(trachea) and heart, and in front of the spine.
• Length :25 cm
• Diameter:2 cm
• STRUCTURE
• The wall of the esophagus from the lumen
outwards consists of mucosa, submucosa
(connective tissue), layers of muscle fibers
between layers of fibrous tissue, and an outer
layer of connective tissue.
• The mucosa is a stratified squamous
epithelium of around three layers of
squamous cells, which contrasts to the single
layer of columnar cells of the stomach.
• Most of the muscle is smooth muscle
although striated muscle predominates in its
upper third.
• It has two muscular rings or sphincters in its
wall, one at the top and one at the bottom.
• A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally
maintains constriction of a natural body
passage or orifice and which relaxes as required
by normal physiological functioning.
• The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of
acidic stomach content.
FUNCTIONS

• Formation of a bolus
• Swallowing
• Food is ingested through the mouth and when
swallowed passes first into the pharynx and then
into the esophagus.
• Reducing gastric reflux
• Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal
sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of
gastric contents and acid into the esophagus,
protecting the esophageal mucosa.
Blood supply
• Oesophageal arteries
• Inferior phrenic arteries
• Venous drainage
• Left gastric vein
 STOMACH
• The stomach is a muscular organ located on
the left side of the upper abdomen. The
stomach receives food from the esophagus.
• As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it
enters the stomach through a muscular valve
called the lower esophageal sphincter.
• Relations:
• Anteriorly-left lobe of liver & anterior
abdominal wall
• Posteriorly-abdominal
aorta,pancreas,spleen,left kidney
• Superiorly-diaphragm,oesophagus & left lobe
of liver
• Inferiorly-transverse colon & small intestine
• Left side-diaphragm & spleen
• Right side-liver & duodenum
• A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food
storage (for 2-4 hours) , some mechanical and
chemical digestion also occur .
• Contains two sphincters at both ends to regulate
food movement :
• cardiac sphincter near the esophagus ,
• pyloric sphincter near the small intestine .
• Divided into 4 regions :
• cardiac stomach (or cardiac),
• fundic stomach (or funded) ,
• body of stomach
• pyloric stomach (or Pylorus).
•
• Contain thick folds called rugae at its layer , for
providing
• larger surface area for expansion , secretion ,
digestion , and some absorption.
• FUNCTIONS
• Digestion
• The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting
enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid,
which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the
acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work.
• Food is churned by the stomach through muscular
contractions of the wall called peristalsis
• Absorption
• some absorption of certain small molecules
nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its
lining
• GASTRIC JUICE
• Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a
digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is
composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium
chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
• The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by
activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested
proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break
down the long chains of amino acids.
• Gastric Secretory Cells
• Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (an inactive
enzyme).
• Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric and (HCl)
and "intrinsic factor" (which helps absorption of
vitamin B12 in the intestines).
• Mucous cells: secrete mucus and alkaline
substances to help neutralize HCl in the gastric
juice .
• G cells: secrete a hormone called gastrin , which
stimulates the parietal cells and overall gastric.
• Blood supply
• right gastroepiploic artery
• left gastroepiploic artery
• gastric artery
• Venous drainage
• gastric vein
 THE PANCREAS
• The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive
system and endocrine system of vertebrates.
