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http://thyeogeografi.blogspot.com/2011/03/geologi-umum-jenis-jenis-
batuan.html
Metamorphic rocks (metamorphic)
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone changes both physically and
chemically sehinnga be different from its parent rock. Factors - factors that affect the
process of change is temperature tinngi rock, strong pressure, and a long time.
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1) due to high temperature, high temperature derived from the magma, because the
rocks close to the magma chamber. called metamorphosis metamorphosis in contact,
for example: marble limestone, anthracite coal from Batui.
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2) because the air pressures, high pressures can be derived from sediment - thick
andapan once thereon.
3) due to pressure and high temperatures, occur when there are folding and shearing
time of the formation of mountains, called metamorphosis metamorphosis in dynamo.
eg slate, schist and shale.
Metamor rocks can be differentiated into three, namely metamor contact (thermal
metamorphic), metamor dynamo (metamorphic kinetic), and metamorphic contact
pneumatolitis.
1) Metamorf Contact (Thermal metamorphic)
Contact metamorphic rock is rock that changed because of the influence of high
temperature, the temperature is very tinngi proximity to magma, among others around
betuan intrusion. example: Batholit, stock, Lakolit, and the dike. Wide zone around
Batholit metamorphosis can reach tens of square kilometers, around stock to
thousands of square meters, but around the sill and dike zone is tidal so obvious
metamorphosis.
At metamorphosis zone encountered many minerals - minerals excavated material
that is located away from the relatively orderly according to the intrusive rocks. The
farther from the intrusion of diminishing degrees of metamorphosis due to the lower
temperature. Minerals - mineral minerals that occur through metamorphosis include:
tin, iron, copper, zinc (zinc) is derived from limestone and calcareous shale rock.
2) Metamorf Dinamo (Metamorf Kinetic)
Metamorphic rock is rock dynamos changed because of the influence of very high
pressure, and the sangatta weaktu long, and is derived from the process of the
formation of the earth's crust by endogenous power. Pressure from the opposite
direction causes the grain - mineral grains become flattened and there were
crystallized back. for example: stone Lumpur (mudstone) into slate (slate).
Quartz feldspathic Rock
is a metamorphic rock derived from rocks rich in quartz and feldspar elements.
Example: Gneiss

Figure 1.2: Stone Gneiss

Ø Calcareous metamorphic Rock
is a metamorphic rock derived from limestone and dolomite. Examples: Marble

Figure 1 .3: Stone Marble

Ø Basic metamorphic Rock
is a metamorphic rock derived from alkaline igneous rocks, semibasa and medium
enterprises, as well as tuff and sedimentary rocks that are napalan containing
elements of K, Al, Fe, Mg.

Magnesia metamorphic Rock

is a metamorphic rock derived from rocks rich in magnesium. Example: serpentinite,
schist.

Figure 1 .4: Stone serpentine

B. The structure and texture of metamorphic rocks
The structure is a form of handspecimen or rock mass is greater. Ari dibedakand
structure texture based on the scale-where texture is a form of microscopic sidudun
by size, shape, orientation, and relationship grain. At the metamorphic rock structure
occurs because of the deformation process.
Textures on metamorphic rocks:
1) texture foliasi, namely the alignment orientation of minerals that showed the
bedding and the appearance of straightness. Examples of this texture, namely:
• Texture Slaty, very fine grains (<0.1 mm), straightness on subplanar planardan
orientation, pages and fragments. Examples of rock is slate.
• Texture phylitic, very fine to fine grained (less than 0.5 mm), examples of rock is
phylite.
• schistose texture, fine-grained to very coarse (> 1 mm), examples of rock is schist.
Figure 1 .5: Stone schist
• Texture gneissose, fine-grained to very coarse, showed bedding because of
differences in mineralogy.
• Texture foliasi porphyroblastik, very fine grained to very coarse with a large crystal
size (porphyroblastik) embedded in a matrix of fine sized berfoliasi
• mylonite texture.
2) diablastik Texture, texture which is characterized by the absence of alignment
buturan, radially oriented to random, textures example of this is:
• Texture Sheaf, which shows the texture granular berdabang group.
• Texture spherolublastik, the granular texture that shows the radial group.
• fibroblastic Texture, texture diablastik the same size
3) Texture grano blastik
• Texture homogranular, a texture that shows almost the same grain size.
• Texture heterogranular, a texture that shows the grain size is not uniform.
• Texture heterogranoblastik, a texture that is characterized by the same mineral
kumpulam Taapi with diverse sizes.
• Texture nodularblastik texture, a texture that has a nodular composed of small
mineral with one or two minerals in the matrix which has a different composition.
Description Rock
Metamorphic rocks
1. Definition of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks formed by alteration of the original rock, takes
place in the solid state, due to the increased influence of temperature (T) and pressure
(P) high. Metamorphic rocks are also called metamorphic rocks or alteration, as well
as with the process, the metamorphic process. Metamorphism or metamorphic
process is a change in mineral assemblage and texture of rocks, but distinguished
denag diagenesa process and the weathering process that is also a process where there
is a change. The process of metamorphosis takes place as a result of changes in Mpa
(mega pascal),temperature and pressure C and 300 high, above 200 C and in the
solid state. While diagenesa process takes place at a temperature below 200 dan
weathering at normal temperature and pressure, far below, theproses atmospheric
environment.
Preses metamorphosis can be defined as:
"Changes in mineral assemblage and texture of the rocks in the padat (solid C and
astate (phase) slate) at temperatures above 200. pressure of 300 Mpa".
Metamorphic rocks require special attention, because of the changes taking place
in the solid state. When tectonic plates move and collide crust fragments, rocks torn,
tetarik (extended), folded, heated and change in complex ways. But even though the
rocks have changed twice or more, usually former or original rock forms are still
stored, as changes occur in the solid state. Solid unlike liquid or gas tends to store
events (events) amendments. Among the group of rocks, metamorphic rocks is the
most complex, but also the most interesting because in it stored all the stories that
have occurred in the Earth's crust.
2. The process of metamorphism
The process of metamorphism, include:
1. The process of physical changes concerning the structure and texture by
kristaloblastik energy (energy of chemical sediments to compose his own
composition).
 2. The processes of change in the mineralogy, while its chemical composition
remains (isokimia) no change in chemical composition, but only a change in chemical
bonds.
Tahap-stage process of metamorphism:
1. Recrystallization
This process dibentukoleh kristaloblastik power, here happening realignment
crystals in which the chemical elements that already exists.
2. Reorientation
This process is shaped by power kristaloblastik, here pengorientasian back from
kristak-crystal arrangement, and this will affect the texture and the existing structure.
3. The formation of new minerals
This process occurs by rearrangement of chemical elements that already exist.
a. In the metamorphosis that changes are: texture and mineral associations, which still
is the chemical composition and the solid phase (without going through the liquid
phase).
b. Its texture is always reflects the history of its formation.
c. Judging from changes in P & T, are known:
1) Progressive metamorphosis: change of P & T P & T low to high.
2) Retrogresive metamorphosis: change of P & T P & T high to low.
Conditions that control metamorphosis / affect recrystallization and texture.
1) Pressure: - Hydrostatic Pressure
- Unidirectional pressure (stress)
Here known as 2 groups of minerals, namely:
a. Stress minerals: namely minerals that are resistant to pressure.
Example: staurolit, kinit
b. Anti-stress mineral: the minerals are rarely found in rock stress.
Example: olivine, andalusit
2) Temperature: in general, the temperature change is much more effective than a
change of pressure in terms of the effect on changes in mineralogy.
Catalyst: function accelerates the reaction, especially at low temperature
metamorfose.
There are two things that can accelerate the reaction, namely:
(a) The existence of chemical solutions that run between spaces granules.
(b) Deformation of rock, where rock cracked into small fragments so as to
facilitate contact between the solution Nimia with fragüen-fragment.
3) Fluid
4) Composition
Metamorphism process of forming entirely different rocks with rock origin, both
texture and mineral composition. Given that the increase in pressure or temperature
will change when the mineral stability limit is exceeded, and also the relationship
between grain / crystal. Metamorphism process does not alter the chemical
composition of rocks. Therefore, in addition to the factors of pressure and
temperature, the formation of metamorphic rocks if depending on the type of rock it
comes from.
3. Factors that affect the process of metamorphism
Original rock composition greatly affect the formation of new mineral assemblage,
as well as temperature and pressure. Temperature and pressure does not play a direct
role, but also the presence or absence of fluid and duration experiencing high heat and
pressure, and how the pressure, unidirectional, twisted and so on.
1. Effect of liquid to chemical reaction
Pores contained in sedimentary rocks igneous Atua filled ole fluid (the fluid),
which is a solution of gases, salts and minerals contained in the rocks in question. At
high temperatures it is more intergranular vapor and the liquid, and have an important
role in metamorphism. Under high temperature and pressure that will occur the
exchange element of the solution to the minerals and vice versa. This fluid functions
as a transport medium from a solution to mineral and vice versa, so as to accelerate
the process of metamorphism. If there is no or a small amount of the solution, then
metamorfismenya will be slow, because the displacement is going through inter
diffusion of solid minerals.
2. Temperature and pressure
Rock when heated at a certain temperature will membentukmineral-new mineral, that
the end result is a metamorphic rock. Hot heat source comes from inside the Earth.
The rocks can be heated by a heap (burial) or a breakthrough may also lead to
changes in pressure, so it is difficult to say metamorphism caused only ole keniakan
temperature alone. The pressure in the process is as stress metamorphism that has
magnitude and direction. Texture of metamorphic rocks show that these rocks formed
under the differential stress, or tekanannyatidak equally from all directions.
In contrast to igneous rocks formed by melt and under the influence of uniform stress,
or have bersaran the same in all directions.
3. Time
To find out how long the process of metamorphism is not easy and until now still not
known how.
In laboratory experiments showed that under high temperature and pressure REACT
long time will produce a crystal with a large size. And under conditions that
otherwise produced tiny crystals. Thus for the time being concluded that the coarse
grained rock is the result of metamorphism in a long time as well as high temperature
and pressure. Instead of fine-grained, time is short and the low temperatures and
pressures.
4. Types of metamorphosis
a) Based on the cause / primary process
• Dynamic metamorphism (metamorphism dynamo), caused by the influence of
strong pressure for a long time. Examples slate.
• Metamorphosis contact (Thermal metamorphism), occurs due to the influence of
high temperatures due to magma activity. Examples marble.
• Metamorphosis magneto-thermal (Dynamo-thermal metamorphism), occurs due to
extra pressure and temperature rise. Examples skis.
b) By setting
• Contact metamorphism
Pyrometamorphism
• Regional metamorphism
orogenic metamorphism
Burial metamorphism
Ocean Floor metamorphism
• hydrothermal metamorphism
• Fault-Zone metamorphism
• Impact or shock metamorphism
5. facies and facies metamorphism Series
facies metamorphism
A set of rocks that each has certain mineral paragenesa; has a balance of P and T are
the same. Mineral indicator minerals in the form of a set of conditions that
characterize a particular P & T.
Series facies metamorphism
A set of facies metamorphism that characterize an individual area; in the P-T diagram
shown by a curve or set of curves that show the boundaries of facies types and
different metamorphosis ----> due to the gradient geotermalberbeda in the area of the
metamorphosis.
6. Factors to Look For In Description of metamorphic rocks
a) Color
The color of the rock is closely related to the mineral composition of the rock
constituent penyusunnya.mineral greatly influenced by the composition of the magma
origin so that it can be seen from the color of its constituent types of magma.
b) The texture of rocks
Definition of rock texture refers to the appearance of grains of minerals in it, which
includes the rate of crystallization, grain size, grain shape, granularity, and the
relationship between the grains (fabric). If the color of the rock is closely related to
the chemical and mineralogical composition, the texture associated with the history of
the formation and keterdapatannya. Texture is the result of a series of processes
before and after crystallization. In general, metamorphic texture on texture and
texture divided the remaining solution. Texture metamorphic namely:
Lepidoblastik, if it consists of minerals - mineral tabular.
Nematoblastik, if it consists of minerals - mineral prismatic.
Porfiroblastik, if it has the texture porfiroblastik
equedimensional (granular) with boundaries - boundaries that
sutured.Granoblastik, if it consists of minerals - mineral yang Minerals - minerals
have anhedral form.
Granuloblastik, if equedimensional (granular) with limits - limits
unsutured.consisting of minerals - mineral yang Minerals - minerals have anhedral
form.
Relic, if tteksturnya derived from earlier rocks.
Hornfelsik, as granoblastik showing mosaic texture but showed no orientation.
Homeoblastik, if the rock is composed of over one texture only.
Heteroblastik, if the rock is composed of more than one texture.

Granoblastik polygonal
c) Stone Structure
In general the structure of metamorphic rocks consisting of:
1. foliasi
Parallel structures caused by minerals - mineral flattened as a result of the process of
metamorphosis. Can be shown to be minerals - minerals prismatic showing the
orientation - specific orientation. Produced by the process of regional metamorphism,
kataklastik.
2. Non-foliasi
Structure formed by mineral equidimensional consisting of grains of granular grains.
Produced by the process of contact metamorphism.
Structure - a structure commonly known in the metamorphic rocks are:
a) Slaty cleavage: a planar structure foliasi encountered as bibang - field sides of the
slate.
b) granulosa / hornfelsik: structures that do not show cleavage, is bmozaik consisting
of mineral equidimensional, the results of thermal metamorphosis
c) Filitik: recrystallization looks more rugged than Slaty cleavage, has already begun
granular mineral separation (segregation) but not perfect, more sheen than the slate.
d) schistose: mineral repetition lamellar structure due to equigranular mineral,
mineral orientation flat unbroken - broken.
e) Gneistose: mineral repetition lamellar structure due to equigranular mineral,
mineral orientation flat disconnected - dropping by mineral granules.
f) Milonitik: fine-grained, showing scours - scouring granulation strong result.
g) Filonitik: milonitik similar symptoms and appearance, but it has happened
recrystallization and showing silky luster.

Sedimentary rocks
1. Definition Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rock is rock that is most exposed at the Earth's surface, approximately
75% of the surface area of the earth, while igneous and metamorphic
tersingkapsekitar only 25% of the surface area of the earth. Therefore, sedimentary
rock has a particular significance, since most human activities are on the earth's
surface. Fossils can also be found in sediments and mempunyaiarti Batua important
in determining the age of rocks and depositional environment. Sedimentary rock is
rock formed by a process diagnesis of rocky material that has experienced
sedimentation. This includes the process of sedimentation weathering, erosion,
transportation and deposition. The weathering process that occurs can be either
physical or chemical weathering. Erosidan process carried out by the media transport
of water and wind. Deposition process can occur if the energy transport is not capable
of carrying particles.
2. Sedimentary rocks Formation Process
Sedimentary rock formed from rocks that have been there before the forces are
weathering the forces of water, erosion-abrasion angina angina and process litifikasi,
diagnesis, and transportation, the rock is deposited in places that are relatively low-
lying , for example: at sea, ocean, or lakes. At first sediment rocks are soft, but karean
diagnosi process so soft rocks was going to be hard.
Diagnesis process is a process that causes changes in the sediment during
terpendamkan and terlitifikasikan, while litifikasi is a material change in the process
of sediment into rock sediments compact. Diagnesis process of compaction that can
be a compaction pressure of layers above or sedimentation process, namely gluing
loose materials had to be rock hard by chemical solvents eg lime solution or silicon.
Most of sedimentary rocks formed in the ocean. And keeping this substance settles
directly by chemical reactions for example salt (CaSO4.nH2O). those that
precipitated with the help of the corpses, both plants and animals.
Sedimentary rocks that immediately formed chemically or organically have one thing
in common, namely the formation of solutions. Besides sediments above, those kind
of sedimentary rock a type of rock that contains mostly insoluble materials, such as
deposition of debris on the slopes of the mountains as a result of destruction of rocks
attacked by weathering, solar radiation, wind or abrasion. Such rocks are called
eluvium and alluvium if swept away by the water, the main properties of sedimentary
rocks are layered-lapisdan originally deposited horizontally. These layers vary in
thickness from a few centimeters to a few meters. Near the mouth of the river
sediments in general thick, were advancing towards the ocean sediments will be thin
(wedge) and finally disappear. Near the coast, deposits that are usually large grains
while towards the sea we find lagi.ternyata finer grains in the sediment layers that are
caused by different grains deposited rocks. Usually near the coast will be found
sandstones, more towards marine sandstones with mudstone is changed, and deeper
going on limestone formation (Katili and Marks).
3. Transport and Deposition
a) transport and deposition of particles by the fluid
On transport by fluid particles, the particles and the fluid will move together. The
physical properties that affect mainly the density and viscosity of water is greater than
the wind so that the water is able to transport particles carrying particles larger than
can be transported angina. Viscosity is the ability of a fluid to flow. If the viscosity is
low, the flow rate will be low and vice versa. Mewngalirnyabesar speed viscosity is
the viscosity of the frequency.
b) transport and deposition of sediment gravity flow partikeloleh
On this transport sediment particles transported directly by the influence of gravity,
the material here will move first and then the media. So here the fluid particles move
without assistance, sediment particles will move due to changes in gravitational
potential energy into kinetic energy. Included in the sediment gravity flow, among
others, debris flow, grain flow and turbid currents. Deposition of sediment by gravity
flow will produce different products with the deposition of sediments by the fluid
flow due to gravity flow transport and deposition occur very rapidly due to the
influence of gravity. Sedimentary rocks produced by this process will generally have
a poor sorting and shows the deformation structure. Various classification and
naming naming sedimentary rocks and sedimentary rocks have been discovered by
experts, both by genetic and deskrritif. Genetically concluded two groups (Pettijohn,
1975 and WTHuang, 1962).
4. Sediment can be transported in three ways:
1) Suspension: This generally occurs in sediments are very small in size (such as
clay) so that it can be transported by water flow or wind there is.
2) .bed load: This occurs in a relatively larger sediments (such as sand, gravel, gravel,
boulders) so that the force is in a moving stream of moving particles can serve a
large-particle basis. The movement of the sand begins when the flow exceeds the
strength of the force of inertia of the sand grains at rest. The sediment movements
could menggelundung, shift, or even can push each other sediment.
3) .Saltation which in Latin means to jump usually occurs in sand-sized sediment in
which the flow of fluid that is capable of exploiting and transporting sand sediments
until the end because of the gravity force that is able to restore the sand sediment to
the bottom. At the moment the power to transport the sediment is not large enough to
carry the sediments are then the sediment will fall or perhaps restrained due to the
gravitational forces that exist. After the sedimentation process can take place so as to
transform sediments into a sedimentary rock.
5. Factors To Look In Sedimentary rock Description
Color 4.1
Generally the color in sedimentary rocks will be influenced by several factors,
namely:
a) Color mineral sedimentary rock formation
For example, if a mineral formation of sedimentary rocks are dominated by quartz,
the rock is white.
b) The color of the basic mass / or color cement matrix.
c) The color of a material that envelops (coating material).
Examples of quartz sandstones are covered by glauconite is green.
d) The degree of fineness of grain constituent.
On the rocks with the same composition if the finer the grain size, the color tends to
be darker.
Rock color is also influenced by environmental conditions deposition, if the
environmental conditions, the reduction of the rocks became darker color than in an
oxidizing environment. Sedimentary rocks that contain a lot of organic material
(organic matter) has a darker color.