• It is located in the abdominal cavity behind the
stomach.
• It is an endocrine gland producing several
important hormones, including insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, all of
which circulate in the blood.
• Length: 15 cm or 6 inch
• Structure
• Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into the
head of pancreas,
• the neck of pancreas,
• the body of pancreas,
• and the tail of pancreas.
• The neck is about 2.5 cm or 1 inch long and lies
between the head and the body
• The body is the largest part of the pancreas and
lies behind the pylorus.
• The tail ends by abutting the spleen.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• superior mesenteric artery.
• splenic artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• superior mesenteric veins
• Splenic veins
• FUNCTION
• The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and
metabolism within the body.
• Sugar control and metabolism
• pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas.
• Within these islets are four main types of cells which are
involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels.
• Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone:
• α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood)
• β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood)
• δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β
cells) and
• γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
 • THE LIVER
• The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates,
detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins,
and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion
• Relations:
• Anteriorly-diaphragm & anterior abdominal wall
• Posteriorly-oesophagus,inferior vena cava,aorta,gall
bladder,vertebral column &diaphragm
• Laterally-lower ribs & diaphragm
• Superiorly-diaphragm & anterior abdominal wall
• Inferiorly- stomach,bile ducts,duodenum,hepatic
flexure of colon,right kidney
• STRUCTURE
• The liver is a reddish-brown wedge-shaped
organ with four lobes of unequal size and
shape.
• weighs 1.44–1.66 kg
• width -15 cm.
• It is both the heaviest internal organ and the
largest gland in the human body.
• The liver is grossly divided into two parts when
viewed from above – a right and a left lobe.
• The falciform ligament, divides the liver into a left
and right lobe.
• FUNCTIONS
• Synthesis
• Proteins produced and secreted by the liver.
• The liver plays a major role in carbohydrate, protein,
amino acid, and lipid metabolism.Breakdown
• The liver is responsible for the breakdown of insulin
and other hormones.
• The liver breaks down bilirubin via
glucuronidation, facilitating its excretion into bile.
• Other
• The liver stores a multitude of substances,
including glucose (in the form of glycogen)
• vitamin A (1–2 years' supply)
• vitamin D (1–4 months' supply)
• vitamin B12 (3–5 years' supply)
• vitamin K, iron, and copper.
• The liver produces albumin, the most abundant
protein in blood serum.
• Contains phagocytes to destroy damaged
erythrocytes and foreign substances, using
phagocytosis .
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• Hepatic artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• Hepatic veins
 • THE GALLBLADDER
• The gallbladder is a small hollow organ where
bile is stored and concentrated before it is
released into the small intestine.
• In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies
beneath the liver.
• STRUCTURE
• sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the
liver, that is grey-blue in life.
• Length-7 to 10 cm or 2.8 to 3.9 inches
• Diameter -4 cm or 1.6 inch
• The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres
• The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip
opening into the cystic duct.
• gallbladder is divided into three sections:
• the fundus,
• The body,
• and the neck.
• FUNCTIONS
• The main purpose of the gallbladder is to
store bile, also called gall, needed for the
digestion of fats in food.
• bile flows through small vessels into the larger
hepatic ducts and ultimately though the cystic
duct into the gallbladder, where it is stored.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• the cystic artery

• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the cystic veins
• PARTS
• The small intestine is divided into three structural
parts:
• (I)The duodenum
• (II)The jejunum
• (III)The ileum
• The duodenum is a short structure ranging from
20 cm to 25 cm in length, and shaped like a "C".
• The jejunum is the midsection of the small
intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum.
It is about 2.5 m long.
• The ileum is the final section of the small
intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi
similar to the jejunum.
• FUNCTIONS
• Digestion
• The small intestine is where most chemical
digestion takes place.
• Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the
small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and
liver and enter the small intestine via the
pancreatic duct.
• Digestion of proteins & carbohydrate
• Absorption
• Digested food is now able to pass into the blood
vessels in the wall of the intestine through
either diffusion or active transport.
• The small intestine is the site where most of
the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed.
• Immunological
• The small intestine supports the body's immune
system.
• The presence of gut flora appears to contribute
positively to the host's immune system.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• the coeliac trunk
• the superior mesenteric artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the superior mesenteric veins
 THE LARGE INTESTINE

• The large intestine, also known as the large

bowel or colon, is the last part of the
gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive
system in vertebrates.
• Water is absorbed here and the remaining
waste material is stored as feces before being
removed by defecation.
• STRUCTURE
• The length of male colon is 166 cm .
• female colon 155 cm
• The colon consists of five sections:
• the cecum
• ascending colon,
• the transverse colon,
• the descending colon,
• the sigmoid colon and the rectum.
• Sections of the colon are:
• The ascending colon including the cecum and
appendix
• The transverse colon including the colic
flexures and transverse mesocolon
• The descending colon
• The sigmoid colon – the s-shaped region of
the large intestine
• The average inner diameter of sections of the
colon in centimeters
• cecum 8.7cm
• ascending colon 6.6cm
• transverse colon 5.8cm
• descending/sigmoid colon 6.3cm
• and rectum near rectal/sigmoid junction
5.7cm
• The cecum
• The cecum is the first section of the colon and
involved in the digestion, while the appendix is a
structure of the colon, not involved in digestion.
• The function of the appendix is uncertain.
• Containing Ileocecal valve
• The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle valve that
separates the small intestine and the large
intestine.
• Its critical function is to limit the reflux of colonic
contents into the ileum.
• The ascending colon
• It is connected to the small intestine by a
section of bowel called the cecum.
• The ascending colon runs upwards through the
abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon
for approximately eight inches or 20 cm.
• The unwanted waste material is moved
upwards toward the transverse colon by the
action of peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction
and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a
wave down a tube
•
• Transverse colon
• The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the
hepatic flexure to the splenic flexure.

• Descending colon
• The descending colon is the part of the colon from
the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid
colon,descending colon is also called the distal gut.
• One function of the descending colon in the digestive
system is to store feces that will be emptied into the
rectum.
• Sigmoid colon
• The sigmoid colon is the part of the large
intestine after the descending colon and before
the rectum.
• The name sigmoid means S-shaped .
• The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular,
and contract to increase the pressure inside the
colon, causing the stool to move into the
rectum.
• Rectum
• The rectum is the last section of the large
intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting
elimination via defecation.
• the anus
• The anus is the external opening of
the rectum.
• Its function is to control the expulsion of
feces.
• Two sphincters control the exit of feces from
the body during an act of defecation.
• These are the internal anal sphincter and
the external anal sphincter, which are
circular muscles that normally maintain
constriction of the orifice and which relaxes as
required by normal physiological functioning.
• FUNCTIONS
• The large intestine absorbs water and any
remaining absorbable nutrients from the food
before sending the indigestible matter to the
rectum.
• The colon absorbs vitamins that are created
by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K.
• Gut flora
• The large intestine houses over 700 species of
bacteria that perform a variety of functions.
• The large intestine absorbs some of the
products formed by the bacteria inhabiting
this region.
• Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are
metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by
bacteria in the large intestine.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• the superior mesenteric artery (SMA)
• and inferior mesenteric artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the inferior mesenteric vein
• the superior mesenteric vein
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
• The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract.
• Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more
easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to
begin the process of breaking it down into a form
your body can absorb and use.
• From pharynx food travels to the esophagus or
swallowing tube.
• By means of a series of contractions, called
peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the
stomach.
• The lower esophageal sphincter keep food from
passing backwards into the esophagus.
•
• The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes
that continue the process of breaking down the
food.
• When it leaves the stomach, food is the
consistency of a liquid or paste.
• From there the food moves to the small intestine.
• The small intestine continues the process of
breaking down food by using enzymes released
by the pancreas and bile from the liver.
• Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of
fat and eliminates waste products from the
blood.
• Peristalsis is also at work in this organ, moving
food through and mixing it up with digestive
secretions.
• The duodenum is largely responsible for
continuing the process of breaking down food,
with the jejunum and ileum being mainly
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream.
• pancreas secretes enzymes into the small
intestine.
• These enzymes break down protein, fat, and
carbohydrates from the food we eat.
• Stool, or waste left over from the digestive
process, is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and
ultimately in solid form as the water is
removed from the stool.
• A stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until a
"mass movement" empties it into the rectum
once or twice a day.