4.2 Texture
Texture sedimentary rock is all that concerns the appearance of the sediment grains
sepertiukuran grain, grain shape and orientation. Tewkstur sedimentary rocks have
significance because it reflects the process that has the rock dialamin especially
transport and deposition process, the texture can also be used to menginterpetasi rock
sediment depositional environments. In general, sedimentary rocks can be divided
into two, namely clastic and non clastic texture.
a) Texture clastic
Elements of the texture of clastic fragments, mass base (matrix) and cement.
• Fragment: The rocks are bigger than the sand.
• Matrix: Pellets which are smaller than the fragments and deposited together with
fragments.
• Cement: smooth material which becomes binding, semen is deposited after the
fragments and the matrix. Cement generally in the form of silica, calcite, sulfate or
iron oxide.
Large crystal grains can be divided into:> 5 mm = rough
1-5 mm = moderate
<1 mm = smooth
If the crystals so fine that is indistinguishable called microcrystalline.
b) Texture nonklastik
Texture yan happens is the result of precipitation through chemical reaction.
Crystalline texture develops as a result of crystal aggregates - interlocking crystals.
Crystals - crystal can be small, medium or large -great even mix of various sizes as
well as igneous porphyritic. Crystals - showed the shape of the crystals - for example
certain forms of the same dimension, fibrous or Scaly. And it is not easy to tell which
is formed by the reaction of organic chemistry and which are in endapkan through
reactions due to organisms.

4.3 Particle Size

The grain size used is the scale Wenworth (1922), namely:
Wenworth scale (1922)
Grain size is influenced by:
1. Type Weathering
2. Type Transportation
3. Time / distance transport
4. Resistance
5. Form Item
1. The level of roundness point (roundness)
The level of roundness grain is influenced by the composition of the grain, the grain
size, type of transport process and distance transport (Boggs, 1987. Granules of
mineral resistant as quartz and zircon will be shaped less round than the grains of
minerals less resistant such as feldspar and pyroxene. Granules larger rather than
measuring the sand. The distance transport will affect the level of grain roundness of
the same types of grain, grain transport distance farther away will be more rounded.
Distribution of roundness:
a) Well rounded (well rounded)
All convex surface, almost equidimensional, sferoidal.
b) Rounded (rounded)
In general, rounded surfaces, the ends and edges rounded granules.
c) subrounded (rounded responsibilities)
Generally flat surface with rounded edges.
d) subangular (angled responsibility)
Surface is generally flat with sharp edges.
e) Angular (angled)
Concave surface with sharp edges.
(Endarto: 2005)
2. Sorting (sorting)
Sorting is uniformity dariukuran constituent rock sediment grain size, which means
that if more uniform grain size and large then, sorting the better.
Sorting is kesergaman grains in sedimentary rocks klastik.bebrapa term commonly
used in the sorting of rocks, namely:
• Sorting the good: when the grain size uniform or equal
• Sorting worse: when the particle size is uneven, there is a matrix and fragments.
3. Pack (Fabric)
In the clastic sedimentary rocks are two kinds of containers, namely:
• Pack open: if grains are not touching (floating in the matrix).
• Pack closed: grains are touching one another
4.5 Structure
Sedimentary structures is a disorder of normal layering of sedimentary rock caused
by the deposition process and its constituent energies. Pembentukkannya may occur
during or immediately after the deposition of the deposition process.
(Pettijohn and Potter, 1964; Koesomadinata, 1981)
In sedimentary rocks are two kinds of structures, namely:
• Syngenetik: formed simultaneously with the occurrence of sedimentary rock, also
known as the primary structure.
• Epigenetics: formed after the rock was formed as stocky, faults and folds.
Various primary structure is as follows:
• Because of the physical processes
1. External Structure
Seen on morphological appearance and the overall shape of sedimentary rocks in the
field. Example: a sheet (sheet), the lens, the wedge (wedge), tabular prism.
2. The internal structure
This structure is visible on the inside of the sedimentary rock, kind of internal
structure:
a) bedding and Laminates
Called with bedding if the thickness is more than 1 cm and is called laminate if it is
less than 1 cm.perlapisan and laminated sedimentary rock formed by the changes in
the physical, chemical, and biological. For example, a change in the flow of energy
resulting in a change in grain size deposited.
Various bedding and lamination:
• bedding / laminate parallel (normal)
Where the coating / lamination of rocks arrayed horizontally and mutually parallel to
one another.
• bedding / laminate cross maze (Cross bedding / lamination)
Bedding / rock cut each piece with one another.
• Graded bedding
Graded bedding structure is a typical structure in which the grains once growing up
more and more refined. Graded bedding very important meaning in the study to
determine which top (up) and the bottom (bottom) in which smooth the top while the
bottom part is rough. Graded bedding caused by turbid currents, wherein the fine
fraction obtained at the top are also scattered throughout the rock. In genesis graded
bedding by turbid currents also occur by addition to the suspension of work is also
caused by the influence of flow turbulence.
b) Massive
Compact structure, consolidated, unified
1. The appearance of the surface layer
• Ripple mark
Form a bumpy surface due to the flow
• Flute cast
Shape scour the surface layer due to the current activity
• Mud cracks
Form cracks in the layer Lumpur (mud), generally polygonal shape.
• Rain marks
The appearance on the surface of the sediment due to raindrops.
4. Structures that occur because of deformation
- Load cast
Indentations in the surface layer due to the compressive force of load on it.
- Convolute structure
Liukan in sedimentary rocks as a result of the deformation process.
- Sandstone dike and sill
Because deformation of sand can be injected in the sediment layer thereon.
- Because of the biological processes
1. Traces (tracks and trail)
Track: a trail of organisms tsapak
Trail: a trail of body parts organisms shuffle
1. Excavation (Burrow)
Is a hole or minerals results organism activity
1. The mold (cast and mold)
Mold: mold parts of an organism's body
Cast: mold of mold
The structure of sedimentary rocks can also be used untukmenentukan the top of a
sedimentary rock. Determination of the upper part of sedimentary rocks is very
important in determining the sedimentary rock sequences.
4.6 Composition
Sedimentary rocks based composition can be divided into several groups, namely:
1. Rock sediment detritus / clastic
Can be distinguished:
• smooth Detritus: claystone, siltstone.
• Detritus was: sandstones (greywock, feldspathic)
• rough Detritus: breccias and conglomerates.
The composition of these rocks are generally quartz, feldspar, mica, clay minerals,
etc.
2. Sedimentary rocks evaporates
This sedimentary rock formed from the evaporation process. Examples of rock is
gypsum, anhydrite, rock salt.
3. Sedimentary coal
These rocks are formed from organic material derived from plants. For coal
differentiated by the content of the elements carbon, oxygen, water and
developmental level. For example lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite.
4. Sedimentary silica
This silica sedimentary rocks terbentukoleh organic and chemical processes.
Examples are chert (chert), radiolarian and diatomaceous earth.
5. carbonate sedimentary rocks
These rocks are formed either by a mechanical, chemical, organic. Examples of
carbonate rocks is framestone, boundstone, packstone, wackstone and so on.
Posted by Arief Hidayat at 02:37 1 comment:
Description Frozen Rocks
Frozen rocks
Frozen rocks
The rocks are all the ingredients that make up the earth's crust and is an aggregate
(set) mineral minerals that have been crystallize. Soil and other loose materials that
are the result of chemical or mechanical weathering and erosion processes not
including rocks, but so-called "alluvial deposit". One type of rock as we know it is an
igneous rock.
An igneous rock that occurs in the freezing solution and incandescent molten silica,
which we know as magma. Because of lack of agreement from the experts classify
igneous petrology in the lead most of the classification is made on the basis of
different. This difference was highly influential in using the classification of the
various jobs and according to their usage. If we can use the appropriate classification,
then we will get a satisfactory result.
2. Classification of Frozen Rocks
Classification of igneous rocks can be based on three main criterion is based on
genetic rock, terkadung based chemical compounds, and based on the composition
mineraloginya.
2.1 Based on Genetic
Igneous rock composed of mineral crystals and sometimes contain glass, based on
where it happened (genesis) igneous rocks are divided into 3 groups:
a. Igneous rocks in (pluktonik), formed deep beneath the earth's surface. The cooling
process is so slow that rock composed entirely of crystals (holohialin structure).
example: Granite, Granodiorite, and Gabro.
b. Igneous rock excavation (hypabisal), formed in cracks or volcanic pipe. The
cooling process takes place relatively quickly so that the rock composed of crystals
that are not perfect and mixed with the base to form a mass of porphyritic structure.
The rock samples dalah Granite Diorite Porphyry and Porphyry.
c. Igneous rocks outside (effusive) formed near the Earth's surface. The cooling
process is very fast so it does not have time to form crystals. The rock structure called
amorphous. Obsidian example, rhyolites and pumice.
2.2 Based on Chemical Compounds
Based on the chemical composition of igneous rocks can be distinguished:
a. Ultra alkaline igneous rocks have a silica content of less than 45%. Examples Dunit
and peridotite.
b. Alkaline igneous rocks have a silica content between 45% - 52%. For example
Gabro, Basalt.
c. Intermediate igneous rocks have a silica content between 52% -66%. Examples
Andesite and syenit.
d. Acid igneous rocks have a silica content of more than 66%. Examples granite,
rhyolites.
In terms of color, rock composition will darken more alkaline than acid composition.
2.3. Based on the mineralogical composition
Classification based on mineralogy and texture will be mencrminkan history battuan
formation on the basis of the chemical. Igneous rock textures describe the
circumstances that affect the formation of the rocks themselves. Such as granular
texture members would sense a state which is uniform, whereas the porphyritic
texture gives the sense that there are two generations of mineral formation. And
texture afanitik describe pembkuan fast.
In the classification of igneous rock made by Russel B. Travis, the texture of igneous
rock which is based on mineral grain size can be divided into:
a. Rocks in
Textured faneritik which means the minerals that compose these rocks can be seen
without the aid of a magnifying tool.
b. Rock alley
Porphyritic texture with basic mass faneritik.
c. Rock alley
Porphyritic texture with basic mass afanitik.
d. Molten rock
Textured afanitik, where individual minerals can not be distinguished or can not be
seen with the naked eye.
According to Heinrich (1956) igneous rocks can be classified into several families or
groups:
1. Family granite - rhyolite: felsik nature, major minerals quartz, plagioclase exceed
alkali felsparnya
2. Family granodiorite - qz latit: felsik, the main mineral quartz, Na Plagioclase in a
balanced composition or more than K Felspar
3. syenit family - trakhit: felsik to intermediates, quartz or foid not dominant but
present, K-Felspar dominant and exceed Na-Plagioclase, sometimes plagioclase also
absent
4. Family monzonite - latit: felsik to intermediates, quartz or foid present in small
amounts, Na-Plagioclase equal or exceed the K-Felspar
5. Family syenit - fonolit foid: felsik, the main mineral felspatoid, K-Felspar exceed
plagioclase
6. family tonalite - dacite: felsik to intermediates, the main mineral quartz and
plagioclase (acid) little / no K-Felspar
7. family diorite - andesite: intermediates, little quartz, K-Felspar bit, abundant
plagioclase
8. family gabbro - basalt: intermediate-mafic, the main mineral plagioclase (Ca),
slightly QZ and K-feldspar
9. Family gabbro - basalt foid: intermediate to mafic, the main mineral felspatoid
(nefelin, leusit, et al), plagioclase (Ca) can be abundant or not present
10. family peridotite: ultramafic, mafic minerals dominant (ol, px, hbl), plagioclase
(Ca) is very slight or absent.
3. Factors Look For In A Frozen Rocks Description
a. Colour Rock
The color of the rock is closely related to the mineral composition of the rock
constituent penyusunnya.mineral greatly influenced by the composition of the magma
origin so that it can be seen from the color of its constituent magma types, except for
rocks that have gelasan texture.
• Brightly colored igneous rocks are igneous rocks of acid generally composed of
minerals felsik, for example quartz, potash feldsfar and muscovite.
• Igneous rocks are dark to black generally intermediate igneous mineral Diman
number felsik and mafiknya nearly as much.
• Igneous rocks are greenish-black is generally alkaline igneous rocks with mineral
constituent is the dominant mafic minerals.
b. Stone Structure
The structure is the appearance of the relationship between parts of the structure
berbeda.pengertian rocks igneous rock usually refers to the observation in a large
scale or dilapangan.pada outcrop of igneous rock structures often found are:
a. Massive: if rock solid, without cracks or holes in gas
b. Jointing: if the rock looks like to have a crack-retakan.kenapakan will be easily
observed in outcrop in the field.
c. Vesicular: dicirikandengan the holes gas, its structure is divided into three, namely:
• Skoriaan: if the holes are not interconnected gas.
• Pumisan: when holes are interconnected gas.
• Flow: if there is the appearance of the flow of crystals and gas holes.
d. Amigdaloidal: when the gas holes filled by secondary minerals.
c. Texture rock
Definition of rock texture refers to the appearance of grains of minerals in it, which
includes the rate of crystallization, grain size, grain shape, granularity, and the
relationship between the grains (fabric). If the color of the rock is closely related to
the chemical and mineralogical composition, the texture associated with the history of
the formation and keterdapatannya. Texture is the result of a series of processes
before and after crystallization. Observations textures include:
a. The rate of crystallization
The rate of crystallization of igneous rocks are divided into:
• Holokristalin, if the minerals in rocks all shaped crystals.
• Hipokristalin, if partially crystalline and partly in the form of mineral glass.
• Holohialin, if it consists entirely of glass.
b. Crystal size
Crystal size is most convenient textural properties dikenali.ukuran crystals can
indicate the rate of crystallization in the rocks.
c. Granularity
In the non fragmental igneous rock granularity level can be divided into several
kinds:
Equigranulritas
Equigranularitas called if it has a uniform crystal size. Texture is divided into two:
Fenerik Granular when the crystal size can still be distinguished by the naked eye
Afinitik if the size of the crystal can not be distinguished by the naked eye or the
crystal size is very halus.
Inequigranular
When the crystal size is not uniform. This texture can be subdivided into:
Faneroporfiritik, when a large crystal surrounded by tiny crystals and can be
identified with the naked eye.
Porfiroafinitik, when phenocrysts surrounded by a base period that can not be
identified with the naked eye.
b. Gelasan (glassy)
Igneous rock texture memilimki said gelasan if everything is composed of glass.
c. Grain shape
Euhedral, crystalline form of the mineral grains have a perfect crystal planes.
Subhedral, a crystalline form of the mineral grains bounded by some areas of a
perfect crystal.
Anhedral, shaped crystals of the mineral grains bounded by crystal planes were not
perfect.
d. Mineral composition
Based on the mineral constituent of igneous rocks can be divided into four, namely:
1. Granite Group - rhyolites
Derived from acidic magma, mainly composed of quartz minerals orthoclase,
plaglioklas Na, sometimes there are hornblende, biotite, muscovite in small
quantities.
2. Group Diorite - Andesite
Derived from magma that are intermediates, mainly composed of minerals
plaglioklas, Hornblande, pyroxene and biotite quartz, orthoklas in small quantities
3. Group Gabro - Basalt
Composed of magma is alkaline and consists of the minerals olivine, plaglioklas Ca,
pyroxene and hornblende.
4. The group Ultra Bases
Composed of olivine and other possible piroksen.mineral is plagliokals Ca in small
quantities.
e. The degree of crystallization
The degree of crystallization of minerals in igneous rock, consisting of three, namely:
• Holokristalin
Texture appearance igneous rock composed of minerals that make up the entire
crystal, this suggests that the crystallization process lasted so long that allows the
formation of minerals - mineral with a relatively perfect crystals form.
• Hipokristalin
Texture appearance for rock that consists of a Part of minerals form crystals and
partially formed glass, it shows the crystallization process lasts a relatively long time,
but still memingkinkan mineral formation in the form of crystals less.
• Holohyalin
Texture rock composed of the mineral appearance for the overall shape of the glass,
this indicates that the magma crystallization process lasts a relatively short so it does
not allow the formation of minerals - mineral with perfect form.
f. Properties of rocks
Frozen rock properties are divided into 3 include:
• Acid (felsik)
Brightly colored igneous rocks are igneous rocks of acid generally composed of
minerals felsik.
• Intermediates
Igneous dark to black generally intermediate igneous mineral Diman number felsik
and mafiknya nearly as much.
• Bases (mafic)
Igneous greenish-black is generally alkaline igneous rocks with mineral constituent is
the dominant mafic minerals.
Magma crystallization process
Because the magma is a liquid that is hot, then the ions that make up the magma will
move freely irregular. Conversely when the magma cools, the movement of ions
irregular this will decrease, and the ions will begin to regulate themselves arrange
regular shapes. This process is called crystallization. In this process which is the
opposite of the liquefaction process, the ions will bind to one another and release the
freedom to move. These ions will form chemical bonds and form a regular crystal. In
general, materials that make up the magma does not freeze at a time of cooling
magma bersamaan.Kecepatan will greatly affect the crystallization process, especially
on the size of the crystal. If the cooling of magma takes place slowly, the ions have
the opportunity to develop themselves, so it will produce a large crystal form. In
contrast to the rapid cooling, the ions do not have the opportunity for the ions to form
crystals, so that the results will produce atom pembekuannya irregular (crystal),
called with mineral glass (glass) .At when magma cools, the atoms oxygen and
silicon will bind together first to form a silicon-oxygen tetrahedra. Then tetahedra-
oxygen-silicon tetahedra will join together and with other ions will form the nucleus
of crystals and various silicate minerals. Each core crystals will grow and form a
crystalline network that does not change. Minerals that make up the magma is not
formed at the same time or on the same conditions. Certain minerals will crystallize at
higher temperatures than other minerals, so sometimes magma containing crystals
surrounded by a dense material that still cair.Komposisi of magma and the amount of
volatile matter content also affects the crystallization process. Because the magma is
distinguished from these factors, the physical appearance and composition of igneous
minerals vary widely. From this, the classification (classification) igneous rocks can
be based on the factors mentioned above. Environmental conditions during
crystallization can be estimated from the nature and composition of mineral grains
commonly referred to as texture. So the classification of igneous rocks is often based
on the texture and mineral composition.
Posted by Arief Hidayat at 02:28 No comments:
MEANING OF MINERAL
Understanding Mineral

Mineral is a substance (phase) solid composed of elements or chemical compounds

are formed naturally by the processes of inorganic, have chemical properties and
certain physical and has placement of atoms uniformly therein, otherwise known as
the crystal structure.
In addition it said mineral also has many meanings, it depends on where we are
reviewing it. Minerals in the sense of other pharmaceutical with the understanding in
the field of geology. The term mineral in the geologic sense is a substance or object
that is formed by natural processes, usually dense and composed of a certain chemical
composition and physical properties have a particular way. The regularity of the
atomic circuit will make the mineral has the properties in that order. Minerals are
generally an inorganic substance. (Murwanto, Helmy, et al. 1992)
Then the clear understanding of the limits of the mineral by some geologists need to
be aware though of the fact that none of the general correspondence for definitions.
The definition of minerals according to some experts:
L.G. Berry and B. Mason, 1959
Mineral is a homogeneous solid objects found in nature formed by inorganic, have a
chemical composition to some extent and have atoms arranged regularly.
D.G.A Whitten and J.R.V. Brooks, 1972
Mineral is a solid material that is structurally homogeneous has a specific chemical
composition, formed by inorganic processes of nature.
A.W.R. Potter and H. Robinson, 1977
Mineral is a homogeneous material or substance that has a specific chemical
composition or in the boundaries and have the nature of permanent nature, formed in
nature and not the result of a life.

Showing translation for

DESCRIPTION MINERAL
1. Name Mineral: Topaz
Chemical formula: Al 2 (SiO 4) (F2OH) 2
Density (BD): 19.3
Crystal system: orthorhombic
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: clear, yellow, red mudakebiruan, greenish
Scratches: -
Violence: 8
2. Mineral Name: Silver
Chemical formula: Ag
Density (BD): 10.5
Crystal system: isomeric
Hemisphere: None
White color
Scratches: white
Hardness: 2.5-3
, 3. Mineral Name: Copper
Chemical formula: Cu
Density (BD): 8.9
Crystal system: isomeric
Hemisphere: None
Brown
Scratches: black metal
Hardness: 2.5-3
4. Mineral Name: Platinum
Chemical formula: Pt
Density (BD): 21.4
Crystal system: isomeric
Hemisphere: None
Colour: White gray
Scratches: gray
Hardness: 4-4.5
5. Mineral Name: Iron
Chemical formula: Fe
Density (BD): 7.3 to 7.8
Crystal System: Isometric
Hemisphere: None (010)
Colour: Grey iron-black
Scratches: gray
Violence: 4
6. Mineral Name: Arsen
Chemical formula: As
Density (BD): 5.75
Crystal system: Hexagonal
Hemisphere: Perfect
Color: White lead to dark gray
Scratches: gray
Hardness: 3.5
7. Mineral Name: Animon
Chemical formula: Sb
Density (BD): 6.68
Crystal system: Hexagonal
Hemisphere: Perfect
Color: Metal
Scratches: gray
Hardness: 3-3.5
8. Mineral Name: Bismuth
Chemical formula: Bi
Density (BD): 9.8
Crystal System: Trigonal
Cleavage: perfect, good
Color: white tin with a pale pink color
Scratches: white
Hardness: 2-2,5
9. Mineral Name: Sulfur
Chemical formula: S
Density (BD): 2.1
Crystal system: orthorhombic
Hemisphere: imperfect
Color: yellow sulfur to fawn
Scratches: white
Hardness: 1.5-2.5
10. Name Minerals: Diamond
Chemical formula: C
Density (BD): 3.5
Crystal System: Isometric
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: clear, white to bluish white, gray, yellow, brown, orange, red, blue, green,
black
Scratches:
Violence: 10
11. Mineral Name: Graphite
Chemical formula: G
Density (BD): 2.2
Crystal system: hexagonal
Hemisphere:
Colour: ground until the metal
Scratches: black
Violence: 1-2
12. Mineral Name: Argentite
Chemical formula: Ag2S
Density (BD): 7.04
Crystal System: Isometric
Hemisphere: unclear
Color: black to dark gray
Scratches: black
Hardness: 2-2,5
13. Mineral Name: chalcocite
Chemical formula: Cu2S
Density (BD): 5.77
Crystal system: orthorhombic
Hemisphere: unclear
Color: gray-black to black
Scratches: gray blackish
Hardness: 2.5-3
14. Mineral Name: Bornit
Chemical formula: Cu5FeS4
Density (BD): 5.0
Crystal system: tetragonal
Hemisphere: the trail
Color: red copper or bronze
Scratches: grayish black light
Violence: 3
15. Mineral Name: Gelena
Chemical formula: PbS
Density (BD): 7.58
Crystal System: Isometric
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: gray tin
Scratches: gray tin
Hardness: 2.5
16. Name Minerals: sphalerite
Chemical formula: ZnS
Density (BD): 3.9 to 4.1
Crystal system: cubic
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: orange-red to nearly black
Scratches: brown to yellow
Hardness: 3.5-4
17. Mineral Name: Chalcopyrite
Chemical formula: CuFeS2
Density (BD): 4.28
Crystal system: tetragonal
Hemisphere: unclear
Color: bright yellow often with chocolate
Scratches: greenish black
Hardness: 3.5-4
18. Mineral Name: Pyrite
Chemical formula: FeS2
Density (BD): 4.7
Crystal system: cubic
Hemisphere: none
Color: bright yellow young
Scratches: greenish black
Hardness: 6-6.5
19. Mineral Name: Manganit
Chemical formula: MnO (OH)
Density (BD): 2.71
Crystal system: monoclinic
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: dark gray to black
Scratches: coklet reddish to black
Violence: 4
20. Name Minerals: Calcite
Chemical formula: CaCO3
Density (BD): 2.85
Crystal system: hexagonal
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: transparent or white
Scratches: white
Violence: 3
21. Mineral Name: Dolomite
Chemical formula: CaMg (CO3) 2
Density (BD): 4.50
Crystal system: hexagonal
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: clear or white perfect cream
Scratches: white
Violence: 2.85
22. Mineral Name: Olivine
Chemical formula: (Mg, Fe) 2 (SiO 4)
Density (BD): 3.5 to 4.3
Crystal system: orthorhombic
Hemisphere: none
Color: yellowish green to grayish
Scratches:
Hardness: 6.5-7
23. Mineral Name: Serpentin
Chemical formula: Mg6 (Si4O10) (OH) 8
Density (BD): 2,7-2,8
Crystal system: monoclinic
Hemisphere: None
W Color: often varies showed replacement in lighter and darker
Scratches: -
Violence: 3-5, always 4
24. Mineral Name: biotite
Chemical formula: K (Mg, Fe) 3 (AlSi3O10) (OH) 2
Density (BD): K (Mg, Fe) 3 (AlSi3O10) (OH) 2
Crystal system: monoclinic
Hemisphere: perfect
Color: green, brown, black
Scratches: -
Hardness: 2.5-3
25. Mineral Name: Quartz
Chemical formula: SiO2
Density (BD): 2.65
Crystal system: hexagonal
Hemisphere: none
Color: transparent or white
Scratches: -
Violence: 7

Showing translation for

Posted by Arif Hidayat at 1:31 AM No comments:
Friday, November 5, 2010
Petroleum System (Oil and Gas)
Factors that concern the study Petroleum System is the source rocks (source rocks),
ripening (maturation), reservoir, migration, timing, trap (trap), rock sealing (sealing
rock) and the fracture gradient.
SOURCE ROCKS
Source rocks are sediments containing organic materials that can menghasilan oil and
gas when the sediment is buried and heated.
Organic materials contained in the sediments to be known as kerogen (in Greek
means producing candles).
There are four types of kerogen:
Type I: organic materials kerogen type I is an alga of pegendapan Lacustrine
environment and lagoon.Tipe I can mengkasilkan light oil (light oil) with kuallitas
nice and able to produce gas.
Type II: a mixture of plant materials and marine microorganisms. This type is the
main ingredient of petroleum and gas.
Type III: Crop land in sediment containing coal. This type generally produces gas and
a small amount of oil.
Type IV: the plant materials are oxidized. This type can not produce oil and gas.
The content of kerogen from a source rock known as TOC (Total Organic Carbon),
where the minimum standards for the 'economy' must be greater than 0.5%.
An important implication of knowledge of the type of kerogen from a prospect is that
we can predict species which may be produced hydrocarbons (oil, gas, oil & gas even
no oil).
Maturation
Maturation is a process of change in biology, physics, and chemistry of the kerogen
into oil and gas.
The maturation process begins from the deposition of sediment rich in organic
material deposited. At this stage, the reaction occurs at low temperatures involving
anaerobic bacteria that reduce oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur to produce concentrations
of hydrocarbons.
This process continues until the temperature reaches 50 degrees Celsius rocks.
Furthermore, the effect of increased temperature became very influential in line with
the rate of reaction of organic materials kerogen.
Because the temperature continues mengingkat line with increasing depth, the
warming effect is naturally determined by how deeply buried source rocks
(geothermal gradient).
Figure below shows the relative proportions of oil and gas for type II kerogen, which
is buried in areas with geothermal gradient of about 35 ° C km -1. from OpenLearn -
LearningSpace
Seen that petroleum can be produced significantly above the temperature of 50 ° C or
at a depth of approximately 1200m and then stopped at a temperature of 180 degrees
or at a depth of 5200m. While gas is formed significantly in line with the increase in
temperature / depth.
Gas produced because the temperature factor called termogenic gas, while generated
by bacterial activity (low temperature, shallow depth <600m) called biogenic gas.
The figure below is an example of cross-sectional depth of the layers of source rock,
and the temperature predictions by using the example above the curve. From these
cross sections can be predicted whether the source is located in the oil window, gas
window, etc. This method is known as the method of Lopatin (1971). Clearly,
Lopatin method based solely on temperature and ignore the effects of chemical and
biological reactions. Courtesy Fettes College
RESERVOIR
Rock is capable of storing and delivering the hydrocarbons. In other words, the rock
must have porosity and permeability.
Generally the type of reservoir sandstone and carbonate rocks with a porosity of 15-
30% (both primary and secondary porosity) and minimum permeability of about 1
mD (milli Darcy) for gas and 10 mD for light oil (light oil).
The following examples following reservoir porosity, permeability, etc. (click to
enlarge): from OpenLearn - LearningSpace
MIGRATION
Migration is the process of transportation of oil and gas from the source rock to the
reservoir. The migration process begins with the migration of primary (primary
migration), ie transport from source rock to the reservoir directly. Followed by
secondary migration (secondary migration), the migration into its reservoir rock itself
(from reservoir to reservoir section in the shallow section). from OpenLearn -
LearningSpace
The basic principle of identification of hydrocarbon migration pathways is to create a
map of the reservoir. The converse of the river water in the earth's surface, the
hydrocarbons will pass through the ridge (hills) from the reservoir morphology.
Teraliri hydrocarbon regions called drainage area (Analogy Watershed in the surface
of the Earth). If the trap is fully charged (fill to spill) to the spill point, it will be
spilled hydrocarbons (spill) to a more shallow. Here's an example: Courtesy SINTEF
TIMING
The charging time of oil and gas in a trap is very important. Because we want the trap
is formed before migration, if not, then the hydrocarbons had already passed before
the trap is formed.
TRAP
There are a variety of hydrocarbon traps: stratigraphic traps (D), the trap structure
(AC) and combinations (E). from OpenLearn - Learning Space
SEAL
Seal is a rock sealing system that is not permeable like claystone / mudstone,
anhydrite and salt.
Fracture GRADIENT
In the evaluation of prospects, fracture gradient curve required of them to predict the
extent of overburden rocks capable of holding oil and gas. The thicker an overburden,
the more the volume of hydrocarbons that is able to 'hold'.
Figure below shows the curve of the fracture gradient of the gas, oil and water
formation of a field. Based on this curve, if we have a trap with a thickness of
overburden (c), the maximum thickness of the gas column is capable detained (ca),
and the thickness of the oil column is (cb), the rest of the hydrocarbons will seep out
insulation.
Posted by Arief Hidayat at 07:52 No comments:
Volcanic eruptions
Volcano is one hole that emerged from the earth's surface from the supply of large
amounts of melting rock, called magma, in the earth's crust. Magma which is the
basic ingredient for a volcanic eruption is rock melt and accumulation of gases
beneath an active volcano which is located on land or at sea. Magma formed from
silicates that contain gases that can dissolve and sometimes into minerals that
crystallize in such form insoluble liquid that floats. Driven by buoyancy and gas
pressure, magma, which is lighter than the surrounding rock magma forced out
upwards. Typing the magma reaches the surface, the pressure is reduced which
allows the solution gas that emit white foam, menodrong volcanic magma passes
when these gases are released. The volcano releases fluid rock called lava or ash and
stones called tephra. Indonesia is an archipelago and is known as a country rich in
volcanoes, which lined the tectonic belts along approximately 7000 km, starting from
the Sunda arc (Sumatra, Java, Nusa Tenggara), Bow Banda (Banda, Ternate, Nila,
Damar), Sulawesi arc (North Sulawesi, Sangihe Talaud), samapai with bow
Halmahera (Halmahera and surrounding areas).
Shape volcanic eruption depends on the material, the location of the point of eruption,
the nature of the eruption, the type of eruption, volcanic environment are. Pyroclastic
material will form a cone of highly erodible. If the eruption center to move the
volcanic irregular shape.
* Form Caldera
* Form of Cinder Cone
* Shape Shield
* Form Volcano Strato
* Form lava dome
Each volcanic eruption produces lava and pyroclastic. Eruption based sources of
events can be grouped into
a. Magmatic eruption is the release of magma from the earth.
b. Preatik eruption is magama which is rising up began to come into contact with
ground water, forming a high-pressure steam that eventually menjebo barrier thereon.
c. Preto magmatic eruption is a combination of eruupsi preatik magmatic eruptions
that produce huge eruptions or major, where the material issued in the form of magma
and high-pressure steam.
The eruption of volcanic eruptions can be described as follows in the composition of
the intensity of the shrinking
a. Pelean
This type is the type that most destructive eruption, magama broke out through a
weak spot on the backs of the mountain.
b. Type Plinean
This type is where the magma is released, the strong upward impulse of the gas
produced can be stretched far up in the atmosphere. This type of eruption at Mount
Pinatubo have occurred in 1991.
c. Type Vesuvius
This type besifat explosive and occur only occasionally. The eruption of magma
forms issued an ash cloud that can cover a large area
d. Type Vulkanian
This is a type of lava forming a crust over the holes between the volcanic eruptions
that formed volcano. The eruption happens next is much more powerful and emit
clouds of dense material.
e. Type Stromboli
This type of gas is separated off lava moving slowly between eruptions can occur
continuously. Volcanic bombs from the lava blobs could be issued towards the sky.
f. Type of Hawaii
This type is easy to move and where the lava flowed freely and gases are released
relatively calm manner.
g. Iceland Type
This type is similar to the type hawai, where lava flows from crevices in and form
sheets are stretched in all directions lava.
Posted by Arief Hidayat at 03:30 No comments:
Volcano
Volcanoes or volcanic in general is a term that can be defined as a system channel hot
fluid (rock in the form of liquid or lava) that extends from a depth of about 10 km
below the earth's surface to the Earth's surface, including the deposition result of the
accumulation of material issued on while erupting.
Furthermore, the terms of this volcano is also used to name the phenomenon of
formation of ice volcanoes or volcanic ice and mud volcanoes or volcanic mud. Ice
volcanoes are common in areas that have a snowy winter, while the mud volcanoes
can be seen in the area Kuwu, Purwodadi, Central Java. Communities around the
phenomenon in the terms Bledug Kuwu Kuwu
Volcanoes exist throughout the world, but the location of the most recognizable
volcano is a volcano that is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire arc (Pacific Ring of
Fire). Pacific Ring of Fire is an arc bergeseknya line between two tectonic plates.
The volcano is found in various forms throughout their lifetime. An active volcano
might turn into active half, a break, before becoming inactive or dead. However
volcano capable of breaks in time 610 years before it becomes active again. Thus, it is
difficult to determine the actual state rather than a volcano that, if the volcano is in a
state of rest or dead.
When a volcano erupts, magma contained in Magmar room beneath the volcano
erupts out as lava or lava. Other than the lava flows, the destruction caused by the
volcano through a variety of ways such as the following:
* The flow of lava.
* Volcanic eruptions.
* The flow of mud.
* Abu.
* Forest fires.
* Poison gas.
* The tsunami waves.
* Earthquake.

Cue level volcanoes in Indonesia

Type volcano based on its shape:
a.Stratovolcano
Composed of rock eruption of the type of eruption changeable so as to produce a
multi-layered arrangement of some types of rock, thus forming a large cone (giant),
sometimes of irregular shape, because the eruption happened already several hundred
times. Mount Merapi is of this type.
b.Perisai
Rock composed of lava flows at the time of the precipitated still liquid, so it does not
have time to form a high cone (steep), the shape will sloping ramps, and its structure
is composed of basaltic rock. Examples of these volcanoes are in the Hawaiian
Islands.
c.Cinder Cone
A volcano ash and small fragments of volcanic rocks spread around the mountain.
Most of the mountain this type form a bowl on top. Rarely the height above 500
meters of land in the vicinity.
d.Kaldera
This type of volcano is formed from a very strong explosion that throws the upper
end of the mountain to form a basin. Mount Bromo is of this type.
Classification of volcanoes in Indonesia
a.Tipe A
Volcano eruption magmatic had experienced at least one time after the year 1600.
b.Tipe B
A volcano that after 1600 yet again hold a magmatic eruption, but still exhibit
symptoms such activity solfatara activities.
c.Tipe C
Volcano eruption is not known in human history, but there are signs of past activities
such as field solfatara / fumarola the weak behavior.
Posted by Arief Hidayat at 02:49 No comments:
Thursday, November 4, 2010
Drilling Process
How workmanship drilling carried out?
Drilling is done by combining rotation and pressure on the drill bit. In the
conventional drilling, the entire drill string is rotated from the surface by an
instrument called a turntable. This turntable is rotated by a diesel engine, either
electrical or mechanical transmission. By rotating, wheel serrations in the drill will
dig rocks. The thrust of the drill is obtained from the weight of the drill pipe. The
deeper wells are drilled, the more worn drill pipe and connected one by one. During
drilling mud is pumped from the mud pump in through the drill pipe down to the drill
bit. The nozzles in the drill bit will inject the mud before coming out with a high
speed that will help dig rocks. Then the mud rises back to the surface through the
annulus, which is a gap between the wellbore and drill pipe, carrying cutting drilling
results.
Why use mud for drilling?
Mud is generally a mixture of clay (clay), typically bentonite, and water used to bring
cutting to the surface. Mud serves as lubrication and cooling medium for the drilling
and the drill pipe. Mud is an important component in the control wells (well-control),
because the pressure hidrostatisnya used to prevent formation fluids into the well.
Mud is also used to form a solid layer along the wall of the well (filter-cake) which is
useful for controlling fluid lost into the formation (fluid-loss).
Why workmanship logging done?
Logging is a technique to retrieve data from the formation and wellbore using special
instruments. Work that can be done include measurement data properties and
electrical (resistivity and conductivity at various frequencies), the data of nuclear
actively and passively, the size of the wellbore, sampling of formation fluids,
measurement of formation pressure, the material making formations (coring) of the
wall of the well, etc.
Logging tool (main logging equipment, tubular solid contains a tool sender and
receiver sensor signal) lowered into the well through the steel strap contains electrical
cables to the desired depth. Usually the measurement is made at the time of logging
tool is pulled upward. Logging tool will send something "signal" (sound waves,
electric current, voltage, magnetic fields, nuclear particles, etc.) Into the formation
through the well wall. The signal will be reflected by a wide variety of materials in
the formation and the well wall material. The reflected signal is then captured by the
sensor receiver in the logging tool and then converted into digital data and transmitted
via cable to the logging unit at the surface. The digital signal is then processed by a
computer into various charts and tabulation of the data printed on paper called
continuos log. Then log will be interpreted and evaluated by geologists and
geophysicists. The result is very important for good decision making when drilling or
for the production phase later.
Logging-While-Drilling (LWD) is performed simultaneously logging workmanship
at the time of drilling. The appliance is installed near the drill bit. Data is sent through
pulses through the drilling mud pressure sensor to the surface. Once processed
through a series of computers, the results also in the form of graphs on paper logs.
LWD formation is useful to provide information (resistivity, porosity, sonic and
gamma-ray) as early as possible at the time of drilling.
Mud logging is work to collect, analyze and record all the information from the
particles of solid, liquid and gas are brought to the surface by mud during drilling.
The ultimate goal is to know the various drilling parameters and formation of wells
being drilled.
Why wells must be cemented?
Cementing wells classified into two parts:
First, primary cementing, namely cementing when the well is being made. Before
cementing is done, the casing is installed first along the wellbore. A mixture of
cement (cement + water + additives) is pumped into the annulus (the space / gap
between the two different tubular size, can casing in the wellbore, can casing to
casing). Its main function for the isolation of a wide variety of formations along the
well layer in order not to communicate with each other. Other functions of the axial
load bearing casing with subsequent casing, support and sustain wellbore casing
(borehole).
Secondly, remedial cementing, namely cementing on the well when finished. The
goal variety, can be used for repair of primary cementing are less than perfect, could
be to cover a wide variety of holes in the walls of the well are not desired (eg hole
perforations to be corked, a leak in the casing, etc.), Can also be to clog the hole
entirely.
The cement used is ordinary Portland cement types. By mixing with water, be a
cement slurry (cement slurry). Coupled with a variety of additives, cement properties
can be varied and controlled as desired.
Cement, water and additives are mixed on the surface using special equipment. After
becoming the cement slurry, and then pumped into the well passes through the
casing. Then the cement slurry is encouraged by pumping more fluid, often mud or
water, continues to the bottom of the well, out of the end came in through the casing
annulus to rise back to the surface. Expected that all or part of the annulus will be
filled with cement slurry. After some time and the cement has hardened, drilling wells
deeper portion can proceed.
For what directional drilling is done?
Conventionally drilled wells closer to a straight vertical direction. Directional drilling
(directional drilling) is drilling wells where a vertical wellbore is not straight, but
targeted to achieve the desired targets.
The goal can be manifold:
Sidetracking: if there is an obstruction in front of the hole to be drilled, the wellbore
may be inevitable or warped to avoid obstacles.
If desired reservoir located just below an area that is not possible drilling, for example
cities, settlements, sanctuary or a place that is very sensitive environment. The well
can be dug from elsewhere and are directed towards the reservoir is concerned.
To avoid salt-dome (salt formations that continuously keep moving) which can
damage the wellbore. Hydrocarbons often found under or around salt-dome.
Directional drilling can be done to reach the reservoir and avoid salt-dome.
To avoid faults (geological fault).
To create a branch multiple wells from one lubung wells on the surface.
To access the reservoir located under the ocean but rignya located on land so it can be
cheaper.
Generally in offshore, some wells may be drilled from the same platform making it
easier, faster and cheaper.
For the relief well to wells that are not controlled (blow-out).
To create a horizontal wells with the aim of raising the production of hydrocarbons.
Extended reach: the well which has a horizontal section which is longer than 5000m.
Multilateral wells: one wellbore at the surface but has several branches laterally at the
bottom, to be able to access several separate hydrocarbon formations.
Directional drilling can be done with conventional drilling equipment, where the drill
pipe is rotated from the surface to rotate the drill bit at the bottom. The disadvantage,
the angle can be formed very limited. Directional drilling is now more commonly
done using a motor having a mud (mud motor) which will rotate the drill bit and
drilling pipe installed at the end. The entire pipe drilling from the surface does not
need to be rotated, more drilling pipe can be "curved" so the pit can be more flexible
to be directed.
Do perforating?
Perforations (perforating) is a process well wall perforation (casing and cement layer)
so that the well can communicate with the formation. An oil or gas can flow into the
well through this perforation holes.
Perforating gun containing multiple shaped-charges lowered into the well to a depth
formations intended. Shaped-charges are then detonated and produce a kind of jet
blast fluid mixture of liquid and gas from high-pressure metal materials (millions psi)
and high speed (7000m / s) which is able to penetrate the steel casing and cement
layer. All of these processes occur in a very short time (17ms).
Perforations can be done by using the electrical logging equipment or also
mechanically through tubing (TCP-Tubing conveyed perforations).
(A) Perforating gun contains shaped-charges lowered into the well to the target
formation.
(B) Shaped-charges detonated make some holes in the casing and cement layer.
(C) formation fluid flows through the perforation holes is up to the surface.
What does that mean Well Testing?
Well testing is a method to obtain various properties of the reservoir dynamically and
the results are more accurate in the long term. The goal:
To ascertain whether the well will flow and production.
To find out how much the content of hydrocarbons in the reservoir and quality.
To estimate how long reservoir will produce and how long it will generate economic
benefits.
This technique is done by conditioning the reservoir to the dynamic state by giving
interference so that the pressure reservoir will change. If the reservoir has been / is
being produced, the test is done by closing the well to shut off the flow of fluid. This
technique is called buildup test. If the reservoir had long been idle, then the well
flowed back. This technique is called drawdown test.
Is the purpose of stimulation?
Stimulation (stimulation) is the process of mechanical and / or chemical intended to
increase the production rate of the well. Stimulation methods can be categorized as
three types that are all put on a special fluid that is pumped into the well.
First, wellbore cleanup. Treatment fluid is pumped only into the well, not up to the
formation. The main objective to clean the wellbore from various kinds of dirt, for
example deposit asphaltene, paraffin, sand blockage, etc. The fluid used is generally a
mixture of acids (acid) because it is corrosive.
The second is called the matrix stimulation. The fluid is injected into the hydrocarbon
formation without breaking. The fluid used is also generally a mixture of acids. This
fluid will "eat" the dirt around the hole and clean it up so that the hydrocarbon fluid
will easily flow into the wellbore.
The third technique is called fracturing; fluid injected into the formation at a rate and
pressure so that the formation will rupture or fissure. At propped fracturing, proppant
material (like sand) used to hold the fracture formations in order to remain open.
While the acid fracturing, fluid mixture of acid used to dissolve the material
formation around the fracture so that the gaping fissures. This fracture will be a kind
of high conductivity highway where hydrocarbon fluid can flow more optimum entry
into the well.
What is an artificial lift?
Artificial lift is a method to remove hydrocarbons, generally oil, from the well to the
surface. This is usually due to reservoir pressure is not high enough to push oil up to
the top or uneconomical if flowing naturally.
Artificial lift is generally composed of five kinds which are classified by type of
equipment.
The first is called subsurface electrical pumping, using multistage centrifugal pump
that is driven by an electric motor and fitted deep inside the well.
The second is a lifting gas system, injecting gas (usually natural gas) into the oil
column in the well so that the heavy oil into lighter and more capable of flowing up
to the surface.
The third technique using electrical-mechanical pumps are mounted on the surface
commonly called a sucker rod pumping or well pump beam. Using the principle of
unidirectional valve (check valve), the pump will lift formation fluids to the surface.
Because its movement up and down like a nod, these pumps are also well known by
the nickname of bobbing pump.
The fourth method called jet pump system. The fluid is pumped into the well and then
sprayed through a high-pressure nozzle into the oil column. Passing through the
nozzle orifice, the fluid will increase the speed and kinetic energy so as to push the oil
to the surface.
Finally, a system that uses progressive cavity pump (similar to the mud motor). The
pump installed in the well, but the motor mounted on the surface. Both are connected
by a steel rod called a sucker rod.
What is an Enhanced Oil Recovery
EOR is an advanced technique to remove oil if various basic engineering has been
done but the results are not as expected or are not economical. There are three kinds
of common EOR techniques:
EOR techniques is the most popular. The frequent use of hot water (water injection)
and water vapor (steam injection).
Chemical techniques: injecting chemicals such as surfactants or polymers to change
the physical properties of the oil or fluid is moved. As a result, the oil can flow more
easily.
Miscible process: injecting the driving fluid which will mix with the oil to be
produced. Fluid used for example a hydrocarbon solution, hydrocarbon gases, CO2 or
nitrogen gas.

Based MINERAL FERROMAGNESIUM Color, generally have a dark color or black

and large density (dark silicate minerals). an example is the mineral, Olivine, Augitit,
Hornblende, Biotite. Explanation:
1. Olivine ((Mg, Fe) K2SiO4) are minerals formed at high temperatures,
crystallize the earliest. In rocks often found imperfect
due to dissolution by the surrounding magma before solidification is complete.
Influence
water content is quite large after the current consolidation or cause
Air-olivine alteration to serpentine.
2. Serpentin green, SG = 2.6, H = 3.5, formation involves
enlargement of the volume of olivine origin, so at some alkaline rocks
often arise cracks and weaken the rock structure. Presence
serpentine change the physical properties of igneous rock which contains olivine.
Some rocks are good for lining the road (dolerit, basalt, gabbro) which
contains olivine, and degrees altrasinya should be checked.
3. Piroksen (X2Y2 O6) with X: Ca, Fe or Mg, and Y: Si or Al. This mineral
many species are important in igneous rock is Augit. Augit
siliceous with the presentation relatively low, often there
along with olivine. The influence of water causing alteration into chlorite
(chlorite), which is similar to the mineral serpentine. These minerals are rarely on
sedimentary rocks, a common mineral metamorphic rocks.
4. Hornblende (X2-3 Y5 Z8 O22 (OH) 2) with X: Ca, Y: Mg or Fe, and Z: Si or
Al.Hornblende containing silicate quite a lot. Crystallization of the magma
components containing water (mineral called wet), and the possibility beralterasi
become chlorite when moisture content is quite a lot. This mineral is very unstable
the surface conditions (weathering).
5. biotite (K (Mg, Fe) 6 Si6 Al2 O20 (OH) 4) is part of a group of minerals
mica (Mica Group) dark. Mineral bonding is very weak, very
easy to divide along the plane of the crystal. Crystallizes from magma
contains water in igneous rock that contains silica, also on
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Beralterasi can be chlorite. Biotite used for
insulating materials in electrical equipment, when the crystal is quite large.
6. Garnet (R3, Al2 Si3 O12) with R possible Fe, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cr, etc. Posted at
metamorphic rocks. Criteria to know primarily the hardness
equaling quartz and almost no cleavage. This mineral is used as a
paper material which is quite good, by making use of the grain.